AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 1

African History and Knowledge Bowl 2019 Study Materials

PI RHO CHAPTER AND GLG SECS 2019 AFRICAN AMERICAN HISTORY AND KNOWLEDGE BOWL “HISTORY CAN ENERGIZE OUR ACTIONS TODAY”

STUDY GUIDE

2019 TOPICS 1. AFRICAN CIVIL RIGHTS MARTYRS, ACTIVISTS, AND VICTIMS 2. IN U.S. CITIES 3. AFRICAN AMERICAN SCIENTISTS 4. AMERICA’S COMMITMENT TO DIVERSITY HISTORICAL ACTS/DATES

All questions posed during this competition will come from information contained in the following pages, no additional research is required. Be prepared to discuss this information in ways that require more than rote memorization.

SECTION ONE: ACTORS AND MARTYRS FOR CIVIL RIGHTS AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 2

Retrieved from: https://www.splcenter.org/what-we-do/civil-rights-memorial/civil-rights-martyrs On the are inscribed the names of individuals who lost their lives in the struggle for freedom during the modern - 1954 to 1968. The martyrs include activists who were targeted for death because of their civil rights work; random victims of vigilantes determined to halt the movement; and individuals who, in the sacrifice of their own lives, brought new awareness to the struggle. The chronology below briefly describes their lives. More information is available at the Civil Rights Memorial Center. 1955

May 7, 1955 · Belzoni,

Rev. George Lee, one of the first black people registered to vote in Humphreys County, used his pulpit and his printing press to urge others to vote. White officials offered Lee protection on the condition he end his voter registration efforts, but Lee refused and was murdered.

AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 3

August 13, 1955 · Brookhaven, Mississippi

Lamar Smith was shot dead on the courthouse lawn by a white man in broad daylight while dozens of people watched. The killer was never indicted because no one would admit they saw a white man shoot a black man. Smith had organized blacks to vote in a recent election.

August 28, 1955 · Money, Mississippi

Emmett Louis Till, a 14-year-old boy on vacation from , reportedly flirted with a white woman in a store. Three nights later, two men took Till from his bed, beat him, shot him and dumped his body in the Tallahatchie River. An all-white jury found the men innocent of murder. AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 4

October 22, 1955 · Mayflower, Texas John Earl Reese, 16, was dancing in a café when white men fired shots into the windows. Reese was killed and two others were wounded. The shootings were part of an attempt by whites to terrorize blacks into giving up plans for a new school. (photograph unavailable)

1957

January 23, 1957 · Montgomery,

Willie Edwards Jr., a truck driver, was on his way to work when he was stopped by four Klansmen. The men mistook Edwards for another man who they believed was dating a white woman. They forced Edwards at gunpoint to jump off a bridge into the Alabama River. Edwards’ body was found three months later.

AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 5 1959

April 25, 1959 · Poplarville, Mississippi

Mack Charles Parker, 23, was accused of raping a white woman. Three days before his case was set for trial, a masked mob took him from his jail cell, beat him, shot him and threw him in the Pearl River.

1961

September 25, 1961 · Liberty, Mississippi

Herbert Lee, who worked with civil rights leader to help register black voters, was killed by a state legislator who claimed self-defense and was never arrested. , a black man who witnessed the murder, was later also killed. AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 6

1962

April 9, 1962 · Taylorsville, Mississippi

Cpl. Roman Ducksworth Jr., a military police officer stationed in Maryland, was on leave to visit his sick wife when he was ordered off a bus by a police officer and shot dead. The police officer may have mistaken Ducksworth for a “freedom rider” who was testing bus desegregation laws.

September 30, 1962 · Oxford, Mississippi

Paul Guihard, a reporter for a French news service, was killed by gunfire from a white mob during protests over the admission of to the University of Mississippi.

AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 7

1963

April 23, 1963 · Attalla, Alabama

William Lewis Moore, a postman from , was shot and killed during a one-man against segregation. Moore had planned to deliver a letter to the governor of Mississippi urging an end to intolerance.

June 12, 1963 · Jackson, Mississippi , who directed NAACP operations in Mississippi, was leading a campaign for integration in Jackson when he was shot and killed by a sniper at his home.

AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 8

September 15, 1963 · Birmingham, Alabama Addie Mae Collins, Denise McNair, Carole Robertson and Cynthia Wesley were getting ready for church services when a bomb exploded at the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church, killing all four of the school-age girls. The church had been a center for civil rights meetings and marches.

September 15, 1963 · Birmingham, Alabama

Virgil Lamar Ware, 13, was riding on the handlebars of his brother’s bicycle when he was fatally shot by white teenagers. The white youths had come from a segregationist rally held in the aftermath of the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church bombing.

1964 AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 9

January 31, 1964 · Liberty, Mississippi

Louis Allen, who witnessed the murder of civil rights worker , endured years of threats, jailings and harassment. He was making final arrangements to move north on the day he was killed.

March 23, 1964 · Jacksonville, Florida

Johnnie Mae Chappell was murdered as she walked along a roadside. Her killers were white men looking for a black person to shoot following a day of racial unrest. (photograph unavailable)

April 7, 1964 · Cleveland, Ohio

Rev. Bruce Klunder was among civil rights activists who protested the building of a segregated school by placing their bodies in the way of construction equipment. Klunder was crushed to death when a bulldozer backed over him. AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 10

May 2, 1964 · Meadville, Mississippi Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Eddie Moore were killed by Klansmen who believed the two were part of a plot to arm blacks in the area. (There was no such plot.) Their bodies were found during a massive search for the missing civil rights workers Chaney, Goodman and Schwerner.

June 21, 1964 · Philadelphia, Mississippi

James Earl Chaney, Andrew Goodman and Michael Henry Schwerner, young civil rights workers, were arrested by a deputy sheriff and then released into the hands of Klansmen who had plotted their murders. They were shot, and their bodies were buried in an earthen dam.

July 11, 1964 · Colbert, Georgia Lt. Col. Lemuel Penn, a Washington, D.C., educator, was driving home from U.S. Army Reserves training when he was shot and killed by Klansmen in a passing car.

AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 11

1965

February 26, 1965 · Marion, Alabama

Jimmie Lee Jackson was beaten and shot by state troopers as he tried to protect his grandfather and mother from a trooper attack on civil rights marchers. His death led to the Selma- Montgomery march and the eventual passage of the Voting Rights Act.

March 11, 1965 · Selma, Alabama Rev. , a Unitarian minister from Boston, was among many white clergymen who joined the Selma marchers after the attack by state troopers at the . Reeb was beaten to death by white men while he walked down a Selma street.

AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 12

March 25, 1965 · Selma Highway, Alabama Viola Gregg Liuzzo, a housewife and mother from Detroit, drove alone to Alabama to help with the Selma march after seeing televised reports of the attack at the Edmund Pettus Bridge. She was ferrying marchers between Selma and Montgomery when she was shot and killed by a Klansmen in a passing car.

June 2, 1965 · Bogalusa, Louisiana

Oneal Moore was one of two black deputies hired by white officials in an attempt to appease civil rights demands. Moore and his partner, Creed Rogers, were on patrol when they were blasted with gunfire from a passing car. Moore was killed and Rogers was wounded.

AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 13

July 18, 1965 · Anniston, Alabama

Willie Brewster was on his way home from work when he was shot and killed by white men. The men belonged to the National States Rights Party, a violent neo-Nazi group whose members had been involved in church bombings and murders of blacks.

August 20, 1965 · Hayneville, Alabama

Jonathan Myrick Daniels, an Episcopal Seminary student in Boston, had come to Alabama to help with black voter registration in Lowndes County. He was arrested at a demonstration, jailed in Hayneville and then suddenly released. Moments after his release, he was shot to death by a deputy sheriff. AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 14

1966

January 3, 1966 · Tuskegee, Alabama

Samuel Leamon Younge Jr., a student civil rights activist, was fatally shot by a white gas station owner following an argument over segregated restrooms.

January 10, 1966 · Hattiesburg, Mississippi

Vernon Ferdinand Dahmer, a wealthy businessman, offered to pay poll taxes for those who couldn’t afford the fee required to vote. The night after a radio station broadcasted Dahmer’s offer, his home was firebombed. Dahmer died later from severe burns.

AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 15

June 10, 1966 · Natchez, Mississippi

Ben Chester White, who had worked most of his life as a caretaker on a plantation, had no involvement in civil rights work. He was murdered by Klansmen who thought they could divert attention from a civil rights march by killing a black person.

July 30, 1966 · Bogalusa, Louisiana

Clarence Triggs was a bricklayer who had attended civil rights meetings sponsored by the Congress of Racial Equality. He was found dead on a roadside, shot through the head. (photograph unavailable)

1967

February 27, 1967 · Natchez, Mississippi AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 16

Wharlest Jackson, the treasurer of his local NAACP chapter, was one of many blacks who received threatening Klan notices at his job. After Jackson was promoted to a position previously reserved for whites, a bomb was planted in his car. It exploded minutes after he left work one day, killing him instantly.

May 12, 1967 · Jackson, Mississippi

Benjamin Brown, a former civil rights organizer, was watching a student protest from the sidelines when he was hit by stray gunshots from police who fired into the crowd.

1968

February 8, 1968 · Orangeburg, South Carolina

Samuel Ephesians Hammond Jr., Delano Herman Middleton and Henry Ezekial Smith were shot and killed by police who fired on student demonstrators at the South Carolina State College campus.

AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 17

April 4, 1968 · Memphis, Tennessee

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., a Baptist minister, was a major architect of the Civil Rights Movement. He led and inspired major non-violent desegregation campaigns, including those in Montgomery and Birmingham. He won the Nobel peace prize. He was assassinated as he prepared to lead a demonstration in Memphis.

Retrieved from: https://www.clarionledger.com/story/news/local/journeytojustice/2017/08/14/week- in-civil-rights-history-august-14-through-20/567418001/

AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 18

Seminary student was jailed in Alabama after he helped African-Americans register to vote. Shortly after being freed, he was shot and killed. (Photo: Special to The Clarion-Ledger)

August 14, 1883: African-American biologist Ernest Everett Just was born in Charleston, South Carolina. The magna cum laude graduate of Dartmouth College overcame many racial barriers and pioneered work in the physiology of cell development. While researching biology problems in France in 1940, Germany invaded, and he became a prisoner of war. His health deteriorated, and he was released, dying in 1941 of pancreatic cancer. In 1996, the U.S. Postal Service honored him in The Black Heritage Stamp series.

August 14, 1908: An angry mob in Springfield, Illinois, wanted to lynch an African-American man accused of sexually assaulting a white woman. They also wanted to lynch another inmate accused in a murder case. To prevent this, authorities secreted the men out of the jail to safety. When the lynch mob discovered this, they rioted while thousands watched, first destroying the restaurant of a wealthy white man who had provided the car for the sheriff to transport the two inmates. Then the mob destroyed African-American businesses and finally a poor black neighborhood known as the Badlands, killing at least seven. Hundreds of black citizens fled from the city.

August 14, 1991: The Episcopal church designated August 14 as a day of remembrance for the martyrs of the civil rights movement, bestowing the title of martyr to 15 different victims of violence, including seminary student Jonathan Daniels.

August 15, 1906: The Niagara Movement (forerunner to the NAACP) met at Harpers Ferry, West Virginia, the site of John Brown’s raid. Headed by W.E.B. DuBois, the organization called for enforcement of the 13th, 14th and 15th amendments to the U.S. Constitution. “The Negro race in America, stolen, ravished and degraded, struggling up through difficulties and oppression, needs sympathy and receives criticism; needs help and is given hindrance, needs protection and is given mob-violence, needs justice and is given charity, needs leadership and is given cowardice and apology, needs bread and is given a stone,” the statement of principles said. “This nation will never stand justified before God until these things are changed.”

August 16, 1938: Legendary blues pioneer Robert Johnson died at age 27. The cause of his death has been attributed to everything from poison to syphilis. Three tombstones mark where he may or may not be buried. His life was just as mysterious, reportedly going from a young man with little talent for playing guitar to one of the greatest guitarists of all time. (According to myth, he went to the crossroads of U.S. 61 and 49 and sold his soul to the devil in exchange for playing guitar.) His recordings proved inspirational to many blues and rock and roll artists, including Eric Clapton and the Rolling Stones. AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 19

August 17, 1887: Marcus Garvey, a native of Jamaica who supported the emigration of African descendants back to Africa, was born. At its height, his Universal Improvement Association claimed hundreds of thousands of supporters. He died in 1940 in London and was later buried in Jamaica in National Heroes Park.

August 18, 1963: James Meredith, the first known African American to attend the University of Mississippi, became the first to graduate, earning a degree in political science. His enrollment at Ole Miss a year earlier had been met with an insurrection that killed two and injured hundreds.

August 19, 1791: Benjamin Banneker, the first recognized African-American scientist, whose parents had been enslaved, sent a copy of his just-published Almanac to Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, along with an appeal about “the injustice of a state of slavery.”

August 19, 1958: Inspired by the success in Wichita, Kansas, the NAACP Youth Council in Oklahoma City, led by , a high school history teacher, began sit-ins to desegregate lunch counters.

August 20, 1619: The first Africans, abducted and brought by ship to North America, arrived in Jamestown, Virginia. By the time slavery ended, nearly 15 million Africans had been brought to the Americas.

August 20, 1965: Jonathan Myrick Daniels, valedictorian of the VMI Class of 1961 and an Episcopal Seminary student in Boston, was killed in Hayneville, Alabama. He had come to Alabama to help with African-American voter registration in Lowndes County. Arrested at a demonstration and jailed, he was released with Father Richard F. Morrisroe and two female civil rights workers, Ruby Sales and Joyce Bailey. When the group, which included whites and blacks, tried to buy sodas from nearby Varner’s Cash Store, a white special deputy named Tom L. Coleman blocked their way with a shotgun and pistol. When he leveled his gun at 17-year-old Sales, Daniels pushed her away and caught the full blast of the shotgun, which killed him. When Morrisroe tried to flee with Bailey, Coleman shot Morrisroe, severely wounding him. An all-white jury acquitted Coleman, who was never tried again, and he died in 1997.

Retrieved from: https://www.splcenter.org/what-we-do/civil-rights-memorial/forgotten These are the names of 74 men and women who died between 1952 and 1968 under circumstances suggesting they were the victims of racially motivated violence. The information below was gathered by the Southern Poverty Law Center as it planned a timeline of killings and other civil rights era events for the Civil Rights Memorial. The Memorial, dedicated in 1989, includes the names of 40 civil rights martyrs who were slain during that era. The names below were not inscribed on the Memorial because there was insufficient information about their deaths at the time the Memorial was created. They are, however, identified in a display at the Civil Rights Memorial Center as "The Forgotten." AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 20

Anderson, Andrew Lee - Marion, Ark., 1963 Anderson was slain by a group of whites and sheriff's deputies after a white woman said he had molested her 8-year-old daughter. A coroner's jury ruled justifiable homicide, and no arrests were made. Andrews, Frank - Lisman, Ala., 1964 Andrews was shot in the back by a white sheriff's deputy. The county solicitor said the victim was attacking another deputy, and no arrests were made. Banks, Isadore - Marion, Ark., 1954 Banks' charred corpse was found chained to a tree. Black press reports speculated he was killed by whites who wanted his land. His property was later rented by white farmers. Bolden, Larry - Chattanooga, Tenn., 1958 Bolden, 15, was shot by a white policeman. No arrests were made. Brazier, James - Dawson, Ga., 1958 Brazier was beaten to death in front of his wife and children by two police officers. County Sheriff Z.T. Matthews was later quoted in the Washington Post saying, "There's nothing like fear to keep niggers in line." Brewer, Thomas - Columbus, Ga., 1956 Brewer was instrumental in forming a local chapter of the NAACP in 1937. He was shot seven times outside his office by white politician Lucio Flowers. A grand jury failed to indict. Brooks, Hilliard - Montgomery, Ala., 1952 Brooks was shot by a police officer after initially refusing to get off a city bus when the driver claimed he had not paid his fare. A coroner said the murder was justified because Brooks resisted arrest. Brown, Charles - Yazoo City, Miss., 1957 A white man shot Brown, who was visiting the white man's sister. The Justice Department handed the case over to the state. Brown, Jessie - Winona, Miss., 1965 The 1965 NAACP annual report claimed white farmer R.M. Gibson killed Brown. Brumfield, Carrie - Franklinton, La., 1967 Brumfield was found shot to death in his car on a rural road. He was shot once in the chest with a .22-caliber revolver. Brumfield, Eli - McComb, Miss., 1961 Police officer B.F. Elmore alleged self-defense after shooting Brumfield. Police claimed Brumfield jumped from his car with a pocket knife after police pulled him over for speeding. AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 21

Caston, Silas (Ernest) - Jackson, Miss., 1964 Caston was shot by a local police officer. CORE and NAACP filed a civil suit against Deputy Sheriff Herbert Sullivan. The result of that suit is unknown. Cloninger, Clarence - Gaston, N.C., 1960 Cloninger died while incarcerated. Authorities denied him medical attention after he suffered a heart attack. Countryman, Willie - Dawson, Ga., 1958 Police officer W.B. Cherry was cleared of murder charges after police said he shot Countryman "in self defense in the line of duty." Dahmon, Vincent - Natchez, Miss., 1966 Dahmon, 65, was shot in the head around the time of a march in support of James Meredith. Daniels, Woodrow Wilson - Water Valley, Miss., 1958 Sheriff Buster Treloar, identified by four witnesses as the man who beat Daniels to death in a prison, was freed after 23 minutes of deliberation by an all-white jury. "By God," Treloar said after the trial. "Now I can get back to rounding up bootleggers and damn niggers." Dumas, Joseph Hill - Perry, Fla., 1962 Florida Governor Farris Bryant suspended constable Henry Sauls in connection with the shooting of 19-year-old Dumas. Sauls was indicted by a federal grand jury. The result of indictment is unclear. Evans, Pheld - Canton, Miss., 1964 , the brother of slain NAACP official Medgar Evers, identified Evans as having been killed under mysterious circumstances. Evanston, J.E. - Long Lake, Miss., 1955 Evanston's body is fished out of Long Lake in December. Evanston was a teacher in the local elementary school. Greene, Mattie - Ringgold, Ga., 1960 Greene is killed when a bomb explodes under her house. Greenwood, Jasper - Vicksburg, Miss., 1964 Greenwood was found shot to death near his car on a rural road. Police said the slaying was not racially motivated. Griffith, Jimmie Lee - Sturgis, Miss., 1965 Griffin was killed in a hit-and-run accident. A coroner's report revealed Griffin was run over at least twice. AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 22

Hall, A.C. - Macon, Ga., 1962 Hall was shot and killed after a white woman claimed he stole a pistol from her car. He was shot by police as he ran away. Hamilton, Rogers - Lowndes County, Ala., 1957 Hamilton, 19, was taken from his home by a group of white men and shot to death. Hamilton was allegedly warned to stay away from black girls in the town of Hayneville. No charges were brought in the case. Hampton, Collie - Winchester, Ky., 1966 Hampton was shot by police officers after allegedly threatening a police officer. Harris, Alphonso - Albany, Ga., 1966 Harris, a member of SCLC, died after allegedly organizing a walkout by black students at a school in Grenada, Miss. He was killed in Georgia in response to previous civil rights activity there. Henry, Izell - Greensburg, La., 1954 Izell was brutally beaten a day after voting. He suffered permanent brain damage and died five years later. Hill, Arthur James - Villa Rica, Ga., 1965 Hill was shot during an argument with whites. One suspect was held on voluntary manslaughter charge. Hunter, Ernest - St. Mary's, Ga., 1958 Hunter was shot and killed while in jail following an arrest on charges he was interfering with an officer. Jackson, Luther - Philadelphia, Miss., 1959 Jackson was killed by police after he and his girlfriend were found talking in their car, which was stalled in a ditch. Police claim Jackson attacked them. Jells, Ernest - Clarksdale, Miss., 1964 Jells was accused of stealing a banana from a grocery and pointing a rifle at pursuing police officers. The officers were exonerated. Jeter, Joe Franklin - Atlanta, Ga., 1958 Jeter was killed by police in front of his family, who were also arrested and convicted in connection with a gathering that police said turned into a melee. A grand jury found the slaying was justified. Lee, John - Goshen Springs, Miss., 1965 Lee's body was found beaten on a country road. AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 23

Lee, Willie Henry - Rankin County, Miss., 1965 Lee, who was known to have attended civil rights meetings, was found beaten on a country road. An autopsy revealed he died by strangulation from gas. Lillard, Richard - Nashville, Tenn., 1958 Lillard died after a beating from three white guards at a local workhouse. All three were acquitted of murder charges. Love, George - Indianola, Miss., 1958 Love was killed in a gun battle with police who believed he was responsible for a murder and arson. He was later cleared of any connection to the murder. Mahone, Maybelle - Molena, Ga., 1956 Mahone was killed by a white man for "sassing" him. The man was initially found guilty, but later found not guilty by reason of insanity. Maxwell, Sylvester - Canton, Miss., 1963 Maxwell's castrated and mutilated body was found by his brother-in-law less than 500 yards from the home of a white family. McNair, Robert - Pelahatchie, Miss., 1965 McNair was killed by a town constable. Melton, Clinton - Sumner, Miss., 1956 Elmer Otis Kimbell was cleared in Melton's death. Kimbell claimed Melton fired at him three times before he returned fire with a shotgun. No gun was found in Melton's car or on his body. Miller, James Andrew - Jackson, Ga., 1964 Miller was shot by whites a few days after being beaten. A suspect was cleared after the coroner ruled he fired in self-defense. Mixon, Booker T - Clarksdale, Miss., 1959 Mixon's body was found lying on the side of the road, completely nude. Police claimed it was a hit-and-run, though family members cited his naked body and the extensive amount of flesh torn from his body as evidence of murder. Montgomery, Nehemiah - Merigold, Miss., 1964 Montgomery, 60, was shot by police after allegedly refusing to pay for gas. Police were acquitted, and the shooting was called justifiable homicide. Morris, Frank - Ferriday, La., 1964 Morris, who owned a shoe store, was killed when a gas stove exploded during an arson. Morris, who lived in a room adjoining the store, was ordered to return to his room by the men who AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 24 started the fire. An extensive Justice Department investigation was conducted, but the outcome is unclear. Motley, James Earl - Wetumpka, Ala., 1967 Elmore County Deputy Sheriff Harvey Conner was cleared in the death of Motley, who died in prison after suffering three severe blows to the head. O'Quinn, Sam - Centreville, Miss., 1959 O'Quinn, derided by some local whites for being "uppity," was shot after joining the NAACP. Orsby, Hubert - Pickens, Miss., 1964 Orsby's body was found in the Black River. It was reported that he was wearing a t-shirt with "CORE," written on it, representing the Congress of Racial Equality. Payne, Larry - Memphis, Tenn., 1968 Payne, 16, was killed by a shotgun blast fired by a patrolman as he emerged from a basement in a housing development. Pickett, C.H. - Columbus, Ga., 1957 The part-time minister was beaten to death while in police custody. Pitts, Albert Pitts, David Johnson, Marshall McPharland, Ernest - Monroe, La., 1960 A white employer was arrested and then released in the shooting of five of his employees, four of whom died. The victims were accused of making threats. The employer was never charged. Powell, Jimmy - Brooklyn, N.Y., 1964 Powell, 15, was fatally shot by a Brooklyn police officer. The officer's exoneration by a grand jury sparked riots in Harlem. Prather, William Roy - Corinth, Miss., 1959 Prather, 15, was killed in an anti-black Halloween prank. One of eight youths involved was indicted on manslaughter charges. Queen, Johnny - Fayette, Miss., 1965 A white off-duty constable was named in the pistol slaying of Johnny Queen. The shooting was not connected to any arrest. Rasberry, Donald - Okolona, Miss., 1965 Rasberry was shot to death by his plantation boss. AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 25

Robinson, Fred - Edisto Island, S.C., 1960 Robinson's body was found washed ashore on August 5. His eyes were reportedly gouged out and his skull crushed. Robinson, Johnny - Birmingham, Ala., 1963 Robinson, 16, was shot in the back by a policeman on the same day as the 16th Street Church bombing. Police said the victim had thrown stones at white youths driving through the area. Sanford, Willie Joe - Hawkinsville, Ga., 1957 Sanford's naked body was raised from the bottom of a creek where it had been wired to undergrowth in the water. The result of a grand jury investigation is unknown. Scott Jr., Marshall - New Orleans, La., 1965 Scott was put into solitary confinement in a New Orleans jail. He died without receiving any medical attention. There were no arrests in the case. Shelby, Jessie James - Yazoo City, Miss., 1956 Shelby, 23, was fatally wounded by a police officer who claimed he shot Shelby because he resisted arrest. Singleton, W.G. - Shelby, N.C., 1957 Singleton died from third-degree burns suffered in an explosion and fire. Smith, Ed - State Line, Miss., 1958 A grand jury refused to indict L.D. Clark in the death of Smith, who was shot in his yard in front of his wife. Clark later reportedly bragged about the killing. Stewart, Eddie James - Crystal Springs, Miss., 1966 Stewart was reportedly beaten and shot while in police custody. Police claimed he was shot while trying to escape. Taylor, Isaiah - Ruleville, Miss., 1964 Taylor was shot by a police officer after allegedly lunging at him with a knife. The shooting was ruled a justifiable homicide. Thomas, Freddie Lee - LeFlore County, Miss., 1965 Federal investigators looked into the death of Thomas, 16. Thomas' brother believed he was murdered as a warning against black voter registration. The result of the investigation is unknown. Triggs, Saleam - Hattiesburg, Miss., 1965 The body of Mrs. Triggs was found mysteriously burned to death. Varner, Hubert - Atlanta, Ga., 1966 AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 26

Varner, 16, was killed when a gunman fired into a group of black teenagers. The gunman allegedly believed the teenagers made a comment to his white companion. The result of a federal investigation is unknown. Walker, Clifton - Adams County, Miss., 1964 Walker was killed by a shotgun blast at close range. The result of a federal investigation is unknown. Waymers, James - Allendale, S.C., 1965 A white man is acquitted in the shooting death of Waymers after entering a plea of self-defense. Wilder, John Wesley - Ruston, La., 1965 A white policeman was accused of Wilder's death, and a coroner's jury ruled the slaying was justifiable homicide. Williamson, Rodell - Camden, Ala., 1967 Williamson's body was recovered from the Alabama River after it snagged on a fisherman's line. Williamson was active in the Wilcox Country branch of the NAACP, but local sheriff P.C. Jenkins said there were no signs of foul play. Wooden, Archie - Camden, Ala., 1967 Wooden, 16, bled to death after either jumping or falling onto a sapling in a ditch. The cut sapling severed an artery. A newspaper report said the Mobile office of the FBI made a civil rights violation inquiry into the incident. The results of that inquiry are unknown.

SECTION TWO: CITIES IN U.S. WITH SIGNIFICANT AFRICAN POPULATIONS Select cities with a large percentage of Black or African American people[edit] [dubious – discuss] The following data was sourced from the 2010 U.S. Census.[citation needed]

Percentage Black or African Total Black or African Rank City American American

1 Detroit, MI 82.7 590,226

2 Jackson, MS 79.4 137,716 AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 27

Percentage Black or African Total Black or African Rank City American American

3 Chester, PA 77.8 26,429

4 Miami Gardens, FL 76.3 81,776

5 Orangeburg, SC 75.04 13,964

6 Birmingham, AL 73.4 155,791

7 Albany, GA 71.6 55,442

8 Macon, GA 67.9 91,351

9 Baltimore, MD 63.7 395,781

10 Memphis, TN 63.3 409,687

11 New Orleans, LA 60.2 206,871

12 Baton Rouge, LA 58.5 126,250

12 Wilmington, DE 58 41,326

13 Flint, MI 56.6 57,939

14 Savannah, GA 55.4 75,507

15 Augusta, GA 54.7 107,182 AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 28

Percentage Black or African Total Black or African Rank City American American

16 Shreveport, LA 54.7 109,022

17 Montgomery, AL 54.5 116,524

18 Atlanta, GA 54.0 226,894

19 Cleveland, OH 53.3 211,672

20 Portsmouth, VA 53.3 50,878

21 Harrisburg, PA 52.4 25,957

22 Newark, NJ 52.4 145,085

23 Valdosta, GA 51.1 27,860

24 Washington, D.C. 50.7 305,125

25 Richmond, VA 50.6 103,342

26 Mobile, AL 50.6 98,691

27 St. Louis, MO 49.2 157,160

28 Danville, VA 48.3 43,055

29 Beaumont, TX 47.3 55,931 AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 29

Percentage Black or African Total Black or African Rank City American American

North Charleston, 30 47.2 45,964

SC

31 Jackson, TN 45.7 29,802

32 Columbus, GA 45.5 86,398

[3] 33 Cincinnati, OH 45.0 123,157

34 Saginaw, MI 44.9 23,127

35 Inglewood, CA 43.9 48,164

36 Philadelphia, PA 43.4 661,839

37 Norfolk, VA 43.1 104,672

38 Dayton, OH 42.9 60,705

39 Suffolk, VA 42.7 36,120

40 Little Rock, AR 42.3 81,889

41 Columbia, SC 42.2 54,537

42 Fayetteville, NC 41.9 82,235 AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 30

Percentage Black or African Total Black or African Rank City American American

43 Rochester, NY 41.7 87,897

44 Durham, NC 41.0 93,517

45 Fort Pierce, FL 40.9 17,617

46 Newport News, VA 40.7 73,514

47 Greensboro, NC 40.6 109,586

48 , WI 40.0 237,769

49 Hartford, CT 38.7 48,331

50 Buffalo, NY 38.6 100,774

51 Penn Hills, PA 37.1 15,688

52 McKeesport, PA 36.5 7,201

[4] 53 Bronx, NY 36.5 505,200

54 New Haven, CT 35.4 45,938

55 Tallahassee, FL 35.0 63,475

56 Charlotte, NC 35.0 256,241 AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 31

Percentage Black or African Total Black or African Rank City American American

57 Chattanooga, TN 34.9 58,507

Winston-Salem, 58 34.7 79,598

NC

[4] 59 Brooklyn, NY 34.3 860,083

60 High Point, NC 33.0 34,532

61 Chicago, IL 32.9 887,608

62 Compton, CA 32.9 31,688

63 Cheltenham, PA 32.8 12,097

64 Hopkinsville, KY 31.9 10,273

65 Paterson, NJ 31.7 46,314

66 Akron, OH 31.5 62,321

67 Greenville, SC 31.5 18,422

68 Huntsville, AL 31.2 56,229

69 Brockton, MA 31.2 30,147 AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 32

Percentage Black or African Total Black or African Rank City American American

70 Jacksonville, FL 30.7 252,421

71 Kansas City, MO 29.9 137,540

72 Raleigh, NC 29.3 117,160

73 Lafayette, LA 28.51 34,654

74 Orlando, FL 28.1 66,876

75 Columbus, OH 28.0 220,241

76 Oakland, CA 28.0 109,471

77 Nashville, TN 27.7 181,387

78 Hawthorne, CA 27.7 23,385

79 Upper Darby, PA 27.5 22,769

80 Indianapolis, IN 27.2 226,671

81 Toledo, OH 27.2 69,243

82 Kansas City, KS 26.8 39,080

83 Richmond, CA 26.6 27,542 AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 33

Percentage Black or African Total Black or African Rank City American American

84 South Bend, IN 26.6 26,906

85 Tampa, FL 26.2 87,872

86 Pittsburgh, PA 26.1 79,710

87 Charleston, SC 25.4 30,496

88 Dallas, TX 25.0 298,993

89 Boston, MA 24.4 150,437

90 Houston, TX 23.6 498,466

91 Springfield, MA 22.3 34,073

92 Louisville, KY 22.2 136,611

[4] 93 Queens, NY 20.1 446,098

North Las Vegas, 94 19.9 47,502

NV

95 Virginia Beach, VA 19.6 85,935

96 Minneapolis, MN 18.6 71,160 AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 34

Percentage Black or African Total Black or African Rank City American American

97 Erie, PA 16.8 17,141

98 Victorville, CA 16.8 19,483

99 Port St. Lucie, FL 16.3 27,876

100 Aurora, CO 15.7 51,196

[4] 101 Manhattan, NY 15.6 246,687

102 Waterloo, IA 15.5 10,602

Oklahoma City, 103 15.1 87,354

OK

San Bernardino, 104 15.0 31,582

CA

105 Sacramento, CA 14.6 68,335

106 Lexington, KY 14.5 46,110

107 Bowling Green, KY 13.9 9,067

108 Omaha, NE 13.7 56,027

109 Wichita, KS 11.5 43,972 AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 35

Percentage Black or African Total Black or African Rank City American American

20,750

110 Des Moines, IA 10.2

SECTION THREE: AFRICAN AMERICAN SCIENTISTS

Retrieved from: https://www.biography.com/people

Mary Jackson Biography

Scientist, Mathematician (1921–2005)

Mathematician Mary Jackson was one of a small group of African-American women who worked as aeronautical engineers, called "human computers," at NASA during the Space Age.

Born in Virginia in 1921, Mary Winston Jackson excelled academically in a time of . Her math and science skills earned her a position as a "human computer" for NACA, and she later became NASA's first black female engineer. Along with serving a vital role in the development of the space program, she helped other women and minorities advance their careers. Jackson died in February 2005 at the age of 83. The story of her groundbreaking contributions to NASA was later dramatized in the 2016 film Hidden Figures.

Dorothy Johnson Vaughan Biography

Mathematician (1910–2008)

Dorothy Johnson Vaughan worked as a NASA mathematician on the SCOUT Launch Vehicle Program that launched America’s first satellites into space.

Dorothy Johnson Vaughan was an African-American mathematics teacher who became one of the leading mathematical engineers in early days of the aerospace industry. After the U.S. defense industry desegregated, Vaughan worked with leading computer operators and engineers, becoming an expert in the FORTRAN programming coding language at NASA. She worked on the SCOUT Launch Vehicle Program that shot satellites into space. Vaughan and other female African-American mathematicians are the subject of a 2016 film Hidden Figures.

Garrett Morgan Biography

Inventor, Publisher (1877–1963)

Garrett Morgan blazed a trail for African-American inventors with his patents, including those for a hair- straightening product, a breathing device, a revamped sewing machine and an improved traffic signal. AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 36

With only an elementary school education, Garrett Morgan, born in Kentucky on March 4, 1877, began his career as a sewing-machine mechanic. He went on to patent several inventions, including an improved sewing machine and traffic signal, a hair-straightening product, and a respiratory device that would later provide the blueprint for WWI gas masks. The inventor died on July 27, 1963, in Cleveland, Ohio.

Daniel Hale Williams, Surgeon

Daniel Hale Williams was one of the first physicians to perform open-heart surgery in the and founded a hospital with an interracial staff.

Born on January 18, 1856, in Hollidaysburg, Pennsylvania, Daniel Hale Williams pursued a pioneering career in medicine. An African-American doctor, in 1893 Williams opened Provident Hospital, the first medical facility to have an interracial staff. He was also one of the first physicians to successfully complete pericardial surgery on a patient. Williams later became chief surgeon of the Freedmen’s Hospital.

Percy Julian

Medical Professional, Civil Rights Activist, Scientist, Chemist, Academic (1899–1975)

African-American chemist Percy Julian was a pioneer in the chemical synthesis of medicinal drugs such as cortisone, steroids and birth control pills.

Born in Alabama in 1899, pioneering chemist Percy Julian was not allowed to attend high school but went on to earn his Ph.D. His research at academic and corporate institutions led to the chemical synthesis of drugs to treat glaucoma and arthritis, and although his race presented challenges at every turn, he is regarded as one of the most influential chemists in American history.

Neil deGrasse Tyson

Writer, Television Personality, Scientist (1958–)

Astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson hosted NOVA ScienceNow and makes media appearances to encourage science and space exploration.

Born and raised in New York City, astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson discovered his love for the stars at an early age. After studying at Harvard University, he earned his doctorate from Columbia University in 1991. Tyson went to work for the Hayden Planetarium in 1996 and still serves as its director. He hosted the NOVA ScienceNow series from 2006 to 2011. Tyson remains a popular TV science expert today and has amassed over 12 million followers on Twitter.

Ernest Everett Just Biography

Biologist, Scientist, Educator (1883–1941)

Earnest Everett Just was an African-American biologist and educator best known for his pioneering work in the physiology of development, especially in fertilization.

Born on August 14, 1883, in Charleston, South Carolina, Earnest Everett Just was an African-American biologist and educator who pioneered many areas on the physiology of development, including AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 37 fertilization, experimental parthenogenesis, hydration, cell division, dehydration in living cells and ultraviolet carcinogenic radiation effects on cells. Just's legacy of accomplishments followed him long after his death, on October 27, 1941.

Marie M. Daly Biography

Chemist, Scientist, Scientist (1921–2003)

Marie M. Daly is best known for being the first African-American woman to receive a Ph.D. in chemistry in the United States.

Marie M. Daly was born on April 16, 1921, in Queens, New York. She was raised in an education- oriented family, and Daly quickly received her B.S. and M.S. in chemistry at Queens College and New York University. After completing her Ph.D. at Columbia—and becoming the first African-American woman to obtain a Ph.D. in chemistry in the United States—Daly taught and conducted research. She died in New York City on October 28, 2003.

Guion S. Bluford Biography

Astronaut, Pilot, Scientist (1942–)

As a mission specialist aboard the space shuttle 'Challenger' in 1983, Guion S. Bluford became the first African American to travel into space.

Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1942, Guion S. Bluford was a decorated Air Force pilot in Vietnam before joining NASA in the late 1970s. In 1983, he became the first African American to travel into space when he served as a mission specialist aboard the space shuttle Challenger. Bluford completed three more NASA missions, compiling 688 hours in space by the time of his retirement in 1993.

James West Biography

Scientist, Inventor (1931–)

James West is a U.S. inventor and professor who, in 1962, developed the electret transducer technology later used in 90 percent of contemporary microphones.

Born in Prince Edward County, Virginia, on February 10, 1931, James West attended Temple University before working for Bell Labs. Along with Gerhard M. Sessler, he developed the foil electret microphone, an inexpensive, compact device that is now used in 90 percent of all contemporary microphones. A prolific writer as well, West has more than 250 patents and became a professor at Johns Hopkins University.

Mae C. Jemison Biography

Doctor, Scientist, Scientist, Astronaut (1956–)

Mae C. Jemison is the first African-American female astronaut. In 1992, she flew into space aboard the Endeavour, becoming the first African-American woman in space.

Who Is Mae C. Jemison? AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 38

Mae C. Jemison (born October 17, 1956) is an American astronaut and physician who, on June 4, 1987, became the first African-American woman to be admitted into NASA’s astronaut training program. On September 12, 1992, Jemison finally flew into space with six other astronauts aboard the Endeavour on mission STS47, becoming the first African-American woman in space. In recognition of her accomplishments, Jemison has received several awards and honorary doctorates.

George Washington Carver Biography

Scientist, Inventor, Chemist, Botanist (c. 1864–1943)

George Washington Carver was a prominent African-American scientist and inventor. Carver is best known for the many uses he devised for the peanut.

George Washington Carver (c. 1864 to January 5, 1943) was born into slavery and went on to become a botanist and one of the most prominent scientists and inventors of his time as well as a teacher at the Tuskegee Institute. Carver devised over 100 products using one major crop — the peanut — including dyes, plastics and gasoline.

Charles Drew Biography

Surgeon, Doctor, Educator (1904–1950)

Charles Drew was an African-American surgeon who pioneered methods of storing blood plasma for transfusion and organized the first large-scale blood bank in the U.S.

Charles Richard Drew was born on June 3, 1904, in Washington, D.C. He was an African-American physician who developed ways to process and store blood plasma in "blood banks." He directed the blood plasma programs of the United States and Great Britain in World War II, but resigned after a ruling that the blood of African-Americans would be segregated. He died on April 1, 1950.

Katherine G. Johnson Biography

Mathematician (1918–2018)

One of NASA's human 'computers,' Katherine G. Johnson performed the complex calculations that enabled humans to successfully achieve space flight.

Who Is Katherine G. Johnson?

Born in 1918 in West Virginia, Katherine G. Johnson made the most of limited educational opportunities for African Americans, graduating from college at age 18. She began working in aeronautics as a "computer" in 1952, and after the formation of NASA, she performed the calculations that sent astronauts into orbit in the early 1960s and to the moon in 1969. Johnson was honored with the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2015, and saw her story brought to light through a book and a feature film the following year.

Lonnie G. Johnson Biography

Inventor, Engineer (1949–) AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 39

Lonnie G. Johnson is a former Air Force and NASA engineer who invented the massively popular Super Soaker water gun.

African-American engineer and inventor Lonnie G. Johnson was born in Alabama in 1949. He earned his master's degree in nuclear engineering from Tuskegee University, and went on to work for the U.S. Air Force and the NASA space program. After tinkering with the invention of a high-powered water gun, Johnson's Super Soaker became a top-selling item by the early 1990s. He has since been developing the Johnson Thermoelectric Energy Converter (JTEC), an engine that converts heat directly into electricity, which Johnson's sees as the path to low-cost solar power.

George Carruthers Biography

Physicist, Scientist (1939–)

Scientist George Carruthers created inventions, such as the ultraviolet camera, or spectograph, which was used by NASA in the 1972 Apollo 16 flight, revealing the mysteries of space and the Earth's atmosphere.

Born on October 1, 1939, in Cincinnati, Ohio, scientist George Carruthers built his first telescope at the age of 10. He earned his Ph.D. in aeronautical and astronautical engineering at the University of Illinois in 1964 and began working at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. His telescope and image converter was used to identify molecular hydrogen in space and his ultraviolet camera/spectograph was used by Apollo 16 during the flight to the moon. Today, Carruthers teaches at Howard University.

Patricia Bath Biography

Inventor, Doctor, Educator (1942–)

Among many firsts, Patricia Bath is the first African American to complete a residency in ophthalmology and the first African-American female doctor to receive a medical patent. She invented the Laserphaco Probe for cataract treatment in 1986.

Born in Harlem, New York, on November 4, 1942, Patricia Bath became the first African American to complete a residency in ophthalmology in 1973. Two years later, she became the first female faculty member in the Department of Ophthalmology at UCLA's Jules Stein Eye Institute. In 1976, Bath co- founded the American Institute for the Prevention of Blindness, which established that "eyesight is a basic human right." In 1986, Bath invented the Laserphaco Probe, improving treatment for cataract patients. She patented the device in 1988, becoming the first African-American female doctor to receive a medical patent.

Benjamin Banneker Biography

Astronomer, Scientist (1731–1806)

Benjamin Banneker was a largely self-educated mathematician, astronomer, compiler of almanacs and writer.

Benjamin Banneker was born on November 9, 1731, in Ellicott's Mills, Maryland. A free black man who owned a farm near Baltimore, Banneker was largely self-educated in astronomy and mathematics. He was later called upon to assist in the surveying of territory for the construction of the nation's capital. He AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 40 also became an active writer of almanacs and exchanged letters with Thomas Jefferson, politely challenging him to do what he could to ensure racial equality. Banneker died on October 9, 1806.

Otis Boykin Biography

Inventor (1920–1982)

Otis Boykin’s noteworthy inventions include a wire precision resistor and a control unit for the pacemaker. When he died in 1982, he had 26 patents in his name.

Otis Boykin was born on August 29, 1920, in Dallas, Texas. He graduated from Fisk College in 1941 and took a job with the Majestic Radio and TV Corporation. He later worked at P. J. Nilsen Research Laboratories. He began to invent products on his own, with some of his noteworthy inventions including a wire precision resistor used in televisions and radios and a control unit for the pacemaker. He died in 1982 of heart failure.

SECTION FOUR: AMERICA’S COMMITMENT TO DIVERSITY, 1818 TO 1875

Andrew Jackson defeated force of Native Americans and Africans at Battle of Suwanee, ending the First Seminole War. 1818

Missouri Compromise constructed and passed by US Congress. Main provisions of this political compromise were that Maine would be admitted to the US as a ‘free state’, Missouri as a ‘slave 1820 state’, and enslavement of African descendants would be prohibited in the Louisiana Purchase territory north of 36*-30* latitude.

Denmark Vesey, an African from the Virgin Islands, organizes a revolt against slavery in Charleston, South Carolina. An African informant warns authorities; Vesey and thirty-five other Africans are 1822 killed for forming this plot.

Appeal, an anti-slavery pamphlet containing a declaration to revolt among enslaved Africans, was read in several parts of this young nation. David Walker, a free African, was the author of this 1829 declaration. European-American slave owners placed a bounty on the life of David Walker, Walker died the next year and circumstances of his death remain unresolved today.

Indian Removal Act passed by US Congress. This legislative action called for the displacement of Native Americans from their original ‘homelands’ including Sauk, Fox, Choctaw, Chickasaw,

Cherokee, and Seminoles. 1830 The Native Americans were ‘herded’ by US Army units and resettled in western central region of this young nation in order to free land for European-American farmers to grow sugar cane, cotton and other agricultural products.

The first National Negro Convention was conducted in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Representatives of African communities and small numbers of European-American abolitionists met to address issues related to extension of common rights of citizenship to Africans in this nation. Conventions were held throughout the next twenty years to address concerns of Africans related to rights AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 41

afforded other Americans under the Constitution and to promote end of legalized enslavement of Africans.

Nat Turner, an African slave on a Virginia plantation, leads revolt in which sixty European-American farmers, overseers and family members are killed. Turner and other participants in the rebellion 1831 are caught and executed.

Gag Rule passed by US Congress. This legislative action prohibited the discussion or consideration of all anti-slavery petitions presented to the House of Representatives. The House adopted a 1836 stricter ‘gag rule’ every year until 1844.

Fogg v. Hobbs, Pennsylvania Supreme Court. Court concluded in this case that free Africans residing in the state were not freemen and restricted voting rights to European-American males 1837 only.

Calhoun’s Resolutions were passed in the US Senate. The combined effect of these resolutions prevented Congress from interfering with slavery in the states, District of Columbia, and other US

territories. 1838 Mass meeting held by Africans in Philadelphia to protest Pennsylvania Reform Convention of 1837 actions to codify restrictions against potential African voters. Africans requested reversal of this decision by the State Legislature; however, support for the new measure was evident throughout the state among European-American citizens.

US House of Representatives passed measures preventing introduction of any antislavery petitions into Congressional debate or consideration.

American and Foreign Anti-slavery societies founded. 1840 Henry Highland Garnet, a free African and staunch foe of slavery, called on free Africans in America to go on a national strike and enslaved Africans to revolt against European oppressors in order to destroy the institution of slavery and improve life in general for all Africans in this nation.

1842 Prigg vs. Pennsylvania: US Supreme Court ruled that states had no power over cases arising from Fugitive Slave Act, thus preventing states from either helping or hindering fugitive slaves.

1845 Texas admitted to the United States as a ‘slave state.’

Representative David Wilmot of Pennsylvania introduced amendment to legislation in the House that would have prevented introduction of slavery in territories gained as a result of the American- 1846 Mexican War. Measure passed in the House and failed in the Senate.

US signed Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, ending the two-year American-Mexican war.

1848 US Congress voted to create a new Oregon Territory with restrictions against slavery in these regions.

Roberts vs. City of Boston: Massachusetts Supreme Court created foundation for new legal interpretation of relationships between African and non-Africans in the state. New doctrine in AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 42

1849 regards to education called for separate facilities for these groups and came to be known as the ‘ doctrine.’

Compromise of 1850. These legislative actions called for the admission of California, New Mexico and Utah into the US as ‘free’ states, expanded the scope of offenses listed under the federal 1850 Fugitive Slave Act, and abolished the sale of Africans in the District of Columbia.

Kansas-Nebraska Act. This legislative action provided for the organization of territories of Kansas and Nebraska with or without slavery—based instead, upon elections held among settlers to these 1854 regions. This

Legislative Act also repealed the earlier Missouri Compromise of 1820.

Dred Scott decision by US Supreme Court denies Africans rights by law. The court decision said in effect that Africans were not and could not be citizens of the United States and that slavery could

not be barred from western states. The original suit was filed in 1847 after European-American 1857 owners took Scott to Illinois (a non-slave state) where they stayed for a brief period. California Legislature defeats anti-African immigration by two votes. Representative G.A. Hall led fight against this measure. Africans in California were required to pay poll tax and denied right to vote (in fear of physical violence) in local or state elections.

Lincoln-Douglas Debates. Lincoln advocated for continuance of the Fugitive Slave Act, gradual abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia, congressional prohibition of slavery in the 1858 territories and the gradual extinction of slavery in the US.

John Brown leads a group of twelve European-Americans (including four of his own sons) and five Africans in a raid of the US Army weapons arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, in order to provide

arms to slaves in order to destroy institution of slavery. John Brown and others in his group were hanged after the unsuccessful attack.

Mobile Bay, Alabama is the site of the “last” legal African slave ship docking.

1859 Ableman v. Booth. US Supreme court overturned state court ruling that declared the Fugitive Slave Act unconstitutional. Some northern cities and a few states adopted Personal Liberty Laws prohibiting the use of public jail space to house or public law enforcement officers to apprehend Africans who escaped from bondage.

JS Wilson, Acting Commissioner of General Lands for the US, issued statement that in effect prohibited Africans from acquiring or homesteading new public lands. Mr. Wilson said the Africans, free or enslaved, were not citizens of the US and not entitled to this privilege accorded to European-American citizens.

Jefferson Davis Resolutions adopted by the US Senate. These legislative actions stated that attacks on the institution of slavery violated the US Constitution that the national government should

protect slavery in the territories and that state laws interfering with the recovery of runaway slaves were unconstitutional. AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 43

1860 Arkansas passed law to prohibit employment of free Africans on boats and ships operating on rivers within the state.

Abraham Lincoln, viewed by southerners as anti-slavery, was elected President of the US.

South Carolina seceded from the US in response to Lincoln’s election.

Confederates attacked Fort Sumter in South Carolina. Free Africans responded to Lincoln’s call for volunteers to defend against the Confederacy but they were refused opportunities to enlist in the

US Army based on race.

Confiscation Act passed by Congress allowing military to seize all property used in war against US, 1861 including African slaves who were to be set free. Enforcement of this law was minimal. Navy authorized enlistment of African slaves into this branch of the US military for Civil War duties.

General John C. Fremont issued military emancipation of Africans in Missouri. President Lincoln reversed this order.

Congress authorized President Lincoln to accept Africans for military service in the US Army. Africans by design would receive less pay for their services and lives than would European-

American soldiers in same battles.

General David Hunter issued military emancipation of Africans in Georgia, Florida, and South 1862 Carolina. President Lincoln reversed Hunter’s orders. US Senate passed bill that abolished enslavement of Africans in District of Columbia. Slave-owners were to receive $300 per person. Bill also set aside money for Africans to voluntarily migrate to Haiti or Liberia.

Congress passed legislation to allow Africans to enlist in the US Army at pay rates far below those paid to European-American soldiers performing the same duties.

Emancipation Proclamation signed by President Abraham Lincoln. This executive order, constructed to aid northern military expeditions into Confederate states, freed Africans from

lifetime bondage and servitude in states that seceded from the US.

Confederate Congress declared Africans in military uniform as criminals and not prisoners-of-war. All Africans fighting on behalf of the Union forces were to be murdered or enslaved upon capture based upon this legislation. 1863 Poor European-American immigrants attacked free Africans in New York City, Troy (NY), and Boston in response to Union Draft Law that allowed those who could pay fee to avoid draft. Immigrants rioted against Africans due to belief that Africans would take jobs of those who could not afford to pay draft avoidance fee since Africans were not subject to this draft.

President Lincoln issued warning that Union forces would be ordered to retaliate for murders and enslavement of Africans by Confederate forces. AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 44

An African US Army regiment from Massachusetts refused pay for an entire year in protest of unequal compensation paid to European-American forces in the US Army.

US Congress passed bill to equalize salary and supplies for African troops to rate paid or provided for European-American soldiers.

Confederate forces massacred African troops captured in Confederate seizure of Fort Pillow, 1864 Tennessee.

Sergeant William Walker of the 3rd South Carolina Regiment was shot after court martial for leading protest regarding unequal pay for African soldiers.

Thirteenth Amendment to the US Constitution passed by US Congress. Many Africans and members of anti-slavery organizations mistakenly interpreted this amendment to mean that

Africans heretofore enslaved in all states were now free.

Confederate President Jefferson Davis signed a bill from the Confederate legislature authorizing 1865 the use of African slaves as soldiers in the Confederate War. Robert E. Lee surrenders, ending the Civil War (April 8).

US Congress established what was known as the Freedmen’s Bureau and Bank to aid Africans freed from lifetime bondage. Slightly more than four thousand schools were established by the Freedman’s Bureau for Africans and also poor whites in former Confederate states.

Abraham Lincoln assassinated. President Andrew Johnson, who replaced Lincoln, enacts his Reconstruction program. Johnson does not provide voting rights for Africans.

Civil Rights Bill passed despite presidential (Johnson) opposition and executive veto, declaring ‘freedmen’ to be US citizens.

Major riots in Memphis, Tennessee and New Orleans occur. Vast majority of victims were of 1866 African descent. Tennessee riot directed violence at African war veterans.

Two Africans elected to Massachusetts House of Representatives.

Congress divides defeated confederate states into military districts and requires them to approve the right of Africans to vote and participate directly in political life of the district.

National Association of Baseball prohibited clubs with African or other ‘colored’ players. 1867 African-Americans residing in District of Columbia given right to vote by Congress.

First national convention of the held in Nashville, Tennessee.

1868 Fourteenth Amendment passed in US Congress. This legislative action declared that free Africans were indeed citizens of the US.

Fifteenth Amendment passed in US Congress. This legislative action declared unlawful voting discrimination on the basis of ‘race, color, or previous condition of servitude.’

AAHKB 2019 STUDY MATERIALS 45

1870 Hiram Rhodes Revel elected to fill unexpired term of former Confederate President, Jefferson Davis, to become US senator from Mississippi, the first African-American to be seated in the US Senate.

Civil Rights Law passed to prohibit discrimination in places of public accommodation including hotels, public transportation, and theaters.

European-Americans instigated and participated in ‘race riots’ in Mississippi. Majority of persons 1875 killed in these actions was of African descent.

Blanche K. Bruce, second African-American to serve as US Senator from Mississippi and the only African-American to serve a full term in the US Senate until the mid-twentieth century.