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Journal of Negro Education

Rap Music: An Education with a Beat from the Street Author(s): Catherine Tabb Powell Source: The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 60, No. 3, Socialization Forces Affecting the Education of African American Youth in the 1990s (Summer, 1991), pp. 245-259 Published by: Journal of Negro Education Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2295480 . Accessed: 16/10/2011 18:29

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http://www.jstor.org RapMusic: An Educationwith a Beat fromthe Street

CatherineTabb Powell, Universityofthe District of Columbia*

Originatingin New YorkCity in thelate 1970s,rap-a formof popular music thatentails talking, or ","to a rhythmicmusical back- ground-has provedto have wide appeal and stayingpower. Words and rhythmare theheart of rap.1 A vocalist(or vocalists) tells a storyset to syncopation,and a discjockey (DJ) provides the rhythm with a drum machineor by "scratching"on a turntable(rapidly moving a recordback and forthunder the needle to createrap's famousswishing sound). Rap lyricsconcentrate primarily on thecontemporary African American experience,and themusic is aimedat a marketconsisting primarily, but notexclusively, of African American youth. Every issue within the Black communityis subjectto expositionin therap arena.Hit rap tuneshave broachedtouchy subjects such as sex, sexism,racism, and crime;how- ever,as some rappersclaim, their goal is differentfrom that of rhythm- and-bluesartists. Rap artists,they contend, "don't talkthe love stuff, but [rather]educate the listeners"(Henderson, 1988, p. R13). Indeed,in additionto entertainment, rap music provides a significant formof informal education for adolescents, one thatextends far beyond theconfines of the classroom and intotheir peer group circles. Whether rapis denigratedor applauded as an artisticproduct, it cannot be ignored as a dominantmeans of expression within contemporary African Ameri- can adolescentculture. For Black youthin particularrap providesa powerfulforce for identity, solidarity, and emotionalreinforcement.

THE ORIGINS OF RAP Unlikemany musical fads and fashions,rap's arrivalwas not engi- neeredby Tin Pan Alley(the commercialmusic industry) or otherbig businessinterests. Instead it emerged from the streets of inner-city neigh- borhoodsas a genuinereflection of the hopes, concerns, and aspirations ofurban Black youth in this,the last quarter of the 20th century. Rap is essentiallya homemade,street-level musical genre. Moreover, rap is part

*Theauthor is a memberof theAfrican American Writers Guild. 'The terms"rap" and "hip-hop"can be used interchangeably.Hip-hop refers to the beatof the music and rapto the rhythmic talking over the beat. Rap has threeclassifications: (1) "quickrap" (one rappertalks to another)(2) "life-line"or "hard-core"rap (containing explicitlyrics); and (3) "commercialrap" (hip-hopand dance rap).

Journalof Negro Education, Vol. 60, No. 3 (1991) Copyright? 1991,Howard University 245 ofa traditionof oral recitationthat originated in Africamany centuries ago. This traditionis exemplifiedby the WestAfrican griot, or trouba- dour/storyteller.To the accompanimentof drumsor otherpercussive instruments,griots entertain and educate theiraudiences by reciting tribalhistory and currentevents. Their performances are oftenembel- lishedby satiricalasides, proverbs, jokes, praise, and ridicule(Nicholls, 1991).Talking against a musicalbackground has also been employedin AfricanAmerican gospel, jazz, and rhythm-and-bluesmusic throughout this century.Popular recordingartists such as Cab Calloway,Eddie Jefferson,Bo Diddley,and JamesBrown have utilizedthis tradition. However,the most important influence on raphas notbeen commer- cial recordingsbut the street-levelpractices of "toasting,""capping," "joning,""signifying," "shucking and jiving,""sounding," "running it down," "gripping,""copping a plea," and "playingthe dozens." Traditionally,all thesepractices have allowedinner-city dwellers, partic- ularlymales, to competein theiruse ofimagery and verbalskills. Then and now, when Blackmen gathertogether they often engage in such verbalcontests. According to H. "Rap" (HubertGerold) Brown (1972, pp. 205-206),former head of the StudentNon-Violent Coordinating Committee(SNCC), AfricanAmerican males "play the dozens forrecre- ation,like white folks play Scrabble." Brown explains that the dozens is a meangame because it often involves an exchangeof negative comments aboutmembers of an opponent'sfamily, especially his mother,that can be extremelyhumiliating for the loser. Signifying,Brown contends, is anotherverbal dueling technique usually employed after a battleof the dozens to "cutyour opponent some slack" (make him feel good orbad). Again,Brown maintains, before one can signify,"you got to be able to rap." In his own youthBrown claims that he was seldomhumiliated in anykind of verbal contest: "That's why they call me Rap, 'cause I could rap." His abilityexemplifies the varying degrees and typesof oral exper- tisefound within Black urban culture at all levels,from the street corner to thepulpit. In theearly 1970s the radical rap poetryof the group The Last Poets formeda dominantprototype for later rap artistssuch as Grandmaster Flashand theFurious Five, the Sugarhill Gang, the Fat Boys,Kool Moe Dee, Run DMC, and BigDaddy Kane. The Last Poetsconsisted of poets OmarBen Hassen, AlafiaPudim, Abiodun Oyewole, and percussionist Nilaja. Theyrecorded on the independentDouglas Recordslabel, and withlittle radio airplaysold 160,000copies of theirfirst album. With congabackup the poets chanted rap poetryclassics such as "The White Man's Gota God Complex,""In theMeanwhile, I Mustbe Insane,"and "This Is Madness." The Poets tookstreet corner rap and used it as an assaulton racism,Black self-exploitation, and stereotypedracial roles. In Harlemwhere they lived they were recognized and admiredas stars (Cott,1970). Duringthe "disco" musicera, rap became popularwith the street gangsin urbancenters such as Harlemand theSouth Bronx in City.Rappers worked with DJswho workedtwo or more turntables simultaneously,switching back and forthto mixthe best partsof the music(Watkins, 1984). "The GrandWizard" (Theodore Livingston) from

246 TheJournal of Negro Education theBronx is givencredit for originating the scratching technique in rap music.His sound,which was copiedextensively, changed the way DJs playeddance music(Greenberg, 1988). Other DJs quickly learned how to alterthe mood on thedance floor by making smooth transitions in the music. In theBronx, the important part of therecord was thebreak-the partof a tunein whichthe drumstake over....That was when the dancersflew and DJsbegan cuttingbetween the same fewbars on two turntables,extending the break into an instrumental.The importantpart of thistransition was thepart in whichthe drums tookover, the break for the . .. (Toop, 1984,p. 14) Thosewho dancedacrobatically to thisbreak mixture became known as "breakdancers." One of thetwo DJsgiven credit for originating the term"break dancing" was CliveCampbell, a Jamaican-bornDJ who went by the name "Herc." AfrikaBambaataa, another DJ (and streetgang leader)from the Bronx is also givencredit. Herc worked at a discoin the poor sectionof the Bronxwhere he playedthe "most frantic sections," or thebreaks, of the music over and over.Bambaataa, when challenged bya rivalgang, would suggest competition by dancing instead of fighting (Greenberg,1988, pp. 13-14). Toop (1984)gives this account of theearly days of rap: The DJsteamed up withMCs [mastersof ceremonies or "emcees"]who provideda show,creating spoken rhythms, catch phrases and a commentaryabout the DJ, the clienteleand themselvesover the beats. A styleof dress grew up, a fracturedimage ofcool, combining casual and sportswear, and thedancing was fiercelycompetitive. Competitionwas at the heartof hip hop.... Sneakersbecame high fashion... entertainmentwas providedwith the kind of showoff street rap thatalmost any kid was capableof turningon a rival.(p. 15)

RAP TODAY Currentlyrap is enjoyingunprecedented success, but its reputation is notentirely positive. Some rappers' use ofexplicit language and sexual referencesand imageryon theiralbums and musicvideos has created resistanceto rap. Obscenityand freedomof speech issues have been raisedin responseto therecordings of certain rap artists,notably , Ice-T,NWA (Niggas WithAttitude), Slick Rick, and Ice Cube. Copyrightinfringement disputes and distributionproblems have also posed barriersto rap's full-fledgedentry into the musicalmainstream. Nonetheless,several rappers and rap groupshave met with notable successesand recognitionin therap arena.Some ofthe more renowned as wellas infamouspersonalities of rap will be discussedin thefollowing sections.

Run DMC As the group Run DMC, Run (JosephSimmons), DMC (Darryl McDaniels),and theirDJ, Jam Master Jay (ayson Mizell)have achieved rarelongevity as rap artists.In 1984the groupproduced the firstrap albumto be certifiedgold. Theywent on to becomethe first rap artists to collecttwo gold albumsand a gold and platinumalbum simultane- ously; the firstto reach the top ten on the Billboardpop chart,make

TheJournal of Negro Education 247 Number1 on itsBlack singles (45 RPM) chart,2and reachthe top tenon its "Hot One Hundred" singleslist; the firstto collecttwo platinum albums;and the firstto top the two millioncopies sales mark(Grein, 1990).

Kid n' Play Christopher(Kid) Reid,a formerlaw schoolcandidate, and Christo- pher(Play) Martin, a formervisual artsmajor whose currentnickname is a shortenedversion of his old one (Playboy),dance and tradeinsults and witticismsas therap team"Kid n' Play." Generally,they rap about adolescencein a sassy but playful,sly but innocent,boys-next-door fashion.The message of theirmusical dialogues, according to Kid, is this:"We teachpeople not to be afraidto be themselves,even if you look differentor act different.... Run with it" (Perlman, 1990, p. 93). Kid, who sportsthe currently fashionable "hi-top fade" hairstyle, grew up in theBronx and latermoved to EastElmhurst (NY). He is thecomic of the duo. Playis the suave one who playsthe role of the braggart. The duo has produceda seriesof hitsingles and low-budgetvideos as well as a 1988album, "From 2 Hype," thatmade the top ten on Billboardmaga- zine'sBlack music charts. With virtually no cross-overto the pop (popular audience) market,the album sold nearlyone millioncopies (Seliger, 1990).

M. C. Hammer One of the mostpopular (or, as the youngpeople say, "bumpin"') rappersat thetime of this writing goes by the stage name M. C. Hammer. Hammer,whose real name is StanleyKirk Burrell, is one ofeight children and was raisedin Oakland(CA). He acquiredthe nickname Hammer in theearly seventies from a playerwith the Oakland A's baseballteam- home-runking "Hammerin"'Hank Aaron. Burrelltravelled with the teamas a batboyduring the summerbreaks for seven years(Russell, 1990).An overtlyreligious man, M. C. Hammerpresents a clean image and his lyricsare not political.He raps abouturban problems, saving youngpeople fromdrugs, and the troublesof the world,and his act places moreemphasis on choreographedshowiness than on hardrap- ping. Hammeris veryprotective of his entourageof singers,dancers, and bodyguards,which includes some 18- and 19-year-olds.Reportedly, aftereach show youngcast members must return directly to theirhotel roomsand staythere all nightor facea $100fine ("Rap Musician,"1990). Hammer'sdebut album, "Let's Get It Started,"sold more than a millioncopies. His second album,"Please Hammer,Don't Hurt'Em," is consideredthe most sophisticated rap albumyet to emerge.It is only thethird rap albumin historyto stayat the top ofboth the pop charts

2Billboardrecently renamed its "Black Music" charts "R & B" (rhythm-and-blues)charts. The magazinemaintains that the changewas made because the numberof non-Black people making"Black" music has escalated.

248 TheJournal of Negro Education and the R & B chartsfor three months. More thanfour million copies have been sold to date (Russell,1990).

2 Live Crew 2 Live Crew, an X-rated,underground3 rap group,recently found themselvesin courtbecause oftheir explicit lyrics and theirinclusion of scantilyclothed female dancers in theiract. The muchpublicized group fromMiami (FL), consistingof band leaderLuther Campbell, Christo- pherWongwon, and MarkRoss, were charged with staging an obscene performanceat a Hollywood(FL) nightclubin June1990. Throughout thatsummer they were undersiege. Theiralbum, "As NastyAs They WannaBe," whichgraphically describes sexual acts and celebratesmale lustand violencetoward submissive women, was blacklistedby a num- ber of nationalparent's groups, and a judge in southernFlorida threat- ened recordstore owners with arrest if caught selling the album (McFad- den, 1990). The case drewnational attention. The obscenitytrial lasted for two weeks.In itscountersuit, Skyy Walker Records (the group's record label) assertedthat the company's First Amendment rights had beenviolated.4 Testimonyfrom both sides was presentedby several critics ranging from those who judged the groups music to be "filthy,lewd, disgusting, especiallyoffensive to womenand withoutany artistic merit," to others who viewedit as "simplistic,uninteresting, [and] unoriginal." Still oth- ersprotested, "Why not arrest people for swearing on thestreet?" Expert witnessHenry Louis Gates (now head of HarvardUniversity's Depart- mentof AfricanAmerican Studies) referred to rap lyricsas "art" and noted that "even Shakespeareused four-letterwords a lot" (Parker, 1990). In the end the prosecutor'scase failedto sway the jurors,who at timeslaughed openly during the trial. The jury acquitted 2 Live Crewof obscenitycharges on thegrounds that the group's rights are protected by theFirst Amendment. After the trial 2 LiveCrew leader statedthat the whole affair was "good forbusiness." Sales ofthe album surpassedthe platinummark (1.7 millioncopies), while a purifiedver- sion ofthe album, entitled "As Clean As TheyWanna Be," sold 200,000 (Benarde,1990). Campbellbegan in the musicbusiness while attending high school. He organizeddances and rap shows,and manyof his amateurperform- erslater became stars. He beganproducing his own recordsin 1985after beingcheated by otherproducers. His firstoffice was a bedroomin his parents'home. Campbellis thefirst to admitthat the Crew'slyrics are "sexual stuff,"but he contendsthe raps are "funnyand raw" and

3Undergroundrap refers to rap music that is soldin somerecord stores but is notplayed by majorradio stations; nor are thevideos of underground rap shownon television. 4TheFirst Amendment to theU.S. Constitutionstates that: "Congress shall make no law respectingan establishmentof religion,or prohibitingthe freeexercise thereof; or abridgingthe freedom of speech [italics added], or the press; or the rightof the people peaceablyto assemble,and to petitionthe Government for a redressof grievances."

TheJournal of Negro Education 249 inspiredby thehumor of popularBlack comedians Eddie Murphyand RichardPryor (McFadden, 1990). Campbell's friends claim that he is a dedicatedfather to his seven-year-olddaughter and does notpermit her to listento theCrew's x-rated lyrics. Moreover, Campbell spends much ofhis timeworking to improveeducation for Blacks. He has established collegescholarships for promising Black seniors at Miamihigh schools, fundsa businessscholarship at FloridaInternational University, donates moneyto the footballprogram at Bethune-CookmanUniversity, and contributesregularly to theUnited Negro College Fund (Benarde,1990).

Public Enemy Otherrap groupsdraw heavily on thephilosophies and doctrinesof Blacknationalist organizations such as theNation of Islam5 and theBlack Panthersas well as individualpolitical and religiousfigures such as MalcolmX, MartinLuther King, Jr., Nat Turner,and MarcusGarvey. The mostnotable of these, (whose early audiences, ironi- cally,were largelyWhite), gained worldwide popularity with their hit single,"Terrordome." The rap, which denounces drug dealers, the activ- itiesof the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), soap operas,and army recruitmenttactics, heaps praiseson theBlack Panthers, the Black Mus- lims,and jazz saxophonistJohn Coltrane. Public Enemy is creditedwith stirringup mostof the Afrocentrism debate in rap circles.Their raps are consistentlyaimed at castinglight on racial injusticesagainst Blacks and educatingtheir listeners about these injustices. Two ofthe group's albumshave gone platinumincluding such titles as "It takesA Nation," "Bringthe Noise," "RebelWithout a Pause," "Don't Believethe Hype," "Do theRight Thing," and "Fightthe Power." PublicEnemy hails from Hempstead, (NY), and consists ofleader (CarltonRidenhour), Flavor-Flave (William Drayton), and TerminatorX (disc jockeyNorman Rogers). Recently, "Security of the FirstWorld," the group's onstage bodyguards,came under fire becauseof comments made by Professor Griff ("Minister of Information" ofthe security force). In a 1989interview Professor Griff allegedly stated: "The Jewsare wicked.And we can provethis." As thereporter further claimed,Griff also heldthat "the majority of are responsible for the majorityof the wickedness that goes on acrossthe globe" (Pareles, 1989, p. C-19). Almostinstantaneously, rabbis and otherleaders of Jewish groupsbrought pressure on the rap groupin numerouspress confer- encesand on radioand televisiontalk shows. The Jewish Defense Organi- zation (DO) announceda boycottof PublicEnemy. They also sent a groupof protestorsarmed with baseball bats and chainsto thegroup's managementoffices (fortunately, they had the wrong address). The

5TheNation of Islam is generallyacknowledged as havinga deep influenceon rap music.Rappers such as PoorRighteous Teachers, King Sun, Brand Nubian, Movement Ex, and PublicEnemy, frequently quote and draw inspirationfrom the HonorableElijah Muhammad(founder of the ), Malcolm X, and MinisterLouis Farrakhan. The famedboxer, Muhammad Ali, was also an earlyrapper.

250 TheJournal of Negro Education JDO and otherJewish organizations bombarded record companies and retailerswith fliers of Griff'sremarks. Numerous articles were written referringto PublicEnemy as "bigots,""anti-Semitic," and "racist."Mira Bolandof the Anti-Defamation League ofB'Nai B'rithstated that Profes- sor Griff's"nasty slurs reflect the kind of bigotry we've come to expect from[Black Muslim minister] Louis Farrakhanand company.. .given thepopularity of rap musictoday, it's hard to thinkof a moreinsidious influenceon the mindsof young people" (Harrington,1989). Griffinsisted that his words had been takenout of contextby the reporter.Members of Public Enemy protested that the media "played up to the sensitiveJewish angle just to make a story."They also insisted theyhad no timeto "get hung up" on the Jewishissue; rather,they claimed:"We're constantly battling to try to regain a Blackconsciousness forour people. . . . Jewsare not the only targetof ProfessorGriff's harsh words. He aims some of his toughestinsults at middle-classBlacks" (Harrington,1989). Nonetheless,Chuck D soon firedProfessor Griff, stating:"The realenemy is thesystem, not a people... We aren'tanti- Jewish,we aren'tanti-anybody. We're pro-Black, pro-Black culture and pro-humanrace. . . ProfessorGriff's responsibility as Ministerof Infor- mationwas to faithfullytransmit those values to everybody,not to sabotagethem" (Pareles, 1989). ProfessorGriff was laterreinstated as "communityliaison, but essentiallymuzzled"; many felt this muzzling was due to pressurefrom the Blackcommunity. The groupbroke up shortlythereafter (Zimmerman, 1989), but it has sincebeen reorganized minusProfessor Griff.

RAP IN TRANSITION Whatbegan as a formof Blackurban music performed primarily by Blackmen is no longerexclusively Black or male anymore.When rap musicfirst appeared women merely stood by thestage or performedon stagedancing and cheeringthe men on. Accordingto Toop (1984,p. 6), however:"On all ofthe early rap recordsfeaturing women, the women rapas wellas themen and in somecases farbetter." Although rap music was long a mediumdominated by Blackartists, some Whiterap acts have recentlymanaged to top the rap charts.Indeed, it seems that everybody'srapping these days: the "Flintstones" cartoon characters rap in commercialsfor children's vitamins and cereals;McDonald's ham- burgers,Pillsbury, and Coca-Colacommercials also featurerapping. Sev- eralNational Football League teamshave created rap videos and donated themoney from video sales tocharity. Rap has been successfullymeshed withseveral genres from rock, pop, and house musicto jazz and gospel.

Womenin Rap In rapmusic today, females have moved from being topics to perform- ers. The opportunityfor female rappers began in 1985.Mercedes Ladies and the Zulu were among the earlyfemale rappers, but they nevermade a recording.The firstfemales to makerap records were Sha- Rockof the Funky Four Plus One Moreand DimplesD (DiPrima,1990). Female rapperswho currentlychallenge the mostmacho of the male

TheJournal of Negro Education 251 rappersinclude Antonnette, Icey Jay, Nikki Dee, M. C. Lyte,The Real Roxanne,Monie Love, RoxanneShante', Oaktown's 3.5.7., J. J. Fad, TairrieB, Ice CreamTee, Cashmere,M. C. Light,Ms. Melody,Shelly Thunder,Silk Tymes Leather, Queen Latifah,and thegroup -n-. Unlikemale rappers,most female rappers do notdwell on theirsexual skillsor flingthemselves at thecenter of violent escapades. Rather,the women of rap striveto best theirmusical competitorswith colorful boasts,sly humor, and good-naturedput-downs. Althoughfemale rappers were a presencefrom the beginning of rap, thefirst to get seriousairplay were the groupSalt-n-Pepa. Salt (Cheryl James),Pepa (SandyDenton), and DJSpinderella (Deidre Roper; added afterthe duo's secondhit) consider themselves feminist rappers. James and Dentonmet while both were working as departmentstore telephone salespersonsin New YorkCity. There a coworkerpersuaded them to help createa song fora class he was taking;they recorded the song for a smallrecord company and it sold morethan 250,000 copies. Their first 12-inchdance single,"Hot, Cool & Vicious"(with the hit, "Push It," on Side B), sold a millioncopies. Salt-n-Pepa'srap blendssex appeal with a definitelevel of feminist-minded independence. With the outstanding successof their debut album, "Black's Magic" (1990), these savvy young womenhave begunto producetheir own works.As Saltcontends, she would liketo see womenless dependenton men:"Women have brains and I hateto see themwaste their lives walking in theshadow of a man" (Small,1988, p. 544). One femalerapper doing battle in the rap arena despitean Arabic namethat means "delicateand sensitive"is Queen Latifah.Born Dana Owens and hailingfrom New Jersey,Queen Latifahstarted rapping when she was just 16 years old. Her music stands out because she combinesrapping and singingtalents and borrowsfrom hip-hop, house music,jazz, and reggae.She has beenreferred to as the"Aretha Franklin ofrap" (Duncan, 1989,p. 14). Queen Latifahhas had some successon therap chartswith hit singles "Ladies First,""Come IntoMy House," and "All Hail the Queen." In addition,she rappedon Britishpop star David Bowie's remixof "Fame." Withher dancers,the SafariSisters, Queen Latifah'sact demonstratesthat she takesrap seriously.Stressing thatimage is importantand posingquestions of Afrocentricity and con- science,she sees herart form as a way ofcommunicating positive ideas. In herview, rap is "a creativeoutlet ... and sometimesit can become likea newspaperthat people read with their ears" (Duncan,1989, p. 14). Althoughshe claimsthat she is nota feministand thatshe does notaim solelyat a femalemarket, the Queen's workand stylebelie herwords. Whenmost male rapperstalk about females, she contends,it is usually "exaggeratedfor the humor" and about"women who use theirbodies, nottheir minds." For her own videos,she counters,she choosesfemale dancersthat young people can respect.To her, many of the female dancers who appear on male rappers' videos "look like skeezers (tramps)":"A lot of those femalesdon't have respectfor themselves; theyonly thinkmaterialistically. Guys are exploitingthem" (Ehrlich, 1990).

252 TheJournal of Negro Education Anotherdominant voice among the femalerappers is M. C. Lyte (Lana Morer).Also a stridentfeminist, M. C. Lytecontends that if females did not buy the recordsor attendthe concertsof male rapperswho demeanwomen, the men would changetheir lyrics. M. C. Lyte'sFirst Priority/Atlanticrecord label debut,the single,"Lyte As A Rock,"sold 75,000copies in less thana monthwith virtually no airplay.However, thisperformer's entrance into the musicbusiness was fairlyeasy: her fatheris the head of FirstPriority records and her brothersare also rappersand rap musicproducers (Kennedy, 1990).

WhiteRappers Generally,Black rap artistsexpress surprise at seeingWhite rappers make theirway up theR & B singlesand albumcharts. Others express anger,"seeing Business as Usual stampedall overit. Whitemimicry. A pale copy of the real thing"(Brown, 1991, p. 12). WhileBlack rappers feel theyrap fromtheir life experiences, they view Whiterappers as merelycopying Black style.Among the Whiterap acts to emergein recentyears are theYoung Black Teenagers, the , 3rd Bass, VanillaIce, and platinum-blondTairrie B (one ofrap's outspokenfemale lyricists).Unlike most of theBlack rappers, who come fromfamilies of low or moderateincomes, many White rappers come frommore privi- leged backgrounds. The firstWhite rap groupto capturerap's boastfulquality was the New Yorktrio consisting of MCA (AdamYauch), Mike D (MichaelDia- mond), and King Ad-Rock(Adam HorovitzYauch) and knownas the BeastieBoys. The BeastieBoys entered the music scene performing in a hard-corerock-and-roll band, but by 1983they had moved on to rap. Theirlyrics, which echo withprofanity, primarily discuss sex and vio- lence. The group'sdebut album sold 720,000copies in six weeks, and reachedthe Number 7 positionon Billboard'spop chartand theNumber 3 spot on its then-Blackmusic list (Russell, 1987; DeCurtis, 1987). A youngman who has been accused of flagrantlyplagiarizing the Blacksound is Whiterapper (RobbyVan Winkle)from (FL). AlthoughVan Winkle'srap is sexuallyexplicit, he prideshimself on not utilizingprofanity in his lyrics.Critics assert that Vanilla Ice is collaboratingwith the White-controlledmusic establishment and ruth- lessly"ripping off' (stealing) Black music (Brown, 1991). Black rap artists, theyclaim, see himas "softeningrap's raw,rough edges, making it soft and bland and safe enough formass marketconsumption but weak, withoutstaying power" (Murphy, 1990). Before he becamethe opening actfor rapper M. C. Hammer,Vanilla Ice was unheardof. With his debut album,"To theExtreme" (which sold seven million copies in fiveweeks), the Whiterapper knocked M. C. Hammerout of a 21-weekstreak as Number1 on theR & B albumcharts. Vanilla Ice's single,"," became the firstrap song ever to reach Number1 on the Hot One Hundredsingles list, thus leading other music industry analysts to pro- claim him rap's risingstar and the idol of the currentgeneration of Whiteteenage girls. Vanilla Ice is indeedresponsible for attracting a new audience to rap music,but he has been criticalof otherrappers. He

TheJournal of Negro Education 253 has called M. C. Hammer'smusic "senseless and commercial,"while extollinghis own rap for "tellinga storyfrom start to finish."Van Winkle'sown storyis somewhatvague, however. Although he contends thathis affinityfor rap springsfrom "hanging out" withBlack teenagers in hisyouth (he claimshe wentto schoolwith Luther Campbell of 2 Live Crew),his accountsof his personalhistory have been inconsistentand thetruth of his background has provendifficult to corroborate(Murphy, 1990). ChristianRap Christianrap, popularwith both Blackand Whiteaudiences, first surfacednationally in the mid-1980swith such recordingartists as Ste- phenWiley, the first Christian rapper to be signedto a majorlabel. The popular Black gospel group The Winans,winners of fourGrammies (musicindustry awards), have also issued a populardance single,"It's Time,"that blends rap withgospel. Severalother gospel groupshave made recordings.These includeRap DC Talkand TransformationCru- sade. Both groups originatedat the ReverendJerry Falwell's Liberty BaptistUniversity in Lynchburg(VA). TransformationCrusade has releasedtwo gospelrap recordingsthat have reachedthe top-50 lists of contemporaryChristian music. According to a groupmember: "We're notlike other rappers, rapping for ourselves. We're rapping for God and no one else. It's not just entertainment,it's ministry.We want to see sinnerssaved and saintsreleased" ("Gospel withBeat," 1990,p. B-6). Businessas Usual As rap's popularityhas increasedso have itsnegative connotations. Some criticsallege that rap music"promotes violence and thatrappers presentnegative images" (Henderson, 1988). In a 1988issue ofBillboard magazineHarrison presented the findingsfrom his interviewswith a numberof rappers. He askeda rangeof rap artists, from those at thetop of the chartsto those new on the scene, to pinpointthe sources of themost opposition to and misunderstandingabout rap music.Eighty percentof theartists surveyed offered their explanations, claiming that resistanceto rap comes from(1) the Blackbourgeoisie who own Black radio, (2) a misinformednews media, and (3) rapperswho abuse the languageby usingexcessive profanity. While the rappers noted that the Blackcommunity as a whole is verysupportive, they faulted popular Black-audiencepublications such as Ebonyand Jetmagazines for failing to supportrap artists,claiming that White-owned publications such as RollingStone and Spinhave been moreresponsive. However, an equal numberof rappers who participatedin theBillboard survey indicated that theydid not view the negativepropaganda about rap as a racialissue but insteadsaw it as prejudiceagainst a new formof musicthat the publicdoes notyet fully understand. SamplingDisputes Moreoften than not, rap recordings utilize music that is electronically lifted,or "sampled,"from the previously recorded music of artists who

254 TheJournal of Negro Education were popular duringthe 1950s, 1960s,and 1970s; these samples are inserted("dubbed") intothe new compositionsas backgroundmusic or musicalbridges. Bits and pieces of the musicof artistssuch as James Brown,Rick James, Led Zeppelin,Sly Stone,and CurtisMayfield are frequentlysampled into contemporaryrap recordings.Segments of recordedspeeches by Malcolm X, AdamClayton Powell, Jr., the Honor- able Elijah Muhammad,Martin Luther King, Jr., and MinisterLouis Farrakhanare also commonlyused. Due to the low cost of samplingequipment, many rap groupsfind thatincluding a "hook" (a catchymusical phrase) from an oldersuccess- fulsong is mucheasier than writing and recordingtheir own. However, when use ofsampled music is notcleared with the songwriter or owner of the music'scopyright, sampling infringes against existing copyright law. Criticsin the musicpublishing business argue that laziness or the inabilityto composetheir own songsleads rappersto use otherpeople's music;thus the recordindustry has been forcedto step up its enforce- mentof copyright laws. A numberof lawsuits have been filed-indeed, thousandsof rappersmay be illegallysampling copyrighted material- but fewif any have gone all theway throughthe legal system.As one entertainmentlawyer states, going to trialwould fail to benefit either the sampleror the samplerowner: The userof samples would prefer not to riska case thatwould either increase the cost (to licensesamples) or makesome uses impossible.On theother side, theowners of thematerial sampled, publishers and recordcompanies, know the copyright law as it is writtencontains the right to makecertain uses withoutpaying, which is calledfair use. (Zimmerman,1990, p. 69) Lawyersmaintain that samplerscan avoid lawsuitsby applyingfor licensesto use songs or bitsof songsin theirraps. Some entertainment law firmshave even gone so faras to offertheir rap clientscompact disk "libraries"of music that can be lawfullyused and manipulatedwithout fearsof legal problems.

DistributionDifficulties Fromday one theindependent labels (indies) have been thelifeblood ofrap music. Free from the influence or control of the major record labels theindies created and discoverednew raptalent and createdthe market forrap by wordof mouth and street-levelpromotion tactics, personally urgingretail record stores and videooutlets to carry their artists' products (Mapp, 1989).Some of the well-known indies of rap are: Cardiac Records, DeliciousVinyl, Luke Records,Nastymix, Next Plateau, First Priority, Profile,Select, Tommy Boy, TuffCity, Wild Pitch,Def Jam,Egyptian Empire,Ruthless, Original Sound Equipment,Orpheus, and Sleeping Bag/FreshRecords. Additionally, rappers M. C. Hammerand Luther Campbellhave establishedtheir own independentproduction compa- nies and labels. However,because the musicbusiness is such a risky one, manyof rap's indies have sincefallen by the wayside (Mapp, 1989). Most ofthe indies began with limited resources and zero credibility. To survive,they had tohave enough capital to function until their artists' musicwas in demandby the public.They had to workhard and fast. Withthe rapid pace ofrap's development,speedy release of a recording

TheJournal of Negro Education 255 was crucial.Then, the producthad to reachthe consumer.The indies and theirrecord distributors had to negotiatewith the buyers (pointers) at thevarious record retail outlets to place theirartists' recording in the marketplace.With hundreds of indiesand majorlabels competingfor limitedshelf space and visibilityin thevolatile business of musicsales, distributionbecomes a veryimportant component of the operation. In the earlydays of rap musicit was simplerfor the indiesto reach rap shoppersbecause the marketfor the musicwas small. However, withouta trackrecord an indyhad no choicebut to distributethrough a privatedistribution company. Many indies experienced difficulties in receivingwide distribution,promotion (if any), and promptpayment frommusic retailers. Consequently many of the former indies now have distributioncontracts with such major labels ("majors") as CBS, Warner Brothers,RCA, MCA, and Atlantic;others are now whollyowned by the majorrecord companies. In such arrangementsthe indy and the majorjointly design the marketingof therap artist.The indyprovides theknowledge of the methodsfor reaching the rap consumer,and the majorsupplies a sophisticatedapproach to promotionand distribution (Donloe, 1990). Representativesof thoseindies that have remainedindependent of themajors have expresseddissatisfaction with the quality of rap thatthe majorsare placingon themarket. Independent producers complain that because of rap's lowerbottom-line figures, the majorsare playingrap cheap. The cost to the majorsto develop a new rap artisthas been estimatedat an averageof $65,000and upward,whereas the develop- mentof a new R & B actcosts about $300,000 (Sacks, 1989, p. R-3).,co-owner of independentDef JamRecords, asserts that the majorsare buying up indiesfor the "market share and notfor the music," and thatthe rap markethas thusbeen oversaturatedwith poor-quality rap. Simmons,the brother of Run ofRun-DMC, teamed up withrapper KurtisBlow (CurtisWalker) while a sociologymajor at CityCollege in Harlemand becamehis manager.Blow went on to becomethe first big solo rap personalityin 1979.Since then Simmons has managedmany of rap's majorartists such as Run DMC, PublicEnemy, LL Cool J,and Whitegroups the Beastie Boys and 3rdBass (Holden,1987). Despite his impressivetrack record, however, Simmons claims that "in six months everymajor has putout more rap thanI have in sixyears" (Sacks, 1989). Indyrepresentatives also concurthat if independently produced rap couldget more radio airplay their product would move faster. They note thatalthough Black-owned radio has opened slightlyto crossoverrap, most Black stationsare unwillingto accept hard-corerap music and relegatethe playingof mostrap to the eveningand late nighthours. Withregard to television,Debbie Bennettof Luke Records,another independentrap production company, maintains that "Music Television (MTV) has been moresupportive than Black Entertainment Television (BET)" (Blatt,1990, p. R-8).

CONCLUSION Many youngpeople, especiallythose Blackyouth from families of low or moderateincomes in the nation'sinner cities, cease to identify

256 TheJournal of Negro Education withthe school environment and dropout as theyreach the teen years. Rap music,the street, and thepeer group are oftenviewed by youthas viablealternatives to formalschooling. Whereas the peer group and the values and attitudesprojected therein has been shownto exerta strong influenceon youth,this influence often runs counter to the goals and expectationsof formaleducation. Yet, forsome youngpeople, interest inthe rap music industry has stimulatedtheir entrepreneurial tendencies and providedthem with an escape fromthe citystreets. Ratherthan simplydiscounting rap as a corruptedform of cheap culture,it should be recognizedthat, for better or worse, rap is an educationalmedium capable of affecting the values and attitudesof many of our youngpeople. Rap's emergencehas facilitatedthe rise of many creativeyoung African Americans, some of whomare keenlyaware of theeducational potential of this unique musical form and ofthe influence they,as rap artists,exert on today'syoung people. Some publicschool teachershave determinedthat rap is an effectiveteaching tool when used to enhancethe self-esteemof Blackyoungsters. One such teacher is Ayana(nee CarolynPlummer) of Oakland (CA). She has preparedher own rap video and also has a televisionrap show,called "Guess What, Ayana?All YoungArtists Need Attention,"on local educationalstation KDOL (Channel13). The show is aimedat childrenof all ethnicgroups in the Oakland area. PsychiatristFrances Cress Welsing is a consultant to theprogram. Ayana states that the goal of"Guess What,Ayana?" is to help theseyouth become self-empowered and to teachthem to like themselves(Kashif, 1983). Like theblues, rhythm-and-blues,and jazz in theirbeginnings, rap has beenapplauded by few, rejected by many, and subjectedto exploita- tionby recordcompanies, managers, producers, and clubowners alike. Like its kin it may also prove to have similarstaying power. Many rap artistshave enteredthe arena, manyachieving success but many disappearinglike the wind. Theyused whateverwas cheap and avail- able-fromold recordsto used turntables-andflavored it with a unique and vibrantstyle of talking to produce an innovative,political, danceable musicalform. Despite their lack of access to moresophisticated equip- mentand promotionaland artisticoutlets, rappers and theirDJs have undoubtedlycreated their own sound. As educationalistswe cannot affordnot to tap into some of rap's vitality and bring it into the educational settingwhere it can inspireand motivateour youth to stayin schooland receiverelevant educations.

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TheJournal of Negro Education 257 Cott,J. (1970, September 3). TheLast Poets and apocalypse.Rolling Stone, p. 13. DeCurtis,A. (1987,February 12). Young,loud and snotty.Rolling Stone, p. 18. DiPrima,D. (1990,September/October). Beat the rap: Feministwomen in rap music.Mother Jones, p. 35. Donloe,D. C. (1990,November 24). Mintinmajors: Big guns train sights on explosivestreet market. Billboard, p. R-4. Duncan,A. (1989,November 22). Latifah-Thequeen of rap. Christian ScienceMonitor, p. 14. Ehrlich,D. (1990,May). The queen of hip. Interview,p. 58. Grein,P. (1990,November 24). Bustin'the beat: Rap milestonesrewriting pop charthistory weekly. Billboard, p. R-12. Gospel withbeat: Rappingfor God and no one else. (1990,March 23). WashingtonTimes, p. B-6. Harrington,R. (1989, December29). Public Enemy'srap recordstirs Jewishprotest. Washington Post, p. D-1. Henderson,A. (1988,December 24). Artiston image:Rappers answer critics,pinpoint resistance to youthwave. Billboard,pp. R5-R13. Holden,S. (1987,August 11). A youngcompany guides rap musicinto the mainstream.New York Times, p. C-13. Kashif,G. (1983,June). Ayana in fullbloom. Metro, pp. 55-57. Kennedy,L. (1990,September). Beat the rap. MotherJones, p. 35. Mapp, B. (1989,December 16). Rap indies:Giving new meaningto word ofmouth in a crowdedworld without radio. Billboard, pp. R30-R32. McFadden,R. D. (1990,June 8). Shockgreets banning of a rap album. NewYork Times, p. A-10. Mills,D. (1989,May 22). The hard rap on PublicEnemy. Washington Times,p. E-1. Murphy,R. (1990,November 7). The ice-mancometh. Miami Herald, p. C-2. Nicholls,R. W. (forthcoming1991). Timing in West African dance perfor- mance:The influenceof extramusicalfactors on rhythm.In J.H. Humphrey& L. Y. Overby,Dance: Current selected research, Vol. 3. New York:AMS Press Pareles,J. (1989, August 11). PublicEnemy rap groupreorganizes after anti-Semiticcomments. New York Times, p. C-3. Parker,L. (1990,October 20). Rap lyricslikened to literature.Washington Post,p. D-1. Perlman,J. (1990, July). Welcome to the funhouse.Vogue, pp. 90-93. Rap musicianM. C. Hammerforms own recordlabel. (1990,July 9). Jet, p. 8. Russell,L. (1987,February 9). The BeastieBoys: Rap's ThreeStooges fightfor the right to be rude. People,p. 92. Russell,L. (1990, August 6). M. C. Hammercouldn't make the big leaguesin baseball, so he beganrapping out hits in a differentfield. People,pp. 59-60. Sacks, L. (1989,December 16). The majors:Marketing the revolution downthe street around the corner and aroundthe world. Billboard, p. R-3.

258 TheJournal of Negro Education Seliger,M. (1990,May 17). Hot rappers.Rolling Stone, pp. 105-108. Small,M. (1988,April 18). Saltn' Pepa shakeit up, layinga cold rap on men. People,p. 544. Toop, D. (1984). Therap attack. Boston: South End Press. Watkins,W. H. (1984).All you need to know about rappin' from Grandmaster Blaster.Chicago: Contemporary Books. Zimmerman,K. (1990,August 1). Old is new againin worldof sampling. Variety,p. 69.

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