PROBLEMS, PERSPECTIVES AND DEBATES IN EARLY INDIAN HISTORY (HIS1C03)

STUDY MATERIAL

I SEMESTER CORE COURSE

M.A. HISTORY (2019 Admission onwards)

UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION CALICUT UNIVERSITY P.O. MALAPPURAM - 673 635, KERALA

190503

School of Distance Education University of Calicut

Study Material First Semester

M.A. History (2019 Admission onwards)

Core Course: HIS1C03: PROBLEMS, PERSPECTIVES AND DEBATES IN EARLY INDIAN HISTORY

Prepared by: Dr. ANCY. M.A Assistant Professor Department of History St. Albert's College, Kochi, Ernakulam

Scrutinized by: Sri. AMEENDAS Asst. Professor Govt. College, Attapadi

HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History MODULE 1 PERSPECTIVES ON HISTORY. SOCIETY AND STATE REFLECTED IN COLONIAL WRITINGS

The basic idea embedded in the tradition of colonial historiography was the paradigm of a backward society’s progression towards the pattern of modern European. Civil and military society under the tutelage of imperial power. The term Colonial historiography has been used in two senses. One relates to the history of colonial countries. While the other refers to the work which were influenced by colonial ideology of domination. It is in the second sense that most historians today write about the colonial historiography. In fact the practice of writing in the colonial countries by the colonial officials was related to the desire for domination and justification of the colonial rule. Asiatic Society and Oriental despotism Sir William Jones founded the Asiatic Society in different at Calcutta. His aim was to a centre for Asian studies including almost everything concerning man and nature with in the geographical list of the content. The Asiatic Society realized the field of research in a wide dimension. It includes manuscript collection, libraries, Museums and various research publications. The notable point is that Asiatic Society consists of a huge collection of illustrated manuscripts of different

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 1 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History representatives. Asiatic Society is a unique institution having served as a fountain head of all literary and scientific activities. It was visualised as a centre for Asian studies including everything concerning man and nature within the geographical limits of the continent. The library of the Asiatic society has a huge collection of many books and journals of all major languages of the world. It also has huge collection of many books and journals of all major languages of the world It also has a collection of large number of maps, micro fitches, microfilms, paintings, pamphlets and photographs. The museum of the Asiatic Society was established in 1814 by N Wallach. It has transferred most of its collections to Indian museum of Calcutta. The main purpose of the Asiatic society was to collect the old Sanskrit text in print the translation of Hitopadesa of Vishnusarman, publication of Ritusamhara of Kalidasa, which was the first Sanskrit text in print, the translation of Gita Govinda of Jayavdeva are the contributions of William Jones. Oriental despotism Oriental despotism as an idea has emerged during the early years of the British administration in India. Oriental despotism envisages a society ruled over by a despotic ruler without any codified law except for the decrees of the ruler. The ruler and his court appropriate the surplus production and rules over the subjects without any concern for them. Oriental despotism had been instrumental for the Europeans in under standing the Asian societies and their governments. Oriental despotism, the concept itself has gone through many a

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 2 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History conceptual evolutions over the centuries, since its inception in the Aristolian philosophy. Several British thinkers had written on the specific nature of governments prevalent in India prior to British rule. They unanimously agreed on the idea that India had lived under despotism for centuries. The centuries old Islamic rule over India was in their opinion, purely based on the personal choices of the ruler or the monarch. Alexander now an orientalist had argued that the tropical climate in which Indians lived had made them to lead an easy and less hardship life, care free of the defences and translating the political situation arrays susceptible to external aggression and subsequent subservience. The theory of oriental despotism gave the British administration amble reasons to establish their colonial rule over India. They took it upon as a god given mandate to rule over and eventually civilize Indians. This civilising task which went down in history as the white man’s burden has its origin in the idea of oriental despotism. Orientalism is a style of thought based on ontological and epistemological distinction made between the orient and the occident. Orientalism as a western style for dominating restructuring and having authority over the orient. Asiatic mode of production The theory of Asiatic mode of production was put forward by Karl Marx around the early 1850’s. The five modes of production refers to the theory in which human society is

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 3 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History divided into the five progressive stages of primitive society, slave society, feudal society, capitalist society and socialist society. Marx’s definition of Asiatic mode of production included the absence of private ownership of land, autonomous village communities and a despotic centralised state in charge of public worked, especially irrigation. Marx’s definition of the Asiatic mode of production included the absence of private ownership of land. Autonomous village communities and a despotic centralised state in charge of public works, especially irrigation. Nationalist historiography Nationalist historiography means that the historical writings produced or reproduced by the Indian historians highlight the Indian history from a national point of view. The national point of view represents national culture and tradition. Every nation had its own culture and every nation wants to spread it. Nationalist approach played a vital role in Indian historiography since the second half of 19th century. The nationalist approach to Indian history can be described as one which tended to contribute to the growth of nationalist feelings and to unify people in the face of religious caste or linguistic differences or class differentiation. Their writings are known as nationalist historiography. In , nationalist writings were inspired by Vishnusastri Chipmaker. He condemned the prejudiced history of ancient India by British historians. The nationalist historians wrote about the golden period of Indian history.

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 4 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History Nationalism is an idea and movement that promotes the interests of a particular nation, especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining the nation’s sovereignty over its home land. National histories regarded the nation state as the primary unit of historical analysis, and other processes are contained within it. The nation is the subject of history ,and the object of historical development is the realisation of the nation-state. K P Jayaswal He was born in Mirzapur north western provinces and graduated from Allahabad university putforward ersity. Jayaswal was Indian historian and lawyer. He was the champion of nationalist movement. He gave the intellectual ideas and valuable contributions to nationalist historiography. He was considered as the one of the intellectual forces behind the nationalist movement. Jayaswal’s work Hindu polity(1918) and History of India(1933) are classics of ancient Indian historical literature. He also played a vital role in excavating and restoring ancient sites, including the university of in modern Bihar. He was also an expert in numismatics and his discovery of several coins of Maurya and periods led to his being first Indian to invited to speak at the Royal Asiatic society of London in 1931.Àt the same historian R C Majumdar criticized his theories about the Gupta History. He was twice president of the numismatics society of India and was awarded the degree of doctor of philosophy by and university.

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 5 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History R C Majumdar Ramesh Chandra Majumdar was a historian and professor of Indian history coming from kayastha family. Majumdar was born in Khandarapara on 4 th December 1884. Majumdar was born in Khandarapara on 4th December 1884.Majumdar began his teaching career as a lecturer at Dacca govt training college. Majumdar started his research on ancient India. He was widely travelled and wrote detailed histories of Champa, Suvarnadvip. He was also the president of the Asiatic Society. The central point was that he was the principal member of editorial committee to author a history of the freedom struggle in India. But he left the govt job due to the conflict with the education minister Maulana Abul Kalam Azad on the Sepoy Mutiny, and published his own book, ‘The Sepoy Mutiny and the Revolt of 1857. R G Bhandarkar R. G Bhandarkar is known as an eminent Indologist and renowned political historian. He was born on 5 th June at Maharashtra. He supports and in favour of denunciation of the Caste System, encouragement of widow remarriage, encouragement of female education and abolition of child marriage. Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar honoured with the Sir Ki tab in 1911. His admires started Bhandarkar institute of oriental studies in as a tribute to him on his 80 th birthday in 1913. He was particularly proficient in English literature , history and Sanskrit and won many awards and scholarships through out his brilliant academic career. He belonged to the first bath of graduates from Bombay university in 1862 and earned his masters degree in 1863.

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 6 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History A S Altekar Anant Sadashiv Altekar was a historian, archaeologist, and numismatist from Maharashtra, India. He was the Mahindra Chandrav Nandy’s professor and head of the department of ancient Indian history. In 1936, at the invitation of the local government, he conducted an archaeological and historical survey of kotah and made many discoveries there including the excavation of many old forts and temples,, the most important of his discoveries from his expedition were there stone pillars dated to the year 295 of the Vikrama inscriptions known Marxist interpretations Marxist approach to Indian History Marxism has a dominant presence in the field of post independence Indian historiography. A lot of historians either come directly within its fold have been influenced by it certain degrees. It has also influenced most of the trends of Indian historiography in some way or the other. The two books which heralded the beginning of Marxist historiography in India. D D Kosambi The most influential historical writing regarding India, after James mill and Vincent Smith came from D D Kosambi, Kosambi left behind him besides several papers and articles. The following major works. An introduction to the study of Indian History (1956).The culture and civilisation of Ancient India in historical outline (1965).With the writings of D D Kosambi, a fundamentally new approach to the study of Indian history. Scientific methodology modern technique of

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 7 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History interpretation, selection and analysis of basic problems appeared in Indian historiography. Kombi’s work is most refreshing in its range of new material, original discoveries of megaliths, microliths, superstitions and peasant customs. He explained how to gain an insight into the past by examination of the monuments, customs, customs and records. He divided the Indian history into three parts. The Hindu, the Muslim and the British. This division according to him, was essential to demarcate three different civilisations. Vincent smith’s the Oxford. D C Sircar Dinesh Chandra Sircar was an epigraphist historian, numismatist and folklorist, particularly in India and Bangladesh for his work deciphering inscriptions. Epigraphy is the study of inscription, and literally means any writing engraved on some object. Indian epigraphy is an important work written by D C Sircar. Another best known work of Sircar include :Select inscriptions bearing on Indian History and Civilisation. Studies in the society and administration of ancient and medieval India written by D C Sircar. Dwijendra Jha Dwijendra Narayanan Jha is an Indian historian specialising in ancient and medieval India. He was a professor of history at Delhi University and a member of the Indian council of historic research and one of the R S Sharma ’s closet students. Ancient India: In Historical outline is an important work written by Jha. Jha presents history of India from the

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 8 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History beginning to the 12 th century. The emergence of Varna system and untouchability. Interdisciplinary approach and recent trends Romila Thaper Romila is an Indian historian whose principal area of study is ancient India. She is the author of several books. Romila Thaper one of the India’s distinguished historians. Whose work beginning in 1960s. She turned his attention in to ancient history and recipient of prestigious Kulga prize. Thaper was covered a whole range of subjects over her long career and is best known for her scholarly work on the social history of ancient India.Thapar’s special contribution in the use of social – historical methods to understand change in the mid first millenium B C in northern India. From lineage to State written by Romila Taper. She remarked that as lineage based Indo Aryan pastoral groups moved into the Gangetic plain, they created rudimentary forms caste based states. B D Chattopadhya B. D Chattopadhya was educated at the university of Calcutta. “Coins and Currency Systems in South India is an important work written by Chattopadhya.. “Women in early Indian Societies”. “Land system and rural society in early India is another important work written by Chattopadhya. Kumkum Ray Kumkum Ray teaches ancient Indian social history at the centre of historical studies, Jawaharlal Nehru university. She turned her attention into women’s writings. “The power of

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 9 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History Gender and the Gender of power explorations in early Indian history “. Kurnel Chakrabarty Kurnai Chakravarti is professor of ancient Indian history at the centre for historical studies, Jawaharlal Nehru university Delhi, social research Kurnai Chakravarti is professor of ancient Indian history at the centre for historical studies, Jawaharlal Nehru university Delhi, social research. Suvira Jaiswal Suvira Jaiswal is an important historian and turned attention into history of ancient India, especially the evolution of caste system and the development and absorption of regional details into the Hindu pantheon . The making of Brahmanic hegemony studies in caste, gender and Vaishnava theology of Suvira Jaiswal.Caste: Origin, Function and Dimensions of change is another remarkable work written by Suvira Jaiswal. Suvira Jaiswal is former professor of History at Jawaharlal Nehru university, New Delhi. She did her M A in history from Allahabad university and ph. D from Patna university under the supervision of professor Ramsharan Sharma She began her teaching career at Patna university in 1962 and later in 1971, joined the centre for historical studies at Jawaharlal Nehru university Her major publications include ‘The origin and development of Vaishnavism”.. Uma Chakrabati Umachakravarti is an Indian historian and film maker . Beginning in the 1980s Chakravarti wrote extensively on

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 10 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History Indian history indulging with issues relating to gender caste and class publishing seven books over the course. Uma chakravarthi is a feminist historian who was taught at Miranda House college for women, Delhi university. She writes on Buddhism, early Indian history , the nineteenth century and on contemporary issues. The important publications are: Social dimensions of early Buddhism, “Re writing History : The life and Times of Pandita Rama Bai, Gendering caste through a Feminist Lens and many edited volumes. She is closely involved with the women’s movement as well as the movement for democratic rights in India and has been party of many fact finding teams to investigate human right violations, communal violence and state repression. Nayanjot Lahiri Nayanjot Lahiri is a historian and archaeologist of ancient India and a professor of history at Asoka university. Nayanjot Lahiri ‘s research interests include Ancient India, and heritage studies. She is co-author of copper and its Alloys in Ancient India (1996),editor of the Decline and Fall of the Indus civilization , Co- editor of Ancient -India: New research. She is the winner of the 2013 Infosys prize. ,in the humanities for the work in archaeology and the 2016; awardee of the John F Richards prize for her book” Asoka in Ancient India”. Shereen Ratnagar Shereen F ratnagar was an Indian archaeologist whose work has focused on the Indus valley civilization. She is the author of several texts. Sherren Ratnagar is one of the most

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 11 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History important theoreticians of the Indus valley civilization and its archaeological practice. Sheereen Ratnagar is an eminent Indian archaeologist whose work has focused on the Indus Valley Civilization. She is the author of several texts including Harappan Archaeology. Early state perspectives and the magic in the image. Women in clay at Mohenjodaro and Harappa. Upindra Singh Upindra Singh is an Indian historian and the former head of the Delhi university. “The idea of ancient India: Essaysvon Religion politics written by Upindra Singh. The greatest contribution of this book showing how ideas of ancient India have been central to the making of the modern India. A History of Ancient and early Medieval India :From the Stone Age to the 12 th century is an important work by Upindra Singh. Political violence in ancient India ,on how religions sanctioned war and aggression in ancient India” is an important book written by Upindra Singh. Upindra Singh stated that the structure and ideologies of ancient monarchies and the Modern Indian states are very different. A few fundamental issues remain the same ,but they are addressed in different ways. Modern states are much more powerful than their counterparts. They have many more effective powers of surveillance. Ones subjects and much greater potential for violence and more sophisticated means to justify,. This violence and to manipulate public opinion.

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 12 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History MODULE 2 NATURE OF HARAPPAN STATE AND WESTERLY TRADE THE INDUS CIVILIZATION

In 1925 archaeologists announced a spectacular discovery of immense Urban ruins of which no trace was to be found in the ancient literature. The principal remains were of two- cities - Mohenjodaro and Harappa – divided apart by a distance of 400 miles but identical in their layout, architecture and building technique. The southern , now a deserted mound known as Mohenjodaro, had been on the Indus proper in Sind and the northern, Harappa on the Ravi, a major tributary of the Indus, in the Montgomery district of the west Punjab. Over seventy sites have produced significant elements of the Harappa culture along the Indus axis between Rupar, at the foot of the Simla hills, Sutkagendor, near the coast of the Arabian sea, 300 miles west of Karachi. Kalibangan shares with Mohenjodaro and Harappa the layout of the citadel and the lower town. Kot Diji was excavated in 1958 and other important sites are Sandhanawala in Bahawalpur and Judeirjo- daro in Sind, north of Jacobad . Farther south Sind are Amri and Chanhu-daro, the former revealing not only the pre- Harappan development but also three distinct phases of Harappan occupation, and the latter supplying interesting information relating to Harappan and post- Harappan periods. But the most important excavation in the postwar period was at

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 13 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History Lothal where beside the township was discovered a remarkable brick dockyard connected by a channel to the gulf of Cambay. Two other smaller sites excavated in recent years are Rojdi in Saurashtra and Deaslpur in Kutch district . The area covered by the Indus culture, therefore, extended for some 1,600 kilometres from west to east and 1100 kilometres from north to south, an area much greater than that occupied jointly by the civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia.. During the past two decades, substantial additions have been made to our knowledge of the Indus civilization. Numerous excavations have been made by various archaeological agencies, both foreign and Indian, at different sites of the civilization. Numerous excavations have been made by various archaeological agencies, both foreign and Indian, at different sites of the civilization. One of the most remarkable discoveries was that of Shortughai in northeast Afghanistan, made by the French mission . This appears to have been an Indian colony associated with the lapis lazuli trade. Excavations at Naushera, near Mehrgarh in Pakistan, by the French mission have yielded important evidence relating to the actual process of transformation from the early to mature Harappan phase. In India excavations at Surkotada and Dholavira by archaeological survey, at Rjodi by an American team, and number of other sites in Saurashtra, have produced valuable information regarding the chronology, planning and architecture of settlements during the Indus period, particularly the building in stone at a high technical level. In Pakistan the

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 14 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History Archaeological Department carried out a large scale survey of sites and growth and decline of settlement patterns. The Indus cities – whether Harappa or Mohenjodaro in Pakistan or Kalibangan, Lothal or Surkotada in India show town planning of truly amazing nature. Both at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro the cities were built on a uniform plan. To the west of each was a ‘citadel ‘ mound built on a high podium of mud-brick and to the east was the town proper, the main hub of the residential areas. The citadel and town was further surrounded by a massive brick wall. Stone was rarely used in building structure, the most common material brick throughout, both burnt and sun-dried. Timber was used for the flat roofs. The house, often of two or more storeys, more or less typified the same plan -a square courtyard, round which were a number of rooms. Most of the large houses were provided with wells. Almost every house had a bathroom at the ground floor and some even on the first floor. The bathrooms were connected by a drainage channel to sewers in the main streets, leading to soak- pits. The sewers in the streets were covered through their length by bricks or sometimes stone slabs. The drainage system and the domestic bathing structures and drains are remarkable . The entrances to the houses were from the narrow lanes and no windows faced the streets. The average size of the ground floor of a house was about 11 square meters, but there were many bigger. There were some barrack -like groups of single - roomed tenements at Mohenjodaro and Harappa similar to the ‘coolie lines’ of Indian tea and other estates. But the most remarkable feature of

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 15 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History the few large buildings of Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath measuring 12 meters by 7 meters and 24 meters deep. The bricks are very well laid and made watertight with bitumin. At each end a flight of steps originally covered by wooden planks led to the bottom of the tank. Water was supplied by a large well in adjacent room and a finely built drain allowed the water to be emptied. This’ Great bath ‘ could not have been for mean cleanliness., it was most probably for ritual by the inhabitants. The citadel mound at Harappa comparatively less well known where within 91 meters of the riverbed lay two rows of six granaries. The combined floor-space of the twelve granaries was something over 657 square meters, approximating to that of Mohenjodaro granary . To the south of the granaries are situated lines of circular platform for the pounding of grain. These platforms suggest the occupation of the barracks by those who pounded the grain. The flow of grain , the principal sources of civic wealth, was most probably regulated and distributed, by government officials. In both Mohenjodaro and Harappa “the granaries were replenished by a system of state-tribute, and that in some measure they fulfilled in the state economy the function of the modern state bank or treasury. In moneyless age, their condition at any given moment must have reflected, however partially, the national credit and the efficiency or good fortune of the administration. The Harappan civilization existed mainly in the north western areas of Indian subcontinent . The earliest excavations

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 16 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History in the Indus valley were done at Harappa in the west Punjab and Mohenjo-Daro in Sind. There are four important stages or phases of evolution and they are named as pre a Harappan, early Harappan, mature Harappan and late Harappan. In pre Harappan stage is located in eastern Baluchistan. The excavations at Mehrgarh 150 miles to the north west of Mohenjo-Daro reveal the existence of pre- Harappan culture. In this stage, the nomadic people began to lead a settled cultural life. Major developments in state formation were closely related to Persia or Greece. The explicit evidence of Harappan internal trade in the occurrence of various raw materials found at Harappan sites in different regions. In the context of Gujarat alone the state wise contemporary distribution of raw materials account about the site wise distribution of raw materials account about 28 items. The Harappan trade link with West Asia is proved by the find of a number of Harappan objects produced under the Harappan influence. E.g. Seals, beads, terracota, figurines, objects of shell ivory. In Bahrain at Rasa-al-Qala, six stone weights of Harappan type and dozen seals of Persian Gulf type have been found sharing some sort of partnership between Harappa and Persian gulf merchants. A Persian Gulf seal from Lothal, the terracotta model of an Egyptian mummy and Syrian head from Lothal, the terracotta model of an Egyptian mummy and Syrian head from Lothal, the terracotta model of an Egyptian mummy and Syrian head from, Lothal , some west Asia type of hairpins from Chanhudaro, Harappa, Manda, Banawali,

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 17 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History show the west Asian contact with the Harappan Civilization. The explicit evidence of Harappan internal trade is the occurrence of various raw materials found at Harappan sites in different regions . The central point was that Gujarat played and important role in the field of raw material procurement, processing, manufacture of objects and their distribution. For the purpose of internal trade, roads were used and vehicle was mainly bullock carts. Internal trade was probably conducted by guilds that had their own seals. The Indus people collected precious stones like lapis lazuli and turquoise from the north -west frontier areas Mineral salt was collected from the Karnataka region also. They got sea shells from the Gujarat sea coast. Copper and tin were available only in few pockets, but were used by all over the Indus area. This shows the developed form of exchange system. They had used silver in this area, but there was no known sources of silver in this area. Trading in Indus areas seems to have been an administrative activity than an exchange activity between traders. The administrative authority seems to have implemented without the control of a centralised authority. They might have introduced the uniform system of weights and measures to regulate exchanges. Binary and decimal systems were used in the weights of the Indus area. The Indus people had trade contacts with Persian Gulf and Mesopotamians cities of the contemporary period. Several Harappan seals have been found in Mesopotamian cities like Ur, Nippur, Susa, Umma, Kish etc. Seals had been used as marks of ownership.

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 18 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History The Harappans collected raw materials for their manufactured goods from faraway places. This was mainly through commerce. The Harappan people had commercial ties with Oman, Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Persia. It was from Oman they brought copper. In the Omani copper and artefacts made by the Harappans there is the trace of nickel. It shows their common origin. There are also other evidences for the relations between Oman and Harappa. From Oman researchers have discovered a jar covered with black clay Such covering by clay prevents containers from leaking .There are proofs from literature to show there were relations between Harappa and Mesopotamia. Social and Economic Life The basic economy of the Indus people was necessarily agricultural. Cultivation was on an extensive scale facilitated largely by the presence of rivers. The principal food grains were wheat, barley, peas, sesamum. In addition, the general diet consisted of fruits, vegetables, animal food including beef, mutton, pork, poultry. The main domestic animals were humped and humpless cattle, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, asses, dogs and the domestic fowl . The elephant was well known. There is clear evidence of the existence of a highly developed system of craft production and distribution. There were specialised groups of potters , copper and bronze- workers, stone-workers , builders, brick -makers, seal-cutter, bead-maker, faience workers and so on. Gold was imported from Afganistan or Iran, copper from Rajaputana, South India,

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 19 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History Baluchistan and Arabia. The nearest source for lead -ore was Ajmer in Rajasthan, though it was fairly abundant in Afghanistan., turquoise from Iran, fuchsite from north Mysore, amethyst from Maharashtra., agates, chalcedones and carnelian from Saurashtra and west India and jade from central Asia. Incontestable evidence is found of trade contacts between the Indus people and Sumer, Egypt and Crete. Trade between the Indus region and Iraq was carried on through the island of Bahrain in the Persian Gulf, identified with Tilmun of Mesopotamian legend. The cuneiform clay tablets that speak of trade through Bahrain have been amply confirmed by modern excavations. The Indus region seems to have been called Meluhha by the Mesopotamians. There was an intermediate trade centre, Magan or Makan , identified with Oman or some other part of South Arabia. Besides copper, the Indians exported peacocks, ivory particles, apes, pearls, and cotton textiles. In return, they received silver and other commodities. There must have been a small but active settlement of Indian traders in Mesopotamia even then, to account for Indian seals and other objects found in Iraq excavations. There is a clear evidence of a considerable extent of sea and river traffic. The discovery of a seal in recent years at Lothal, more or less of the same site, irresistibly prove that maritime trade with western Asia was maintained. Several representations of ships are found on seals or as graffiti at Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Then at Lothal is the great brick dockyard with its elaborate channel and spillway.

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 20 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History The Indus people were familiar with the two-wheeled carts for inland travel. From Chanhu-daro comes terracotta models of four-wheeled carts, with the front pair of wheels larger than back pair. For longer journeys the chief means of transport were most probably caravans of pack-oxen. Weights were used ranging from large ones that had to be lifted by a rope or metal ring to minute ones which might have been common. In measurement of length the Harappans seem to have followed a decimal system. Aryan problem-debate There is good archaeological evidence to show that in the centuries following 2000.B. C, north-west India was invaded by some tribes from the west. They were called Aryans who ultimately occupied the greater part of the northern India and forced the vanquished natives, the Dravidians, to migrate, to the south. The most bewildering source of controversy veers round the original home of the Aryans. A number of scholars, attaching great importance to the Puranic evidence, strongly maintain the indigenous origin of the Aryans. Ganganath Jha tried to prove that the original home was the Brahmarshi-desa. Another scholar, D S Trivedi, suggests the region of the river Devika in Multan as the original home of the Aryans. Kashmir and the Himalayan regions have been held by L D Kala to be the Aryan home land. The Aryans belonged to a very ancient stock of the

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 21 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History human race and lived in the great steppeland which stretches from Poland to Central Asia. Owing to pressure of population and desiccation of pasture lands, the Aryans, migrated in bands westwards, south wards, and eastwards. Some invaded Europe to become the forefathers of the Greeks, Latins, Celts and Teutons, while others appeared in Anatolia to become the progenitor of the Hittite empire. Others remained in their old home, the ancestors of the later Baltic and Slavonic peoples, while others moved southwards to the Caucasus and the Iranian table land. The Kassites, who conquered Babylon, were led by men of this stock. Further to the north in Hurri region arose the great state of Mitanni, whose kings had Indo-Iranian names and few of whose gods -Indra, Uruvna (Varuna), Mitira and Nasatiya are familiar to the Vedic religion . The Aryan invasion of India was not a single concerted action, but one covering centuries and involving many tribes. The Aryans who settled in India were racially and culturally akin to the ancient Iranians. The same gods, lndra, Varuna,Mitra, etc were worshipped by both. The Sanskrit word deva for ‘god’ stood for ‘demon’ in the Iranian language. “Not only single words and dialects of Iran without change of vocabulary or construction“. But later on the two peoples developed their distinctive cultures apparently without the mutual influence. The theory of Aryan race became endemic to the reconstruction of. M. Indian history and several reasons behind it. The pre-eminence given to the role of the Brahmans in the orientalist construction of Indology was endorsed by Vedas. The Aryan theory also exposed the colonized with b

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 22 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History status and self esteem, arguing that they were linguistically and radically of the same stock as the colonizers. However the separation of the European Aryans from the Asian Aryans was in a effect a denial of this status. Marx Müllers books were read in India and his views endorsed in numerous influential publications such as John Muiri’s original Sanskrit texts and John Wilson’s ‘Indian Caste’. Both authors gave attention to the plight of the low castes, oppressed by Brahmana’s which they claimed went back to the Aryan invasions. They referred to the conflict of the Aryan. The term Arya was used as a patronymic referring to the Aryan people. They launched an attack on the inequalities of caste and there fore of Hindu and maintained that Christianity alone could bring these to an end. In 1861, Maxmuller during the course of his “lectures on the science of languages’. Propounded that in the prehistoric age, like the Aryan language, there existed an Aryan race, and there was a time, when the ancestor of Indians, Iranians, Greeks, Romans, lived together at one place “under one roof”. Taylor vehemently criticised this theory. The French anthropologists contributed a good deal to this controversy against the view of the philologists. The anthropologists held that racial unity could not be deduced from linguistic unity. K. P Jayaswal . Geographical Data in the Vedic Texts The geographical data provided in the Rigveda gave ample information about Aryan expansion in North India. The

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 23 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History Aryans used the term Sapta Sindhava as the region where they settled down. They used the term in the context of country. At some other place the term is also intended in the context of seven rivers the five rivers of the Punjab along with Indus and Saraswati. The Bharatas were the most important Aryan tribe, after whom the whole country came to be known as ‘ Bharata’. The country of the Aryan wad also designated as Aryavarta (Aryandom) in the latter scriptures. R S Sharma R S Sharma, more often referred to as R S Sharma, more often referred to as R S Sharma was an eminent historian and academic who specialized in the history of Ancient and early medieval India following Marxist historiography and founder chair person of the Indian council of Historical Research was a marxist who was averse to the mechanical application of Marx’s ideas to the Indian situation. He also used his considerable scholarship an ancient India to fight communal propaganda and action. Michael Witzel Michael Witzel is German-American philologist, comparative rythen logist and endologist Witzel. The origins of the world’s mythologies written by E J Michael witzel . This is the most ambitious work on mythology, since that of the remounted. Mirecea Eliade, who all but single handely invited the modern study of myth and religion. Focusing on the oldest available texts,

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 24 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History Thomas Trautman Thomas is an American historian, cultural anthropologist and professor vemeritusv of history and anthropol Trautman at the university of Michigan. He is regarded as a leading book is the most ambitious work on mythology, since that of the renowned Mircea Eliade, who all but single handely invited the modern study of myth and religion. Thomas Trautman began his research career under his mentor A L Basham and did a pioneering work on Kautilya ‘Arthasastra of which he made a computer analysis and suggested a methodology. State and society in Vedic and early period Vedic society The most important literary source for the study of the Vedic society is the ‘Vedic literature’ consisting of the Vedas, Brahmans, Aryankas, Upanishads, Itihasas and Puranas. The central point is that Vedas is not recorded in any chronological order, but it provide ample information about the Vedic society. Rigveda, Samaveda, yajurveda and atharva Veda are the four Vedas. The only source information about the Aryans in India is the vast literature known as the Vedas. The word ‘Veda’ comes from the root vid, to know. It means knowledge in general. It is specially applied to a branch of literature which has been handed down from the Rigveda was the oldest and the most important book of the Aryans’ is divided into ten mandalas or chapters. Rigveda throw light on the early Aryan

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 25 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History culture and society. The Yajurveda contains booth hymns and commentaries. It describes the performance of sacrifices. The Samaveda is a collection of hymns that were meant to be sung by a special class of priests. According to Dr R C Majumdar ‘the Samaveda has great significance in the history of Indian music. It also throws interesting light on the growth of special ceremonies”. The Atharvaveda is partly prose and partly poetry. It deals with magic and spells to overcome enemies. The Brahmans are commentaries useful for the easy comprehension of the Vedas. They also contains instructions to the priests regarding the correct pronunciation of the mantras. The Aryankas are part of the Brahmans. It is also called forest books, Aryankas are the great philosophical thoughts of the great saints of the past. The Upanishads describe the religious and spiritual thoughts of the Aryans. It discuss serious problems like karma, soul and salvation. Maxmuller called the “Upanishads as the most wonderful composition of human mind”. The Vedic literature throws light on the life, culture and civilisation of the Aryans. The political, social, economic and religious life of the Aryans also reflects in the Vedic literature. The sutras, smrithis, the Puranas, Dharmasastras, the epics etc. are come under the category of the later Vedic literature. The Sutras’ contains rules relating to Vedic rituals and customary laws. The Smrithis deal with ordinary laws and social customs.The duties and responsibilities of the duties and responsibilities of rulers and ruled are discussed in the Dharma sastras. The great epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 26 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History deal with the achievement of the great heroes in the early days of the Indo-Aryans. The Ramayana was composed by the great saint Valmiki. It deals with the conflict between the Aryan and non-Aryan civilizations. The Mahabharata describes the war between the pandavas and Kauravas. Both the epics are inverses and discuss about life, culture and religion of the people of the later Vedic period. Political organization The lowest unit of the political and social organization of the Rigvedic people was the patriarchal family. The higher units were known as grama, vis and Jana.. The vis was a canton or group in the form of collection of villages under Visapati. Rigvedic society The Rig Vedic society was a tribal society. The social relations were predominantly based on kinship ties. The Rajas, the Purohitas and the people were all part of the clan. The tribe was referred as ‘Jana’ and different tribes are seen mentioned in the Rig Veda. The intertribal conflicts were frequent. The battle of the ten Kings mentioned in the Rig Veda was fought among different tribes like the Bharata, Purus, Yadus, Druhyus, Anus, Turvasus etc. Tribal conflicts were related to cattle raids, cattle thefts etc. Cattle was the cheif measure of wealth and the term used for battle during this period was ‘gavishti’, which literally means to search for cow’s. Cattle raids were common in those days. The chief of the tribe was the raja or gopati or one who

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 27 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History protects cows . In Rig Veda, godhuli is used as a term for a measure of time. Kinship units are labelled as ‘gotra. All these terms are derived from the word ‘gau’ which ’ means the cow. The position of Raja was not hereditary, but he was selected from amongst the clansmen. The clan settled in villages or ‘grama’. It was a patriarchal society. The birth of a son was desired by everyone in the clan. Several hymns in Rigveda show the importance given to the male members in the Vedic society. The women had also important position in the society, Eventhough it was patriarchal. The women educated and were admitted in the assembly. They enjoyed the privilege of choosing their partners and to marry late. However , they were always considered as the dependents of father, brother or husband. Oral education had existed. The Rigveda mentions the names of learned women like Lopamudra, Vishwara, Goshalas and Apala, who had even composed hymns. They generally followed monogamy. Occasional references are seen regarding polygamy. It must have been practiced by kings and cheifs only. The women had a respectable position in the family also. The Rigvedic Aryans distinguished themselves from other groups who they called Dasas and Dasyus. They had some consciousness about the physical appearance of people. The Dasas are described as dark, full lipped , worshippers of the phallus and of hostile speech. The term used for colour was ‘Varna’. The Aryan language speakers were fair in complexion. The Rigveda mentions the ‘aryavarna’ and the

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 28 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History dasa Varna. Several tribal assemblies like Gana, Vidhatha, Sabha and Samiti are mentioned in the Rigveda. It is assumed that ‘Gana ‘ was an assembly of fighters, who actually took part in the inter- tribal wars. The leader of Gana was called Ganapati. The term ‘Kula ’ for family mentioned rarely in Rigveda. ‘Kulapa was the head of the family. Kula comprised mother, father, sons, slaves and many others also.’ Political structure of Mahajanapadas In the 6 th century B C , many independent countries came up in north India. Amongst there were 16 big countries that were called Mahajanapadas. The Buddhist book ‘Anguttara Nikaya’ The Jana was the largest social unit. The Vedic Jana(tribe) incorporated a number of vis (clans).The as mentioned in later vedic texts, Jain and Buddhist sources, signify that for the first time in Indian history regions with different types of human settlements come to acquire geographical names The pivot of the community shifts from the clan to the town. The is the territory of the clan and is identified as such but the concept of the paurajanapada introduces the urban settlement.T here is in Vedic literature to the capitals of Janapadas and had the towns of Hastinapura. The incorporation of the janapadas by powerful rulers of the Mahajanapadas as mentioned in the contemporary led to political conflicts between rulers and in later period, to political conflicts between rulers and in a later period, to the

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 29 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History establishment of the Magadha empire. The kings or groups of Kshatriyas, the chiefs of which called themselves rajas or kings ruled over Janapadas or Mahajanapadas. A group of clans constituted a Jana and the territory where the tribes places its feet. Since the economy of the Jana constituted hunting and pastoralism. The Kshatriya lineages claimed control over the territory of the Janapada but the notion of the well defined territory was uncertain at this time. The boundaries between janapadas tend to be topographical features such as the clearly identifiable settlements and the more liminal areas of forests and waste land between settlements. The term which in the post -Vedic period is used for territory, rastra, is mentioned at this time but its does not seem to be that of well- defined area over which absolute control is claimed. The emergence of Janapadas and the Mahajanapadas in the sixth century B C. The emergence of Janapadas signified the birth of geography in Indian history. From the sixth century B C, the villages, and towns and cities were the units where people lived in a Janapada. It was at this time that the kings and monarchs emerged on the stage of history. In the Mahajanapadas, the basic unit of settlement was the Gama meaning village agriculture was the main occupation of the people in agriculture settlements. This shows a transition from pastoral and nomadic economy to an agricultural and settled economy. The villages were small and large varying from a single household to many families. The

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 30 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History leaders of the villages were called Gramini meaning managers of stage, soldiers or elephant and horse trainers. The Buddhist sources refer to the presence of sixteen Mahajanapadas in the period when Bhuddha lived. Since North India had no single paramount power, sixth century B C witnessed the emergence of these independent states. The Mahajanapadas extended from the north - west Pakistan to easy Bihar and from Himalayas in the north to river Godavari in the South. Traditional literature also refer to sixteen large states each comprising several agricultural settlement s(janapadas) as existing in India in the sixth century B. C The Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya which is a portion of Sutta-pitaka gives the following list of sixteen Mahajanapadas in the time of Buddha. 1 Kashi 2 Kosala 3 Anga 4 Magadha 5 Vajji 6 Malla 7 Chedi 8 Vajji 9 Vatsa 10 Kuru Panchala 11 Maccha (Matsya) 12 Sursarasena 13 Assaka 14 Avanti

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 31 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History 15 Gandhara 16 Kambhoja

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 32 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History MODULE 3 POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF MAHAJANAPADA VARIOUS INTERPRETATIONS MAURYAN STATE

The Mauryan empire was the largest state in the whole of the ancient world and for the first time it ushered in a new form of government. The Mauryan centralised monarchy became a paternal despotism under Asoka. This paternal attitude is expressed in the remark, “All men are my children “, which almost becomes the motto of Asoka in defining his attitude towards his subjects. Central Government The ascender of the Mauryas had resulted in the triumph of monarchy in India. Other systems like republics and oligarchies that were prevalent in the pre-Mauryan India had collapsed. He advocated that the king should take the advice of his ministry in running the administration. Therefore, a council of ministers called Mantriparishad assisted the king in administrative matters. The Mauryan government was completely centralised. Kautilya has said “ administration can not be the work of one man, just as one wheel can not drive a vehicle”. The king The Mauryan king did not claim any divine origin yet he was taken to be the representative of the Gods. Kings were

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 33 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History described as Devanampriya, Beloved of the Gods. The king was the source and centre of all authority, head of administration, law and justice and also the supreme judge. He himself selected his ministers, appointed high officials and controlled their activities. There was a well planned system of supervision and inspection. Important officials of central government Akshapataladhyaksha Akshapataladhyaksha was the accountant general who wad in charge of two offices of currency and accounts. The fiscal year was from Asadha (July, and 354 working days were reckoned in each year. Sitadhyaksha Sitadhyaksha was the Director of Agriculture and in charge of cultivation of Crown lands or of Government agricultural farms. Akaradhyaksha Akaradhyaksha was the superintendent of mining and possessed scientific knowledge of mining and possessed scientific knowledge of mines, metallurgy, gems, and precious stones. The state had a monopoly in the working of mines and in trade in their products. Lavanadhyaksha Lavanadhyaksha was the salt superintendent. The manufacture of salt was a government monopoly administered by the salt superintendent. It was administered by the salt

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 34 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History superintendent. It was administered through a system of licences, on a payment of fixed fee, or share of the output. Navadhyaksha Navadhyaksha was the superintendent of ports. He controlled traffic and transist by waterways, riverine, oceanic, coastal routes, etc and also policed the rivers and seashores. Panyadhyaksha Panyadhyaksha was the controller of commerce who was in charge of the control of supply, prices, purchase and state of commodities. He also controlled stocks of food grains and other merchandise by issuing licences to traders. Sulkadhyaksha Sulkadhyaksha was the collector of Customs or Tolls. Kautilya was described the detailed customs regulations, including the list of banned and duty free items. Goods were classified according to the customs regulations, including the list of banned and duty free items. Goods were classified according to the customs or tolls charged on them. Suradhyaksha Suradhyaksha was the superintendent of excise who controlled the manufacture and sale liquor and intoxicating drugs. Only sealed liquor and intoxicating drugs. Only sealed liquor was to be sold at the specified, places,days and timings. Pautavadhyaksha Pautavadhyaksha was the superintendent of weights and measures. He used to undertake periodic checking of

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 35 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History balances, weights and measures used by private parties and stamped them. Intelligence and Espionage A remarkable feature of the Mauryan administration was the uninhabited manner in which the organisation of a Secret Agents for a variety of purposes. The spies had to perform their duties Very skillfully, carefully, and secretly . There were spies and on important matters more than one agent was asked to collect information, which was then tailed and cross referenced. According to Strabo, “ There were overseers to overlook what is throughout the country and in the cities and to report privately to the king “. Asoka, in one of his Edicts, ordered that he must constantly be kept informed of the happenings of the state. Ambassadors appointed in foreign countries ‘open spies’. Military organisation The Mauryan rulers had a large, disciplined and well organized army. The king was the Supreme Commander and he personally supervised the army both in peace and war. The overall in charge of the defence forces was the Senapati, (commander in chief), directly appointed by the king, who supervised and controlled the entire Army. There was a council comprising thirty members, divided into six-sub councils of five members each which formulated the policy. The first formulated the rules and regulations for the infantry, the second for the cavalry, the third for the elephantry, the

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 36 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History fourth for the chariotry, the fifth for the navy , and the sixth for the commissariat. The navy, transport and commissariat were Mauryan innovations, ships,ferries, and boats were constructed and used for trade as well as defence. Ports and harbours were constructed for civil and military purposes and were safeguarded from the pirates. There were two kinds of soldiers, hereditary and mercenary. The former were on the regular pay -roll while the latter were recruited at the time of war. It was on account of well regulated army that the Mauryans could rule over such a vast empire. Asoka declaimed war and proclaimed the policy of peace and non -violence. This Pacific and submissive attitude of the monarch proved a dead weight on the martial spirit of the soldiers. Public works The king was to treat his subjects like his own sons and daughters and wars, therefore, to undertake various public welfare schemes. ‘The department of road ‘ constructed, repaired,, and maintained national highways and other important roads. Trees were planned and wells were dug by the sides of the road. Irrigation There was a full fledged department which looked after irrigation activities through out the state. Construction and maintenance of wells, canals, reservoirs’, lakes, and other

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 37 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History source of water was the duty of the state. The most famous ‘Sudarshan lake’ at Girnar in Gujarat was constructed by Pushyagupta, the provincial Governor of Chandragupta Maurya. This lake was provided with supplementary channels by Tushaspa, the governor in the days of Asoka. Public Health Hospitals for men and animals were set up at all important places. Physicians, surgeons, equipped with surgical tools, nurses, midwives, persons skilled in detecting position etc. Various interpretations of Mauryan state The Mauryan empire was the first and one of the greatest empires that were established on Indian soil. The vast Mauryan empire stretching from the valley of the Oxus to the delta of Kaveri was a well-knit, common administration. Chandragupta Maurya was the first ruler who unified entire India under one political unit. The historical sources like epigraphical sources, literary sources, foreign accounts and materials obtained from archaeological excavations. The Arthasastra gives us detailed information about the administrative system of the Mauryan empire. The work was written by Kautilya was the real architect of Mauryan empire and was also the prime minister of Chandragupta Maurya. The important sources for the study of the Mauryan period are the Arthasastra, Indica, Edicts of Asoka and coins. The Arthasastra is a significant law book and treatise on political science of ancient India.

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 38 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History The Arthasastra is divided into fifteen books of ‘adhikarnas’. The book one deals with the education and discipline of princes and kings. The king should know the state -craft and administration. He should control vices and passions. ‘Indicia is the accounts on India prepared by Megastheses, who was sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. The Edicts of Asoka remain as the most important source of information for the reconstruction of the Asoka period in general . Asokan Edicts belonging to the third century B C. Kautilya examines every aspect of state-craft, but this entire treatises are made on the basis of an autocratic state. He makes scanty references to the republican form of government.Indica is the accounts on India prepared by Megasthenese,who was sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya, by his contemporary Greek ruler of the neighbouring area. The Edicts of Asoka remain as the most important source of information for the reconstruction of the Asoka period and the Maurya period in general. The ascendary of the Mauryas had resulted in the triumph of monarchy in India. Other systems like republics and oligarchies that were prevalent in the pre-Mauryan lndia had collapsed. Therefore, a council of ministers called Mantriparishad assisted the king in the administrative matters. It consisted of purohita, Mahamatras, Senapati and Yuvaraja. There were civil servants called Amatyas to look after the day to day administration.

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 39 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History Army The Mauryan army was well organized and it was under the control of Senapati. The salaries were paid in cash. Kautilya refers to the salaries of different ranks of military officers. According to Greek author Pliny, the Mauryan army consisted of six lakh infantry, thirty thousand cavalry, nine thousand elephants and eight thosand chariots. Besides , these four wings, there were the Navy and Transport and supply wings. Each wing was under the control of Adyakshas or superintendents. Megastheses mentions six boards of five members each to control the six wings of the military. Judicial and Police Departments Kautilya mentions the existence of both civil and criminal courts. The chief justice of the Supreme court at the capital was called Dharmathikarin. There were also subordinate courts at the provincial capitals and districts under Amatyas. Different kinds of punishments such as fines, imprisonment, mutilation and death were given to the offenders. The Dhamma Mahamatras were asked by Asoka to take steps against unjust imprisonment. Remission of sentences is also mentioned in Asoka’s inscription. Census The taking of Census wad regular during the Mauryan period. The village officials were to number of the people along with other details like their caste and occupation. They were also to count the animals in each house. The census in the towns was taken by municipal officials to track the movement

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 40 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History of population both foreign and indigenous. The data were across checked by the spies. The census appears to be permanent institution in the Mauryan administration. Provincial and Local Administration The Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces with their capitals at Taxila, Ujjain, Suvarnagiri and Kalinga. The provincial governors were mostly appointed from the members of royal family. They were responsible the maintenance of law and order and collection of taxes for the empire. The district administration was under the charge of Rajukas, whose position and functions are similar to modern collectors. He was assisted by yukatas or subordinate officials. Village administration was in the hands of Gramani and his official superior was called Gopa who was in charge of ten or fifteen villages. Asoka and Dhamma According to some scholars, his conversion to Buddhism was gradual and not immediate. He appointed special officers called Dharma mahamatras to speed up the progress of Dhamma. In 241 B C, he visited the birth place of Buddha, the Lumbini Garden, near Kapilavastu. He also visited other holy places of Buddha. But he did not equate Dhamma with Buddhist teachings. Buddhism remained his personal belief. His Dhamma signifies a general code of conduct. Asoka wished that his Dhamma should spread through all social levels. The concept of non- violence and other

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 41 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History similar ideas of Asoka’s Dhamma are identical with the teachings of Buddha. But he did not equate Dhamma with Buddhist teachings Buddhism remained his personal belief. His Dhamma signifies a general code of conduct . Asoka wished that his Dhamma should spread through all social levels. V A Smith Vincent Arthur was a Irish Indologist and art historian. He was born in Dublin on 3 rd June 1848 which was then part of the united kingdom of great Britain and Ireland . He passed the Indian civil service exam in 1871 and was appointed to what would become the united provinces in India. His works was closely attached to Indian History. His first publications appeared the journal of Bengal Asiatic Society, and dealt with Bundelkhand and its popular songs, early inhabitant, and history vin 1875,1877 and 1881. The typical examples Vincent smith’s great men history was Akbar the great Mughal1542 -1605 is a biography of Akbar. R K Mukherjee Radhakumud Mukerjee a leading thinker and social scientist of modern India was professor of economics. Mukerjee played a key position and constructive role in the independence movement. He was a highly original philosopher of history. R K Mukharjee had a sustained interest in the interest in the impact of value was arbitrary. The facts and values could not be separated from each other in human interactions.

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 42 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History I W Mabbet I W Mabbet professor of history , Monash university , Australia. He is the author of writing history essay. He carefully analysed this work and give information regarding different steps of writing essay. A short history of India, written by I W Mabbet. He shows how history differs from other disciplines, outlines the methods of historical research and writing and clear illustrates their application to writing assignments in history. Bongard Levin Grigory Maksimouich Bongard Levin was a Russian historian specialising on Ancient India and the history of Russian emigration. He was a member of the Russian academy of science and awarded USSR state prize in 1988.”my India, the hight of Holiness by G m Bongard Levin. Buddhist text from Eastern Turkestan by prof G M Levin. Gerard Fuss man Gerrard Fossman a historian and Honarary professor at the college of France. He gave more contributions in the field of Indology. He was closely associated with Indian History Congress. Symbolism of Buddhist stupa by Gerard fuss man. Rock inscriptions in the Indus Valley written by Fuss man Kushana State The Kushanas were another group from central India who followed the Parthians to India and occupied the extreme

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 43 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History north-west and gradually spread into many places of North India. They belonged to one of the five clans of Yuehchi tribe. They belonged to one of the five clans of Yuehchi tribe. The Kushana empire extended from the river Oxus to Ganga and from Khorasan to Banaras’s Kushanas assimilated the cultural traditions of the Mediterranean world, Western Asia, Central Asia, China. And India. It is understood that two successive dynasties had ruled the Kushana empire .The first dynasty was started by Kadphises.The first dynasty was started Kadphises. He issued different type of copper coins. Kadphises was succeeded by Kadphises. The II or Vima Kadphises. The Kushanas were another group from central India. They belonged to one of the five clans of Yuehchi tribe. The Kushana empire extended from the river Oxus to Ganga and from Khorasan to Banaras’s Kushanas assimilated the cultural traditions of the Mediterranean world. Western Asia, Central Asia, China and India. The first dynasty was formed by Kadphises. He issued different type of copper coin. He introduced the gold based coinage system which was similar to that of the Romans. The coinage system introduced by Vima continued with slight modifications in India up to the Guptas. Vima’s capital was Baldachin. The Kadphises. He rulers were succeeded by Kanishka. Who is regarded as the most important Kushana ruler in India. He is closely related with Bhuddhism. Kushanas reached at the apex of their power during the reign of Kanishka. The Saka era started in 78 A. D. Is said to have begun to commemorate the accession of Kanishka to the

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 44 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History throne. Mathura was another important city of the empire and is considered as the second capital. Kanishka is closely associated with Buddhism. He encouraged the Buddhist monks to go to China and central Asia to spread Bhuddhism. His contributions to art and Sanskrit literature were also memorable. Gandhara Art The two hundred years of Gupta rule maybe said to mark the climax of Hindu imperial tradition. From the point of view of literature, religion, art, architecture .Inscriptional evidences shows Sreegupta as the first king of the Guptas, . However the first independent king was Chandragupta -I with the title ‘Maharajadhiraja’. He extended the territorial boundaries of his kingdom with the title ‘Maharajadhiraja’. He extended the territorial boundaries of his kingdom with the help of matrimonial alliance with the. Coins with the figures of Chandragupta and his queen kumara Devi have been discovered.It is not possible to determine the exact boundaries of the kingdom with the help of a matrimonial alliance with the Lichchavis. Samudragupta who succeeded Chandragupta was responsible for the expansion of the . The aggressive policy of conquests culminated in the formation of Gupta empire by Samudragupta. According to the prayagaprasti the territories conquered by Samudragupta can be divided into five. The first group included the Ganga- Yamuna doab which was incorporated into the empire. The

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 45 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History second group was comprised of some republics of Punjab. The Atavika rajyas or the forest kingdoms of Vindhya region formed the third group. These kingdoms were conquered and brought under the direct control of the Gupta empire. The king was the central figure of administration. The Gupta monarchs adopted such pompous titles like Parameswara, parambhattaraka, Chakravarthi, Maharajadhiraja etc. The Allahabad Inscription of Samudragupta characterises him as ‘equal to the Gods’. The monarch maintained a standing army, usually supplemented by the forces of the feudatories.The’Sandhi Vigrahika ‘ who was the minister in charge of peace and war helped the king in the administration of the military. The ‘Pilupati’ who was the head of elephants, the ‘Asvapati’ who was in charge of the horses and ‘Narapati’ who was in charge of the foot soldiers worked under the Sandhi-Vigrahika. Ranabhandagarika was in charge of the stores. The land revenue was the main source of income of the state. A regular revenue department worked under the Guptas for the proper survey and measurement of land as well as for the collection of land revenue. The land tax collected normally varied from one sixth to one fourth of the total produce. The king had the right to Vishti or forced labour from his people. The traders were to a certain commercial tax known as the Sulka. The judicial system was more organised during the Gupta period. Several law books were codified and demarcated

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 46 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History for the first time. The civil law dealt with the disputes on property while theft and adultry came under the criminal law. The whole empire was divided into several ‘desas’ or rashtras or bhuktis. The bhuktis were again divided into several ‘Vishay as’ or districts. Vishayapati was in charge of the administration of the VIshayas. Mathura School Mathura the converging point of many trade routes, was not only an important prosperous city, but also a great centre of art. The sculptures of Mathura style and workmanship have been found in widely separated regions. Trade and craft production References about crafts production and trade of the Gupta period are available from the contemporary inscriptions and literary texts. Crafts production covered a wide range of items, produced both for domestic use and for luxury. The domestic items included jewellery made of gold and silver, objects made of ivory, fine clothes of cotton and silk etc. The luxury items were produced for the rich people in the society. Craftsmen guilds and traders guilds existed during the Gupta period. The guilds were known as ‘Srenis’ the members of the guilds were expected to follow the norms of the organisation, otherwise they were liable to punishment. The Mandasor inscription of the fifth century A D refers to a guild of silk -weavers who had migrated from South Gujarat and had settled in the Malwa region. There was a decline in long distance trade during this period. Silk was however exported to

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 47 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History the Roman empire till the middle of the sixth century. Crafts production and commercial activities started declining from the Gupta period onwards. In most areas this trend paved way for decline of towns and cities and more and more people started to depend upon agricultural production. Another important aspect of this time was that information of separate caste by the people who followed separate craft. The goldsmiths or the ‘Svarnakaras’ and the potters or the’ Kumbhakaras were organised into separate . Nature of Gupta State The rule of the imperial Guptas, which spread over a period of 250 years from circa A D 300 to A D 550,marked the last important phase in the history of ancient India. There was not much material change in the trade routes, commercial organisation, currency systems, trade practices, etc during the period . Industry and trade were generally prosperous and the balance of foreign trade was the decline of the Roman trade, and also decline of three important southern ports of Muziris, Arikamedu, and Kaveripatanam. Nature of Trade During this period, internal trade, further expanded to numerous trade centres. Kalidasa gives a very good description of the town – market and its business transactions. Like the previous phase, we have reference to two type of merchants in the Gupta period, namely sresthi and sarthavaha.. The Mandasor inscription of the fifth century A D. refers to a guild of silk weavers who had migrated from South

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 48 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History Gujarat and had settled in the Malwa region. There was a decline in long distance trade during this period. Crafts production and commercial activities started declining from the Gupta period onwards . In most areas this trend paved the way for the decline of towns and cities and more and people started to depend upon agricultural production. Another important aspect of this time wad that the formation of separate caste by the people who followed separate craft. The gold Smiths or the ‘ Survarnakaras’ and the potters or the Kumbhakaras were organised into separate castes. Religious life of Guptas Vaishnavism or Bhagavatism overshadowed all other religious groups in the Gupta period. Vaishnavism preached the doctrine of incarnation or avatars. The whole history was presented within the framework of the ten ‘avatars’ of Vishnu. It was appeared in an appropriate form to save it from ruin. Each incarnation of Vishnu was considered necessary for the salvation of ‘dharma’. The trinity of gods, Brahma, Vishnu and Siva became dominant and almost all the mistake gods were tied up with them in one way or the other several texts were written in praise of them. The Gupta kings patronised both Saivism and Vaishnavism. However, the personal religion of most of the Gupta kings was Vaishnavism which led to the creation of a number of important Vaishnava centres and Vaishnava sculptures in the Gupta period. A few Gupta kings were

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 49 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History worshippers of Siva, the god of destruction. Idol worship in the temples became a common feature of Brahminical religion from the Guptas period onwards. Idol worship with extensive rites and ceremonies became fairly common in the Gupta period . Worship of subsidiary gods along with the primary gods became a distinct trait in the religion. The Desavatara temple of Devagarh, the Vishnu temple of Tigawa and Siva temple at Bhumara are important ones among the surviving few Gupta temples. The epic and puranic stories relating the Rama and Krishna were represented in the Gupta temple sculptures. The typical and beautiful specimens of these sculptures are still found in the Devagarh temple. The bhakti tradition became more popular during this period. The impersonal gods were replaced by personal gods like Shiva, Vishnu etc. For the purpose of Bhakti. The personal god was conceived by the devotee as a savior who was ready to safeguard the devotee Land grants Certain important changes were taking place in the agrarian society of the Gupta period. The practice of giving land grants to the religious functionaries and officials had become during this period. The religious functionaries were given tax free land, and given the right to collect rent from the peasants. The ownership of such land became hereditary. Land grants made to the priests and others brought many virgin areas under cultivation. It is assumed that better knowledge of

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 50 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History aquiculture was introduced into the Brahminical religion against dangers and misfortunes. Many festivals were celebrated during the Gupta period. Gupta Art, Science and technology The Gupta period made remarkable progress in the field of indegenous art. The Gandhara and Mathura schools of art had come to an end by this time. The Gupta kings especially Samudragupta and Chandragupta II had encouraged several artforms. The Ajanta paintings are the best examples of the Gupta art. Several temples were built during the Gupta age. Temples were generally built on raised platforms. They were made of brick and stone. The Dasavatara temple at Deogarh in Jhansi is a best example of Gupta temples.The notable feature is that the technique, architectural beauties, terra-cotta panels etc. The Buddhist university at Nalanda wad setup in the fifth century and its earliest structure belongs to the Gupta period. The Gupta craftsmen had made great progress in the use of iron and bronze to build images and pillars. The iron pillar found at Mehrauli in Delhi is the best example of the iron objects made during the Gupta period. In the field of mathematics a great work was produced during this period - Aryabhatta written by Arya Bhatta. Aryabhatta lived at Pataliputra and was well versed in various kinds of mathematical calculations. The work Romaka Sidanta was complied in the fifth century which had contributed to the study of astronomy. Varahamihira was another famous

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 51 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History astronomer and mathematician of the Gupta period. The central point is that Brahmagupta had initiated the study of the gravitational force of the earth for the first time.

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 52 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History MODULE 4 POLITICAL VIOLENCE AND IDEOLOGY IN EARLY INDIA. WAR AND VIOLENCE IN VEDIC PERIOD

The great epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata deal with the achievement of the great heroes in the early days of the Indo-Aryans. The Ramayana was composed by the great saint Valmiki. It deals with the conflict between the Aryan and non Aryan civilization. The Mahabharata describes the war between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. According to tradition, Vyasa was its complier. Both the epics are inverses and discuss about life, culture and religion of the people of the later Vedic Period. Upinder Singh talks about her latest book political violence in Ancient India. She discusses a range of issues related to political violence. Upanishads The most important source for the study of the ‘Vedic literature’, consisting of the Vedas, Brahmnas,Aranyakas, Upanishads, Itihasas and Puranas. The term used in Sanskrit literature for history was Ithihasa, with a literary meaning of Ithihasa is happened here. The antiquity of q Purana tradition can be traced back to the Vedic age. The earliest reference to the world Purana appear in Brahadadaranyaka Upanishad. The Ithihasa Purana tradition can be traced back to the Vedic age. The earliest reference to the word Purana appear in Brahadadaranyaka Upanishad. The Ithihasa purana and the

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 53 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History Vedas were closely related and equally important. The Ithihasa Purana were often composed originally by priest poets attached to various tribes . The two epics, the Ramayana and The Mahabharata , include almost all the elements of historical tradition. The Vedas are constituted of the ‘Samhita’ or the Vedic hymns, the Brahmans are the prose commentaries on the Samhita, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads the philosophical doctrines. In addition to these, there are six ‘vedangas’ or the lumbs of the Vedas comprised of Siksha (phonetics), kalpa (ritual), Vyakarana (grammer). ‘Nirukta’ (etymology), Chandas (metrics) and Jyothisha (astronomy). Upanishads are mostly either imbedded in the Aranyakas or simply from their supplements. They deal with the spiritual topics, the universal soul or the absolute, the individual self , the origin of the world and the mysteries of nature. The word ‘Upanishad’ is derived from the root ‘up-nisar’ which means to sit down near someone. Nowadays it means simply spiritual knowledge . There are one hundred and eight Upanishads in total, classified according to the Vedas. Upanishads generally condemn the ceremonial religious practices. They explain the doctrine of the transmigration of the soul. The Upanishads have influenced the Indian thought and philosophy considerably. The Upanishads describe the religious and spiritual thoughts of the Aryans. They discuss serious problems like karma, soul and salvation. Max Muller called the Upanishads as, “the most wonderful composition of human mind”.

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 54 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History They Vedic literature throws light on the life, culture and the civilization of the Aryans. The political , social and economic and religious life of the Aryans also reflects in the Vedic literature . Buddhism and Jainism The rise of Buddhism and Jainism was facilitated by the condition of Hindu society on the eve of Buddha’s birth. Jainism and Buddhism which were instrumental in bringing about lot of changes in the social life and culture of India. In the history of Indian religions Buddhism occupies a unique place and its founder was Suddhodana and mother’s name was Buddha or Gautama or Siddhartha. He also called “The Enlightened one ”His father’s name was Suddhodana and mother’s name was Mahamaya. Teaching of Buddha Buddha taught for 45 years through conversion, lectures and parables, his method of teaching was unique. Buddha’s conception of religion was purely ethical. He did not care for worship or rituals. Buddha did not bother about the caste system. The simplicity of Buddhism was the cause of the spread of Buddhism. The central point was that Buddhist literature seen in two languages Pali and Sanskrit. The Pali canon is divided into three pitakas or three baskets. The Vinayaka pitaka contains disciplinary rules and regulation. Buddhism established an intimate contact between India and foreign countries. The Indian monks and scholars carried the gospel of Bhuddha to foreign countries from the third century

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 55 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History before Christ onwards and consequently converts those countries looked up to the India as holy land, the cradle of their faith, a pilgrimage to which was the crowning act of the life of a pious house- holder, lndia’s isolation was broken by Buddhism. Buddhism made a direct appeal to the primary emotions of the people. Its simplicity endeared it to the common folk who came to look upon it as the religion of the country. It is contended that Buddhism helped the evolution of an Indian nation and paved the way for political union of India Impact of Buddhism 1. The central point was that the Buddhist religion became popular due to its simplicity. Buddhism created a vast and varied literature in the spoken language which was meant for the common people and not reserved like a secret language for a learned priest hood. 2. The great contribution of Buddhism to India and the world was in the field of sculptures and architecture. 3. Buddhism established a cordial relation between India and foreign countries. 4. The Buddhist Viharas used for educational purposes. 5. The motto of Ahimsa Paramondharmah was closely attached to Buddhism. Jainism and Buddhism which were instrumental bringing about lot of changes in the social life and culture of India. It was believed that a hymn could bring victory or defeat in wars.

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 56 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History Buddhism and Jainism There is a lot of similarity between the teachings of Buddha and Mahavira. Both of them belonged to princely families and not to priestly families. Both denied the authority of Vedas and necessity of performing sacrifices and rituals. Mahavira was the last Tirthankara . The name of his father was Siddhartha who was the head of the Kshatriya clan called the Jnatrika. Siddhartha was married to princess Trishala, sister of Chetaka who was the ruler of . The original name of Mahavira was Vardhamana. Jainism is one of the oldest religious tradirurions of the world. A great traditions of Tirthankara’s, acaryas, saints and scholars deeply attached to this tradition. The term Jaina is derived from the term “Jina” is the common name for the supreme souls who are totally free from all feelings of attachment, aversion , etc. The etymological meaning of the word “jina” is conqueror. The most important sectarian division in the religious world is between Digambara and Svedambara. Sacred Scriptures of Jainism. The central point was the most of all ancient Jain texts are written in Prakrit. The general out line of the canon is as follows. It is divided into six sections and contains either forty five or forty six books. 1. The Twelve Angas or limbs. 2. The twelve upaangas or secondary limbs. 3. The ten Painnas or scattered pieces. 4. The six Cheya Suttas.

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 57 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History 5. Indiviual texts(two). 6. The four moolasuttas. Teachings of Mahavira Mahavira did not believe in the existence of God. He turned his attention inti Ahimsa, Mahavira’s teaching was based on the tri-ratna or three essential elements of good life were right faith, right knowledge and right action. Mahavira asked his followers to live a life of virtue and morality. He put great emphasis on Ahimsa. Jainism spread in all parts of India.The jain built Bhikshugrihas or cave dwellings. The most important centres of Jainism were Mathura. Ujjain and Gujarat. According to him the three essentials for good life were right faith, right knowledge, and right action. Both the Svetambara and Digamma sects called their sacred books the Agama-Siddantha. The jain monks wrote Nirukti or commentaries. The Charitha give the stories of Tirthankara and Sages. Asoka and his propaganda of Piety Asoka’s policy of Dharma Asoka’s policy of ‘Dharma ‘ had earned him the credit of being considered as one of the greatest kings of the ancient world. The word Dhamma is the Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word ‘Dharma‘. The word has been translated as righteousness, piety, moral life. Asoka’s Dharma was not a particular religious faith or practice, instead it was related to norms of social behaviour and activities.

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 58 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History The emergence of the Dharma should be studied in the background of the newly emerging socio-economic conditions during the 3 rd century B. C. The use of iron and the resulting surplus production transformed the rural economy to a semi- urbanised economy, in which the commercial class came to the fore front of the fabric of the society. This paved the way for the emergence of new social class tensions. The ethical principles and the human approach of Buddhism attracted non- brahmins to it. Magadha had grown into vast empire with various geo-graphical regions, cultural areas’ and of different faiths and beliefs To propagate a new way of life based on the principles of morality. engraved the tenets of Dharma on Major rick Edicts, Minor rock Edicts and pillar Edicts and distributed them over the various parts of the empire. Asoka’s inscriptions were of two categories. The first category reveals that Asoka was a follower of Buddhism and were addressed to the Buddhist Sangha. The major part of the inscriptions to the second category are the royal proclamations addressed to the public. Asoka’s Dharma emphasised on non- violence. The policy of non- violence including giving up of wars and conquests and to re-strain from killing of animals , advocated some welfare measures also planting of trees and digging of wells etc. According to some scholars , his conversion to Buddhism was gradual and not immediate. He appointed

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 59 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History special officers called Dharma mahamatras to speed up the progress of Dhamma. In 241 B. C, he visited the birth place of Buddha, the Lumbini garden near Kapilavastu..The Buddhist sangha supporting the state system was useful to early states in that it provided an ideological framework for the integration of diverse groups. Arthasastra The Arthasastra is a significant law book and treatise on political science of ancient India. Kautilya was the prime minister of Chandragupta Maurya. Chandragupta found the Mauryan empire with his help. Arthasastra was written by him.The Arthasastra is divided into fifteen books of ‘adhikarnas’. The book one deal with the education and discipline of princes and kings. The king should know the state craft and administration. He should control vices and passions. Then it discusses the daily routine of the king and the appointment of ministers and high officers of the State and the entire bureaucratic system. The book was discovered by Shamasastri in 1909 and ably translated by him. It contents can be divided into three main parts. 1. The first part deals with the king, his councils and the government. 2. The second with civil and criminal law. 3. With inter state law, diplomacy and war. Kautilya who was also known as Chanakya was a friend, guide and philosopher to Chandra Gupta Maurya played a significant role in ousting the Nandas and placing

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 60 HIS1C03: Problems, Perspectives & Debates in Early Indian History Chandragupta on the throne of Magadha. Problem of kinship The state was characterized by its ownership of the land with an absence of private property in land , by a despotic king extracting revenue from the village communities which were otherwise autarchic except that production being purely agricultural was dependent on irrigation facilities controlled by the state through of officials who also collected the revenue. The state in such a system was the collective landlord and therefore the superior community. Kinship relations as ties in production were destroyed as was the earlier social formation. The use of the term ‘lineage society ‘ is preferable to tribal society’ which is what has been used in the past for Rig Vedic Society. In the Indian situation lineage society gave shape and form to caste structure. Lineage elements such as kinship and marriage rules are important to caste.

School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 61