s b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z manufacturing manufacturing This book brings together leading European specialists in mation and structure of a transnational public sphere: its theories of the public sphere, media and democracy. It ex- efficacy, legitimacy, and pluralism. manufacturing europe plores current key problems of communication, democ- Examining media practices, journalistic cultures and the racy and diversity, and how these are intertwined as part mediation of European issues in member states, it explores of media practice. Integrating geographical, historical and how the European public phere(s) are actualized for its citizens. multicultural approaches, it develops existing thought on Opening up the ethnic, cultural, and historical diversity paces of democracy, public phere and democracy. In particular, it focuses on three of the continent, the book offers new approaches to the dimensions that reflect obstacles to the European demo- demands of modern European multiculturalism. europe diversiy and communication cratic project. In each case, the apparent struggle between idealism and In exploring the reality and content of the concept of a realism forces the authors to question, as well as to offer, European public phere, the book scrutinizes the concept’s in- new ways of understanding the integration process and its herent values and norms as well as the nature of the for- communicative edge. Edied by Inka Salovaara-Moring NORDICOM Divers Spaces of Democracy, i y and Communication Inka Salovaara-Moring (ed.) NordicNORDICOM Information Centre for Media and Communication Research University of Gothenburg Box 713, SE 405 30 Göteborg, Sweden NORDICOM Telephone +46 31 786 00 00 (op.) Fax +46 31 786 46 55 E-mail: [email protected] www.nordicom.gu.se Manufacturing Europe Manufacturing Europe Spaces of Democracy, Diversity and Communication Inka Salovaara-Moring (ed.) NORDICOM Manufacturing Europe Spaces of Democracy, Diversity and Communication Inka Salovaara-Moring (ed.) © Editorial matters and selections, the editor; articles, individual contributors (with on exeption, see page 67) ISBN 978-91-89471-73-3 Published by: Nordicom University of Gothenburg Box 713 SE 405 30 Göteborg Sweden Cover by: Daniel Zachrisson Printed by: Livréna AB, Göteborg, Sweden, 2009 Environmental certification according to ISO 14001 Contents Acknowledgements 7 Inka Salovaara-Moring Manufacturing Europe, Restoring Communication? 9 I. Theoretical Dimensions of the European Public Sphere Chapter 1 Hannu Nieminen The European Public Sphere as a Network? Four Plus One Approaches 19 Chapter 2 Hans-Jörg Trenz Uniting and Dividing. The European Public Sphere as an Unfinished Project 35 Chapter 3 Kari Karppinen European Public Spheres and the Challenge of Radical Pluralism 53 Chapter 4 Philip Schlesinger A Cosmopolitan Temptation 67 II. Media, Journalism and the European Public Sphere Chapter 5 Tuomo Mörä The European Union and Ideals of the Public Sphere. Shadows in Paradise 81 Chapter 6 Inka Salovaara-Moring Beyond East and West. Alternative Spheres of Journalism, Capitalism and Public 97 Chapter 7 Claes H. de Vreese & Hajo G. Boomgaarden A European Public Sphere. Media and Public Opinion 117 III. Multiculturalism and the European Public Sphere Chapter 8 Charles Husband & Tom Moring Public Spheres and Multiculturalism in Contemporary Europe 131 Chapter 9 Gavan Titley Pleasing the Crisis. Anxiety and Recited Multiculturalism in the European Communicative Space 153 Chapter 10 Miyase Christensen Contextualising the Public Sphere. Freedom of Expression and Diversity in the Turkish Media 171 Chapter 11 Yonca Ermutlu Minorities, The Process of European Union Integration, and the Minority Media in Turkey 189 Chapter 12 Epp Lauk & Valeria Jakobson Challenges of Integrating Ethnic Minority into the Public Sphere. The Estonian Experience 211 Chapter 13 Camilla Haavisto A Diverse and Inclusive Communicative Space in the Making? The Case of Finland 229 Notes on Contributors 253 Acknowledgements This book originated in the research project “The European Public Sphere(s): Uniting or Dividing?”, funded by the Academy of Finland between 2005 and 2007. Professor Hannu Nieminen was the leader of the project group, which included Professor Charles Husband, Professor Epp Lauk, Professor Tom Moring, Dr. Valeria Jakobson, Dr. Tuomo Mörä, Dr. Sinikka Sassi, Dr. Inka Salovaara-Moring, and doctoral students Yonca Ermutlu, Camilla Haavisto, and Kari Karppinen. The project’s final seminar was held at the University of Helsinki on 19-21 August 2007 and brought together European specialists in the field for a discussion of the European public sphere. This book contains revised texts from contributors to that meeting. The goal of the research project “The European Public Sphere(s): Unit- ing or Dividing?” as well as the goal of the seminar, was to explore whether there is a common European public sphere, and if so, what are the empirical forms of its existence. The dimensions of the European public sphere and its relationship to democracy were evaluated through a comparative historical- sociological dimension emphasising national, regional, and global challenges, changing media systems, and the role of European cultural and ethnic minorities. Thus, the challenge of the book has been to reflect on “Europeanisation”, i.e. the process by which regions, cultures, public(s), and ways of communicat- ing mesh, and to consider what kinds of social imaginaries, ideologies, and democratic challenges are involved in this process. This book has sought to address these dimensions whilst keeping in mind that relationships among democracy, cultural and ethnic diversity, and political communication in the European Union are never stable and mostly contested in everyday practices of people, organisations, and media. No book appears without an army of supporters and a mountain of intel- lectual debts, and this book is no exception. We want to thank the Academy of Finland, the Department of Communication at the University of Helsinki, and especially the head of the Department Professor Esa Väliverronen, for providing both financial and organisational support for the project. We are particularly grateful to Professor Glenda Dawn Goss – our indispensable language editor 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS – who faced the unenviable task of gently polishing our ideas into shining prose. In addition, there is the considerable intellectual debt to those colleagues who contributed by providing feedback to the authors of this book: Hrant Dink, Myria Georgiou, Peter Golding, François Grin, Halliki Harro-Loit, Karina Horsti, Beybin Kejanlioglu, Ullamaija Kivikuru, Peter Krause, Dilek Kurban, Anu Leinonen, Etyen Mahcupyan, Mojca Panic, and Terhi Rantanen. We are also very grateful to Ulla Carlsson from Nordicom for her support throughout this process. Bertrand Russell once said, “There are two motives for reading a book: one, that you enjoy it; the other, that you can boast about it.” We hope that both motives apply to this book. However, if one has to be chosen, we hope above all that our volume proves enjoyable. Helsinki, February 2009 Inka Salovaara-Moring 8 Manufacturing Europe, Restoring Communication? Inka Salovaara-Moring During autumn 2008, the European Union faced a full-blown global financial crisis that brought the challenges of European integration into sharp focus. The leaders of the member states held emergency meetings to prevent a meltdown of the financial system. National banking systems were in turmoil, and govern- ments were forced to bail out domestic financial institutions. The conflict in Georgia sensitised European foreign politics and created frictions across the continent. The Lisbon Treaty had been postponed indefinitely, and this deci- sion was seen as a major failure in terms of the EU’s development into a more unified political actor. Against this backdrop, a generalised cynicism about governments was on the rise. Not surprisingly, the newly adopted symbols of the EU, the anthem and the flag, served more as decoration and potential sources of irritation than unifying symbols of an integrated Europe. Europeans sensed what both the European Commission and national ex- ecutives seemed unable to understand. The important transfers of power from member states to Brussels over the previous two decades risked discrediting both sides: national parliaments had compromised their legitimacy, whilst the European Parliament had failed to acquire any legitimacy for itself. Thus, when the fragile nature of the global financial system was unveiled, the need for uni- fied economic and political communication and for action between the European governments became sudden and vital. The European communicative space became a highly political project, at least at the inter-governmental level. Europe as political agent has undoubtedly experienced a rather difficult journey into the core of international relations and still struggles with its inter- nal diversity of 27 member states. This diversity has many dimensions: ethnic, cultural, and social, just to mention a few. When the diversity is mixed with the different economic interests, sizes, and geopolitical locations of member states, the democratic project of the EU turns into a highly complex task. Moreover, the inherent values of capitalism and democracy are not easily reconciled. Hence, the damage to capitalism’s reputation caused by the finan- cial crisis also strained the prestige of democracy. The cherished products of European philosophical