Pre-incursion Plan PIP003 Toads and Frogs
Scope
This plan is in place to guide prevention and eradication activities and the management of non-indigenous populations of Toads and Frogs (Order Anura) in the wild in Victoria.
Version Document Status Date Author Reviewed By Approved for Release
1.0 First Draft 26/07/11 Dana Price M. Corry, S. Wisniewski and A. Woolnough
1.1 Second Draft 21/10/11 Dana Price S. Wisniewski
2.0 Final Draft 11/01/12 Dana Price S.Wisniewski
2.1 Final 27/06/12 Dana Price M.Corry Visual Standard approved by ADP
3.0 New Final 6/10/15 Dana Price A.Kay New DEDJTR template and document revision
Acknowledgement and special thanks to Peter Courtenay, Senior Curator, Zoos Victoria, for reviewing this document and providing comments.
Published by the Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources, Agriculture Victoria, May 2016 © The State of Victoria 2016. This publication is copyright. No part may be reproduced by any process except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. Authorised by the Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources, 1 Spring Street, Melbourne 3000. Front cover: Cane Toad (Rhinella marinus) Photo: Image courtesy of Ryan Melville, HRIA Team, DEDJTR For more information about Agriculture Victoria go to www.agriculture.vic.gov.au or phone the Customer Service Centre on 136 186.
ISBN 978-1-925532-37-1 (pdf/online)
Disclaimer This publication may be of assistance to you but the State of Victoria and its employees do not guarantee that the publication is without flaw of any kind or is wholly appropriate for your particular purposes and therefore disclaims all liability for any error, loss or other consequence which may arise from you relying on any information in this publication.
Pre-Incursion Plan PIP003 Toads and Frogs 2
Pre-incursion Plan PIP003 Toads and Frogs
Order: Anura
Families: Bufonidae, Dendrobatidae, Hylidae, Microhylidae, Ranidea, Leptodactylidae, Bombinatoridae and Pipidae
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Contents
Table 1: Introduction ...... 5 Table 2: Declaration Status ...... 5 Table 3: Delimitation survey options...... 5-7 Table 4: Species specific delimitation options ...... 7 Table 5: Detection,control, monitoring and breeding calendar ...... 8 Table 6: Transport of live specimens...... 8 Table 7: Brief description of eradication and containment options ...... 8-10 Table 8: Species specific eradication and containment options ...... 10 Table 9: Brief description of disease, parasite and infection risks ...... 10-11 Table 10: Treatment specific WHS considerations ...... 11-12 Table 11: Identification requirements - take photo/video and e-mail to: ...... 12 Table 12: Euthanasia options ...... 12 Table 13: Sampling/Autopsy requirements ...... 13 Table 14: Disposal options ...... 13 Table 15: Legislation, regulations and required permits...... 13 Table 16: General species and technical experts ...... 14 Table 17: List of Acronyms ...... 14-15 Table 18: Glossary ...... 15-16
Appendices ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 1. Bufonidae Family: Species Specific Table ...... 17-26 2. Dendrobatidae Family: Species specific table 3. Hylidae Family: Species specific table 4. Microhylidae Family: Species specific table 5.Ranidae Family: Species specific table 6. Leptodactylidae Family: Species specific table 7. Bombinatoridae Family: Species specific table 8. Pipidae Family: Species specific table 9. Excursus: Asian Black-spined toad case study……………………………………………………27-28
References ...... ….29-31 Photographic References……………………………………………………………………………………..32
Accessibility If you would like to receive this information/publication in an accessible format (such as large print or audio) please call the Customer Service Centre on 136 186, TTY 1800 122 969, or email [email protected].
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Table 1: Introduction
The small size, cryptic nature, physiological tolerance to high temperatures and adaptability of these taxa enables them to stowaway in or on containers and live plant shipments with relative ease. These same traits, along with very high fecundity and a lack of predators, present major difficulties for control and eradication The Cane Toad (Rhinella marinus) is commonly intercepted arriving in Victoria on cargo, vehicles and in baggage from other states of Australia. The illegal herpetology trade is also a significant pathway of entry into Victoria, with the potential for many new introductions (either accidental or deliberate) of these species into the wild in Victoria. The potential consequences of establishment of invasive frog and toad species in Victoria are wide ranging and may include the introduction of new pathogens, direct predation upon native species, and competition with native species for food, spawning resources and shelter resulting in the displacement of endemic species. In the case of invasive Bufonidae species, toxic skin secretions pose a direct threat of death to native predators such as snakes, lizards, birds and small mammals. The impact of Cane toads in Australia extends to the pollution of bore holes, water holes, drinking troughs and domestic swimming pools, the death of domestic pets, the erosion of dams and creek banks by burrowing toads and the effect of toads on the apiary industry (via a single toad consuming up to 100 bees/day).
Table 2: Declaration Status in Victoria
All species included in this Pre-Plan are either currently undeclared under the Catchment and Land Protection (CALP) Act 1994 or are controlled pest animals. The Vertebrate Pest Committee lists the considered species as either having a Serious or Extreme/Not Assessed establishment threat. See species specific tables for details.
Table 3: Delimitation survey options
Method Description Time suggested to determine presence at site
1. Active visual Lift logs, rocks and debris in proximity to potential habitat to Dependant on amount and type of ground survey – line find toads. This method is not useful in areas of dense cover (or density of aquatic vegetation). transects or understorey. Visual searching can also be conducted in Bufo metamorphs are easily distinguished quadrats water bodies for evidence of eggs, tadpoles or metamorphs from native species, tadpoles may require expert identification. 2. Dip-net Use a hand held net and sweep it through the water If animals occur at low density, intensive sampling column. sampling using this method will be required to maximise detection probability (Bennett et al 2012) 3. Use of Aquatic funnel traps are baited with commercially available Traps can be left for several hours or aquatic funnel green glow sticks and are deployed parallel to the waters’ overnight – glow sticks last from 8-12 traps with glow edge at approximately 5 metre intervals. Ensure that the hours. This technique has been very stick lures trap entrance is submerged and that a portion of the trap is effectively used for toads, newts and frogs above the waters’ surface. (Grayson and Roe, 2007) and salamanders (Bennett et al 2012). 4. Spot Light The water body is visually scanned for swimming, stratified 5 consecutive nights of spot-lighting searches or resting larvae using a torch. Look for evidence of eye- during summer (in conjunction with the shine. This is the most effective survey technique if the use of auditory monitoring and light traps) number of individuals is low. will give a 90% confidence of absence (Parris, 2009) at any one site. 5. Nocturnal Researchers walk or drive along roads looking for active During spring and summer, for 14 nights Pre-Incursion Plan PIP003 Toads and Frogs 5
Table 3: Delimitation survey options
Method Description Time suggested to determine presence at site
road searches animals. (Murphy & Murphy, 2015). 6. Electrofishing An electrofishing unit is used in the water to emit a low Electrofishing is much more sensitive and pulse electric current, which irritates amphibians enough to efficient at detecting stream dwelling force them to exit their hiding place. A second channel on amphibians than traditional techniques. It the electrofishing unit is then used to produce a faster. is not labour intensive, does not disrupt Longer current which immobilizes the animals for a period habitat or cause injuries to researchers of a few minutes (Cossell et al 2012.). due to lifting heavy rocks (Cossell et al 2012). 7. Auditory Use recording of male toad in attempt to attract other toads Same as above monitoring (with to respond or without an acoustic lure) 8. Toad Light Dusk/evening. Use cage traps with light source to attract 5 consecutive nights during summer will traps insects and feeding toads give a 90% confidence of absence (Parris, 2009) at any one site, when used in conjunction with auditory monitoring and spotlight searches. This method is not effective in urban areas with ` 9. Education Door-knocking local area, letterbox drops, media articles As required Campaign 10. Active Focus on ships travelling from or via West Papua or As required Inspection of Malaysia containers/ships 11. Pit fall Concentrated physical census around ports within 7 days For 1 week period after ship docks trapping of ships unloading 12. Use of Sloughed tissues from aquatic animals are suspended in eDNA sampling methods have been used eDNA water bodies. Water samples are taken and the DNA very successfully for amphibians, and stored in the sloughed tissues can be identified to species offer greater detection rates when animals level. Several surface water samples are taken and stored are at low density than traditional in 1 litre bottles. The samples are filtered (either in the field sampling techniques (Jerde et al 2011, or the lab) and DNA is extracted from the filters (Pilliod et al Dejean et al 2012, Pilliod et al 2013). This 2013). Is an effective early detection tool that may trigger method is more sensitive, and requires surveillance carried out with more traditional methods much less sampling effort than traditional (Jerde et al 2011) field methods (Dejean et al 2012, Smart et al 2015)). 13. Use of a Use camera to capture still photos/video footage of fauna Easy to use and cost effective, requires motion sensor present in an area. May be more effective if bait is set in little input of time and resources to set up triggered conjunction with the camera – offer bread/fruit/pet food. and retrieve information. Set up cameras camera Equipment can be expensive – several cameras may be for a period of one to several weeks in required dependent on the size of area requiring areas where activity has been reported. monitoring. Ensure camera is in sheltered position – most are not waterproof. Ensure camera is set well away from hanging vegetation – movement of branches can set camera off. Good option for sightings reported in a relatively confined area. Can be used longer term if required – can remain in situ for several months, depending on battery power. 14. Use of PVC Lengths of PVC pipe (60cms long with a 3.81cm diameter) This sampling method is easy, cost- pipe refugia are hung in trees or driven vertically into the ground to effective and is not associated with trap provide diurnal retreats in the non-breeding season mortality. It is particularly effective for (Boughton and Staiger, 2000). Between 5 and 15 cms. of sampling tree-frogs, which are notoriously water can be placed in the bottom of the pipes to provide a difficult to sample using other methods such as pit-fall trapping or drift fencing Pre-Incursion Plan PIP003 Toads and Frogs 6
Table 3: Delimitation survey options
Method Description Time suggested to determine presence at site
retreat from dry conditions. (Boughton and Staiger, 2000). 15. Placement Sheets of corrugated iron are placed on the ground and This method can be used year round, of artificial checked at interval for animals sheltering beneath. and is carried out in conjunction with other shelter methods (Murphy & Murphy, 2015).
Table 4: Species specific delimitation options
Please refer to Table 3 for a full description of options
Option 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Cane Toad √ √ √ males √ √ √ √ √ √ √ only √ √ √ √ √ Black Spined √ Toad √ √ males √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ only Marbled Toad √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Blue Poison- √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ arrow Frog Splash-backed √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Poison-arrow frog Dyeing Poison- √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ arrow frog Green Poison- √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ arrow frog Cuban tree frog √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Banded Bullfrog √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ African Bullfrog √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ (North) American √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Bullfrog Common Coqui √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ European Fire- √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ bellied Toad Oriental Fire- √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ bellied Toad African Clawed √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ toad Surinam Toad √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
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Table 5: Detection, control, monitoring and breeding calendar
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Detection √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Treatment √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Monitoring √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Breeding √ √ √ √ √
N.B. Green shading represents optimal times for detection, treatment and monitoring based on species habitat use in their native range.
Table 6: Transport of live specimens
Keep individuals in a sealed plastic container with a moist sponge or paper towel on the base. Transport in the shade in an air- conditioned vehicle cab (as per COP for Welfare of Amphibians in Captivity). Maintenance of biosecurity standards requires that there is only one amphibian kept per container. This will ensure the protection of the diagnostic facility from potential pathogens.
Table 7: Brief description of eradication and containment options
Method Description Time to Equipment Risks Comments control cost + Personnel required
1. Capture by Adult toad may be easily Immediate NA Snakebite risk if Dip-netting disturbs hand or with caught by hand if in confined 1 or 2 people reaching under logs both aquatic vegetation hand held net space. Tadpoles may also be and into leaf litter. and the substrate, captured using this method. Exposure to skin increasing turbidity in toxins – use gloves the water column when handling (Bennett et al 2012) 2. Using toad Trap with a light source is On-going $190 per trap. May catch non-target Will only ever catch a light traps used, shuts when treadle is 2 personnel to species, use with small percentage of any set off. setup and species specific adult toad population. If monitor pheromone to reduce technique is used this risk. May catch alone, it is not viable for snakes – risk to long term eradication personnel. purposes. Use limited to nocturnal species only. 3. Toad light Species specific pheromone On-going $190 per trap Minimal – risk to Currently pheromone traps with is used to attract more toads 2 personnel to personnel of available for cane toads pheromone to the traps but this is still setup and snakebite only attractant or not an effective long term monitor acoustic lure eradication agent 4. Funnel trap A small, mesh aquatic trap Dependant on Negligible General risks Currently only available and tadpole set with a species specific pond size, 2 personnel to involved with working for use with cane toads. attractant tadpole attractant. tadpole setup and on or near water Works well to catch density monitor cane-toad tadpoles in native ponds – need further research to establish which chemicals are involved with Black Spined Toad 5. Pheromones (HopStop) Rapid – 2 HopStop Minimal Need to ensure Combination stress the tadpoles, causes days, depends developed by parasite has single Pre-Incursion Plan PIP003 Toads and Frogs 8
Table 7: Brief description of eradication and containment options
Method Description Time to Equipment Risks Comments control cost + Personnel required
of tadpole many to die. Toadlet on size of Pestat Pty Ltd specific host species. alarm survivors are smaller so water body 3 personnel Research conducted on pheromones introduction of species cane-toads only at this and lungworm specific parasite is very stage. parasite bio effective. Cane toad specific. control agent 6. Poisoning Sprinkle rotenone powder or Relatively Chemical cost High likelihood of Requires permit from metamorphs mix the liquid version into all rapid – plus hire of fire non-target kill – use APVMA. Not an using water bodies where depends on tanker to as last resort environmentally sound rotenone metamorphs are found size of water deliver method but may be (Morley et al 2006). Will only body – only chemical to effective in small water affect the gill breathing life used during water body bodies. Has been used stages of each species. breeding effectively in NSW to period control mosquito fish (NSW DPI, 2009)
7. Use of toad Sniffer dog is used to detect Ongoing $50000- Dog used too early in Used where toads are detector dog evidence of toad activity in an 6 weeks to $100000 to breeding season- in low density or area train new train new dog may give false presence is unknown. dog/handler 1 dog and negative result. Dog trained only to handler recognise cane toad DNA at this stage 8. Use of Construct a smooth barrier Permanent or Dependant on Minimal Is possibility that physical fence or trench at least semi- size of area individuals may escape barriers to 600mms high/deep/wide to permanent Contractors to through the fencing contain contain toads. barrier construct anurans barrier 9. Effective for tadpoles (Laufer 1 day per App $8000 May be some off- Electrofishing & Waitzmann 2002) water body target effects
10. Shooting Has been used in Germany Variable Minimal – cost Toads may be Only useful for larger on adult bullfrogs (Laufer & of contractor maimed rather than species (mainly toads). Waitzmann 2002) 2 personnel killed Would require silencer May not destroy all and populous place individuals permits if conducted in urban area. 11. Shooting & Used effectively in Germany Variable Variable – Toads may be Only useful for larger pond fencing to eradicate populations of depends on maimed rather than species (mainly toads). adult bullfrogs (Laufer water body killed. May not Would require silencer &Waitzmann, 2002) size destroy all individuals and populous place Fencing permits if conducted in contractor urban area 12. Drain, Water body is drained (water One week Variable – up Risk of reintroduction Used to eradicate excavate and removed is filtered to ensure to $20,000 of pest to site. bullfrogs in the UK. compact soil no animals are removed with 2 personnel Technique used after back into the water), base of water Contractor trapping, shooting ponds body is excavated (soil is and/or electrofishing sieved) and then pressed has been conducted back into base of pond. (Banks et.al 2000) 13. Use of A species of Lungworm Long term Personnel Research on this biocontrol (Rhabdias spp.) has been costs technique has been agent used experimentally to infect carried out on cane- cane toads at the frontline in toads only Slow acting an attempt to slow progress. –more of a containment benefit after establishment 14. Install 8cm lengths of 2cm diameter Ongoing Cheap May not be utilised Can be used for both artificial PVC pipe are hung in trees equipment by all individuals, no arboreal and terrestrial refugia and and placed in the ground to costs – labour guarantee of species nesting sites act as artificial diurnal intensive eradication (e.g. PVC pipe retreats 2 personnel May be risks Pre-Incursion Plan PIP003 Toads and Frogs 9
Table 7: Brief description of eradication and containment options
Method Description Time to Equipment Risks Comments control cost + Personnel required
or bamboo) as associated with traps working at heights for arboreal species. 15. Apply 16% Citric acid solution is applied Ongoing Cost of hiring May result in Technique is used in citric acid directly to frogs and eggs spray phytotoxic effects, Hawaii to deal with solution to using agricultural sprayers equipment and may affect some coqui frogs (Sin & infested areas with agitators, has also been contractors non-target Radford, 2007). Not applied aerially 4 personnel arthropods currently an accepted method in Australia.
Table 8: Species specific eradication and containment options
Please refer to Table 7 for a full description of options (option numbers correspond to method numbers)
Option 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Cane Toad √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Black Spined Toad √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Marbled Toad √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Blue Poison-arrow frog √ √ √ √ √
Splash-backed Poison- √ √ √ √ √ arrow frog Dyeing Poison- arrow frog √ √ √ √ √ √
Green Poison-arrow frog √ √ √
African Bullfrog √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
(North) American Bullfrog √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Common Coqui √ √ √ √ √ √
European Fire-bellied toad √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Oriental Fire-bellied toad √ √ √ √ √ √ √
African Clawed Toad √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Surinam Toad √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Table 9: Brief description of disease, parasite and infection risks
Zoonoses Disease agent Transmission route WHS considerations Notification requirements
Aeromoniasis Aeromonas Ingestion of As above plus protective NA hydrophila –causes contaminated water mask and eye protection if “red-leg syndrome” or splash hazard present amphibian septicaemia
Campylobacter Campylobacter spp. Handling and ingestion As above plus protective NA of animal and/or mask and eye protection if
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Table 9: Brief description of disease, parasite and infection risks
Zoonoses Disease agent Transmission route WHS considerations Notification requirements
contaminated water splash hazard present
Chlamydiosis Direct contact, As above plus respiratory NA respiratory route of protection faecal-oral route
External Mites Direct contact with Gloves NA parasites animal
Gastroenteritis Escheria coli Wound contamination As above plus protective NA or ingestion of mask and eye protection if contaminated water splash hazard present
Gnathostomiasis Nematode larvae Handling/ingestion of As above plus protective NA contaminated water mask and eye protection if splash hazard present
Mycobacteriosis Mycobacterium spp. Exposure of wounded As above plus protective NA skin to contaminated mask and eye protection if animals, soil or water splash hazard present
Salmonellosis Salmonella spp. Faecal-oral disease – Wear nitrile or latex gloves NA bacterium Direct or indirect when handling and wash ingestion hands frequently
Saprophytic Zygomycosis, Inhalation, ingestion or As above plus respiratory NA fungi Phycomycosis, inoculation with spores protection Mucormycosis
Sparganosis Cestodes of the Ingestion of Gloves and wash hands NA genus Spirometra undercooked frog meat, frequently (tapeworms) skin penetration or contaminated water
Reference material: Alworth and Harvey, 2007
N.B. The National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System (NNDSS) collects data from all states regarding the presence/absence of each disease, and produces regular reports.
Table 10: Treatment specific WHS considerations
Hazard Control
Spread of Chytridiomycosis Ensure proper cleaning, disinfecting and /or sterilising of equipment and footwear fungus when moving between sites Wear single-use gloves (latex or nitrile) when handling adult frogs. Use well rinsed vinyl gloves for handling embryos and larvae Animals obtained at different sites are kept isolated from each other
Firearm risks Only trained and licensed operator to use
Working in boats Minimum of two personnel on site at all times. Life-vests to be worn, personnel able to swim. Personnel to be qualified and hold recreational boat licence.
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Table 10: Treatment specific WHS considerations
Hazard Control
Working near water hazards Minimum of two personnel on site at all times. Life-vests to be worn, personnel able to swim
Refer to the relevant ASBO Job Safety Plan: Field Operations SOP for further details.
Table 11: Animal related OHS considerations Mild-moderate toxic skin Extreme neurotoxic Aggressive bite risk
secretions secretions
Cane Toad √
Black Spined Toad √
Marbled Toad √
Blue Poison-arrow frog √
Splash-backed Poison- √ arrow frog
Dyeing Poison-arrow frog √
Green Poison-arrow frog √
African Bullfrog √
(North) American Bullfrog √
Common Coqui
European Fire-bellied toad √
Oriental Fire-bellied toad √
African Clawed Toad
Surinam Toad
Table 12: Identification requirements - take photo/video and e-mail to:
Name Organisation Contact Details
Dr Jane Melville Museum Victoria (03) 8341 7444 (Senior Curator – [email protected] Terrestrial Vertebrates)
See document titled ‘Procedure for Museum Victoria Identifications’ for details on the delivery of live or dead specimens to museum staff.
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Table 13: Euthanasia options
Method Description Comments
1. Lethal Injection (Lethobarb) Inject a dose rate of 60mg/kg of sodium DEDJTR Veterinarian or registered pentobarbitone. Preferred method user of barbiturates required for this (ANZCCART 2001) method. A non-vet can administer lethobarb under veterinary direction
2. Place in solution of chloral Place a 2-3mm layer of 3% solution in a Is anaesthetising agent, animal dies hydrate container and place toad inside rapidly in a relaxed state (ANZCCART, 2001)
3. Place in a solution of MS-222 or The benzocaine must be dissolved in This is a non-irritant, quick and benzocaine acetone before use. Both solutions humane method of killing should be neutralised with bicarbonate amphibians. before placing the animal in them, to reduce possible skin irritation (ANZCCART, 2001)
Table 14: Sampling/Autopsy requirements
Sampling required Cost Provider Comments
Antemortem examination, Up to 5kgs -$129 AgriBio Veterinary Diagnostic Costs include euthanasia via necropsy procedure, gross Services lethal injection, with analysis being 5-60 kgs – $194 examination of tissues, and additional, relative to the number Mark Hawes collection and storage of > 60kgs - $388 of necropsy samples supplied. samples are required. (03) 90327275
Antemortem examination, Warranwood Veterinary Centre For analysis of necropsy samples necropsy procedure, gross Brendan Carmel is additional and dependant on the examination of tissues, [email protected] number of samples collection and storage of (03) 9879 0900 samples. Shop 2, 1 Colman Road, Warranwood, Vic, 3134
Refer to SOP: Tissue Sampling for further details as to sampling procedures for DNA analysis
Table 15: Disposal options
Method Description Cost Comments
Incineration Animal remains are destroyed in a high $3.00/kg This method is used by AgriBio Veterinary temperature incinerator. Diagnostic Services for disposal of all animal carcasses.
Mark Hawes
(03) 90327275
Deep burial Bury animal remains to reduce Minor cost To be used when alternative means are transmission and spread of bacteria unavailable and only at a Council approved and disease. animal pit.
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Table 16: Legislation, regulations and required permits
Permits & training Why required? Legislation Contact person
APVMA Emergency To use poisons that are currently Commonwealth: APVMA – (02) 62104701 Permit or Special Use unregistered for use in Australia, or not Agricultural and [email protected] Permit registered for use on the specific pest Veterinary Chemicals Statewide Specialist Chemicals species being managed. Code Act (1994) [email protected] (03) Victorian: Agricultural 5430 4463 and Veterinary 0407 258 433 Chemicals (Control of Use) Act 1992
Animal Ethics To tag native turtles and to euthanase Wildlife Act 1975 Max Campbell EO Wildlife and Small Approval invasive amphibians. (DELWP) Institutions AEC (03) 9217 4429
DEDJTR Fisheries To use traps in Vic inland waters. Traps Fisheries Act 1998 John Vaytauer Permit require tagging with contact details (DEDJTR) 03 96584304 attached.
Pest Animal – Animal Exhibition Permits are required to Catchment and Land Jenni Nunan DEDJTR Pest Animal Approved Collections keep Pest Animals and for .private Protection Act 1994 Permit Administrator (Animal Exhibition) keeping of amphibians. Animals retained (DEDJTR) (03) 5761 1580 Permit for longer than 12 hours, for any reason, must be kept under permit and in accordance with the Code of Practice for the welfare of animals. –
Land Manager Land Manager permits are required to Conditions specific to The contact person is specific to the (Council, Parks access and work on council, parks each council area. land tenure at each site. Victoria, Water Victoria or Melbourne Water owned land. Authority)
‘Populous Place’ and These permits are required when using Firearms Act 1996 Catherine Leask (first contact) or ‘Silencer’ (suppressor) firearms with a silencer (suppressor) Theresa Borg (secondary contact)– permits attached and/or in a populous place Victoria Police (s.130(3) and 57 Firearms Act 1996) . (03) 9247 3249
POCTA Regulations Consult the POCTA regulations prior to Prevention of Cruelty to Jane Malcolm – Senior Policy undertaking any trapping. Animals Act (1986) Officer-Animal Welfare [email protected] (03) 51470829 0428 547135
Table 17: General species and technical experts
Name Organisation Contact Area of expertise
Dr Ross Alford James Cook University QLD [email protected] Cane Toad researcher (07) 47814732
Marion Anstis NSW tadpole expert [email protected] Tadpole identification expertise
John Birkett Melbourne Zoo (03) 92859300 Reptile Keeper [email protected]
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Table 17: General species and technical experts
Name Organisation Contact Area of expertise
Nick Clemann Arthur Rylah Institute (ARI) [email protected] Researcher with ARI, experience (03) 9450 8674 with amphibians and reptiles 0427 650 167
Dr Brad Congdon James Cook University QLD [email protected] Cane Toad & ABST researcher (07) 4042 1212
Dr Bob Creese NSW DPI (02) 49163806 Managed eradication of invasive [email protected] fish using rotenone in NSW
Dr Graeme Northern Territory [email protected] Biology and ecology of ABST. Has Gillespie Department of Land (08) 8995 5025 worked in Indonesia with this Resource Management 0429 091 783 species
Mirza Kusrini Dept of Forest Conservation [email protected] ABST researcher – provided audio & Ecotourism - Indonesia calls
Gerry Marintelli Manager Amphibian [email protected] Research, identification Research Centre (03) 97423764 0424 400 794
Dr Jane Melville Museum Victoria (03) 8341 7444 Dr Jane Melville [email protected] Senior Curator Terrestrial Vertebrates and herpetologist
Dr Kirsten Parris School of Botany [email protected] Researcher, provide advice on Uni of Melbourne (03) 9035 8090 survey methods & ID
Peter Robertson Wildlife Profiles Pty Ltd [email protected] Herpetologist, (03) 9718 2828 Provides advice on survey methods 0429 339 697 and ID, undertakes field work.
Table 18: List of Acronyms
ACZ CALP Permit : Approved Collection Zoo
ANZCCART Australian and New Zealand Council for the Care of Animals in Research and Teaching
APVMA Australasian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicine Association
CALP Catchment and Land Protection Act
COP Code of Practice
DEDJTR Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources
DELWP Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning
IPAC Invasive Plants and Animals Committee
NHMRC National Health and Medical Research Council
PCO Pest Control Officer
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Table 18: List of Acronyms
POCTA Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act
PPE Personal Protective Equipment
SOP Standard Operating Procedure
WHS Workplace Health and Safety
Table 19: Glossary
Amplexus The mating grasp male frogs/toads utilise to stimulate the release of eggs and sperm for external fertilisation.
Biosecurity Security measures against the transmission of pests and diseases into the plants or animals of a particular region
Endemic Specific to a particular locality
Fecundity Measure of the ability to produce young in great numbers
Metamorph A product of metamorphosis (a change of form during the postembryonic or embryonic growth of an animal by which it is adapted to a special way of living or environment usually different to that of the preceding life stage)
Pheromone A secreted or excreted chemical which is used as a form of communication between individuals of the same species
Spawning Shedding of the sex cells (eggs and sperm) directly into water
Vivipary Development of the embryo inside the mother leading to the birth of live young
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Appendices
1. Bufonidae Family: Species Specific Table
IPAC Incursion status Species General classification In the wild Image Diet Habitat / Behaviour Breeding description & CaLP declaration VIC AUS
Rhinella Adults average IPAC Extreme Kept under Widely distributed Opportunistic Mainly nocturnal – This species breeds throughout the year, 10-15 cm in CaLP permit in Qld, northern omnivores – average toad may be although in tropical environments breeding marinus length, largest CaLP NSW, the NT and terrestrial active on one night out tends to peak during the wet season. Female
recorded toad Controlled Single animals now in the arthropods, of every 3 or 4. toads reach sexual maturity at a snout-vent Cane Toad was almost 40 detected in the Kimberley region snails, worms, Seek shelter under logs length of between 80-100mms, males at a cm long. The wild and seized of WA crabs, spiders, and leaf litter – do not slightly shorter length. Breeding males skin is dry and through illegal small burrow. aggregate at a suitable water body and warty and may trade (K. Larner. mammals, Generally a tropical vocalise loudly to attract females. Amplexus vary in colour Pers comm.) birds, lizards species, during winter in may continue for several hours, spawning from grey, to and frogs, dog temperate climes toads occurs soon after. Eggs are laid in long brown or yellow. food and will seek shelter and gelatinous lengths, each female can lay Distinct bony garbage enter dormancy (Easteal between 8,000-30,000 eggs. The eggs then ridges run from & Floyd, 1986). Only take between 36 hours and 4 days to hatch. above the eyes males vocalise. Larvae metamorphose after 4-8 weeks and at to the snout. A these point form dense aggregations around large parotid the edge of water bodies. Cane toads grow gland is evident rapidly and reach adulthood in 1-2 years. behind each eye. Juveniles have smooth, dark skin and no parotid gland. Duttaphrynus Reaches 20 cm IPAC Extreme Currently In March 2015 a Opportunistic Wetlands, forest Sexual maturity in this species can be reached in length. This undeclared live male toad was omnivores, margins, disturbed sites when the animals are as small as 23g in body melanostictus species is yellow CaLP unlisted under CALP discovered in the mainly and modified weight. In monsoonal areas, female black to brown in Individual found Sydney suburb of insectivorous environments. spined toads breed once a year, and spawning colour with black, in container in Belrose. Sub-species able to generally occurs after heavy rains or at the Black Spined spiny warts and NZ that was adapt to habitats up to onset of the monsoon season. In areas with a Toad ridges. The belly imported from Since 2003, over 3000m in altitude. stable climate, breeding can occur throughout is unmarked and Melbourne, 2009 80 animals have Nocturnal, but has been the year. Long strings of externally fertilised In March 2014 a been incepted in found active during the eggs (up to 40,000 per clutch) are laid in deep
Pre-Incursion Plan PIP003 Toads and Frogs 17
IPAC Incursion status Species General classification In the wild Image Diet Habitat / Behaviour Breeding description & CaLP declaration VIC AUS
a paler colour. live female toad air and seaports. day. Tolerates brackish water, often attached to aquatic vegetation. was found in a water up to 50% salinity The eggs develop into larvae between 24-48 backyard in Males call throughout hours after spawning, depending on the water Sunbury. wet season temperature. Tadpoles metamorphose after 34-90 days.
Bufo IPAC Extreme Currently Seized by AQIS at Voracious Tolerates wide range of Breeding season begins at the onset of the undeclared border feeder – eats climatic conditions. monsoon season in peninsular India, from stomaticus CaLP unlisted under CALP mainly insects Nocturnal, but active in June until September each year (Ranjit and worms the day during breeding Daniels, 2005). After mating, the fertilised eggs season. Opportunistic are laid in a gelatinous double string – Marbled breeder, lays eggs in between 9 and11,000 eggs are laid in shallow Toad small ponds and pools of rain water. The eggs hatch in as little puddles. Tadpoles are as 24 hours. entirely aquatic. Will bury itself in loose soil or hide in a burrow during dry season.
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2. Dendrobatidae Family: Species Specific Table
IPAC Incursion status Species General classification In the wild Image Diet Habitat / Behaviour Breeding description & CaLP declaration VIC AUS
Dendrobates Medium sized IPAC Not Listed Currently undeclared Not reported in the wild Insectivorous Terrestrial, stay close to Poison arrow frogs can breed azureus frog, reaches 3- under CALP, –ants, flies, water. Active during day. throughout the year. Females 4.5 cm in length. CaLP unlisted proposed controlled spiders and lay 6-10 eggs on the land or Skin is bright caterpillars attached to vegetation, which Blue Poison- blue with black are then fertilised externally by arrow frog spots the male. The males assume responsibility for protecting the clutch, and once hatched will carry the tadpoles on his back to a water source. Tadpoles hatch in 3-4 weeks. Tadpoles undergo metamorphosis about a month later. Adelphobates Face and IPAC Not Listed Currently undeclared Not reported in the wild Insectivorous Terrestrial and diurnal. Lives Poison arrow frogs can breed galactonotus underside of this under CALP, in leaf-litter of tropical throughout the year. frog is a glossy CaLP unlisted proposed controlled rainforest. Eggs laid on black, top of ground and tadpoles carried Splash- head and dorsal to water backed surface is a Poison- mottled orange- arrow frog yellow colour
Dendrobates Reaches a IPAC Serious Kept under CaLP Not reported in the wild Insectivorous Terrestrial and diurnal Females lay a clutch of 2-6 tinctorius length of 5cms, permit Approved eggs which are then externally colour variations CaLP unlisted Collection Zoo fertilised and guarded by the within this male. The eggs hatch within Dyeing species are 14-18 days and are then Poison- enormous carried by both the male and arrow frog female to small pools of water in bromeliads, tree cavities and the like.
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IPAC Incursion status Species General classification In the wild Image Diet Habitat / Behaviour Breeding description & CaLP declaration VIC AUS
Dendrobates Reaches 3-5 cm IPAC Extreme Currently undeclared Not reported in the wild Insectivorous Arboreal and terrestrial Poison arrow frogs can breed in length, colour under CALP, diurnal species. Eggs throughout the year. Females auratus variations within CaLP unlisted proposed prohibited deposited on leaf-litter. lay a clutch of 5-7 eggs which this species Tadpoles carried by male to are then fertilised externally by Green range from mint, pool of water in tree the male. The males assume emerald or lime branches or axil of responsibility for protecting the Poison- green, through to bromeliad. Are 15 distinct clutch, and once hatched (10- arrow frog turquoise, cobalt colour morphs 13 days following fertilisation), blue or pale tadpoles are taken by the adult yellow male and deposited in small pools of water in bromeliads, tree cavities and the like. Time to metamorphosis varies between 40 and 60 days. In captivity, this species will breed in it’s first or second year, and may survive for 8-10 years in captivity.
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3. Hylidae Family – Species specific table
IPAC Incursion status Species General classification Image In the wild Diet Habitat / Behaviour Breeding description & CaLP declaration VIC AUS Osteopillus Adults range in IPAC Extreme Currently Not known in the Omnivorous This species is native to This species breeds year round, but septentriona size from 76- undeclared wild Cuba, the Bahamas and mostly during the northern lis 140mms and CaLP unlisted under CALP, Between 2013- Cayman Islands.. It is a hemisphere wet season when vary in colour 2015, 8 highly invasive species temperatures are above 27 degrees Cuban tree from an olive individuals of with established Celsius with high humidity. Clutches frog brown to a this species populations throughout of between 100-3000 eggs are laid, greyish white have been the Caribbean, Florida larger clutches are laid by the larger (Wikipedia, detected in 3 (via trade in palm trees) females. Eggs hatch within 30 hours 2016)The skin is separate and Hawaii (Lever, and fully develop within four weeks. rough and warty incidents, all in 2003). Studies from This species is commonly available and the eyes sea cargo Florida suggest that this as a pet in the United States, have an orange shipments of frog is outcompeting despite the fact it produces a toxic tint. used vehicles or native species, and has mucus which burns the eyes and used boats from few natural predators due can cause allergic reactions the United to its skin toxicity (Wikipedia, 2016). States. (Johnson, 2007). The Cuban tree frog is nocturnal and is an excellent climber, sleeping above ground level during the day. They can survive in brackish water, and are found in swamps, forests, and in and around buildings and gardens (Johnson, 2007))
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4. Microylidae family – Species specific table
IPAC Incursion status Species General classification Image In the wild Diet Habitat / Behaviour Breeding description & CaLP declaration VIC AUS Kaloula This species IPAC Serious Currently Not known in This species The Banded bullfrog is native to This species mates during the pulchra reaches 7-8 cms (Page et al undeclared the wild is mostly Southeast Asia and is found in monsoon rains in the northern in length with a 2008) under Between carnivorous, rice fields, forests and inside hemisphere. After the eggs hatch Banded brown back and CALP, 2013-2015, feeding on homes. This is a nocturnal metamorphosis can occur within two Bullfrog, cream stomach. CaLP unlisted proposed 4 individuals ants, flies, species, feeding at night and weeks (Wikipedia, 2016). Chubby The distinctive prohibited of this moths, sheltering under leaf litter during frog or stripes down species have crickets, the day. It has been introduced Asiatic either side range been seized grasshopper and established in Guam, painted in colour from post border s and Singapore (Ng and Yeo, 2012), frog orange to in shipping worms. Borneo and Sulawesi (Lever, salmon pink container or 2003). (Wikipedia, air cargo 2016). from Vietnam and Thaliand
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5. Ranidae Family: Species Specific Table
IPAC Incursion status Species General classification In the wild Habitat / Image Diet Breeding description & CaLP Behaviour declaration VIC AUS
Pyxicephalu IPAC Serious Not Held in Carnivorous – eats Lives in wide variety Breeding is generally confined to the wet season in s adspersus reported in accredited zoo insects, small of habitats in Africa their native habitat, from September to January. CaLP unlisted, the wild collections and rodents, birds, including savanna, Breeding males aggregate at a suitable water body proposed research reptiles and other dry shrubland, and vocalise loudly to attract females. Amplexus may African controlled facilities. amphibians pasture and ditches. continue for several hours, spawning occurs soon Bullfrog Is aggressive and after. Fertilisation of the eggs is external and spawn is known to bite. Non- generally deposited in shallow water, less than 8 cms migratory. deep. Between 1600 and 4000 eggs are laid. Males remain to guard their eggs and at a temperature of 29°C, eggs hatch within 48 hours. Adult males defend their tadpoles and metamorphosis may occur in as little as 17 days. Growth is then very rapid. These large frogs may live for 15-25 years in captivity. Lithobates Generally 9-15 cm IPAC Extreme Not Carnivorous – Aquatic frog – lives Breeding begins in late spring or early summer in the catesbeiana in body length, reported in rodents, snakes, in permanent US. Amplexus occurs and the female deposits eggs brown in colour CaLP unlisted, the wild small turtles, other waterbodies, moves while the male simultaneously deposits sperm. Up to with a distinct pair proposed amphibians, birds overland on rainy 20,000 eggs may be laid in a single clutch. Eggs hatch (North) of humps on the prohibited and invertebrates nights. Up to 20,000 in 3-5 days and metamorphosis varies from a few American back. eggs are laid in a months in the southern areas of their range up to 3 Bullfrog One of World’s clutch, hatch in 3-5 years in the northern areas. Maximum lifespan in the Worst 100 days wild is 8-10 years. Invaders
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6. Leptodactylidae Family: Species Specific Table
IPAC Incursion status Species General classification In the wild Image Diet Habitat / Behaviour Breeding description & CaLP declaration VIC AUS
Eleutheroda Males measure IPAC Extreme Currently Not known in the Nocturnal predator – Habitat generalist – Breeding is year round, but more 30-37 mm, undeclared wild mostly insectivorous, forests, mountains. Do common during hot and humid ctylus coqui females may CaLP unlisted under CALP, also snails and small not require water to conditions. Males call to attract females, reach 36-52 mm in proposed Qld have this frogs breed, lay eggs on palm amplexus then occurs and fertilisation is Common length. Grey or On list of ‘100 prohibited species under leaves or other internal. Clutch size varies from 12-30 grey-brown in Worst Invaders’ legislation for vegetation – no tadpole eggs, generally depending on the size of Coqui colour with no research permits stage the female. Males defend the eggs and membrane hatchlings from predators. Development between digits. is direct, with the juveniles undergoing complete metamorphosis within the egg and hatching as tiny froglets. This species may reach reproductive size within 12 months. The lifespan is usually only two years, however records of 6 year old coquis do exist.
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7. Bombinatoridae Family: Species Specific Table
IPAC Incursion status Species General classification In the wild Image Diet Habitat / Behaviour Breeding description & CaLP declaration VIC AUS
Bombina This species has IPAC Serious IPAC Extreme Currently Insects and Prefers sunny, well Reproduction occurs from April to July or bombina bumpy skin and undeclared under invertebrates such vegetated, shallow August and is initiated by heavy rainfall. webbed back feet. CaLP unlisted, CaLP unlisted CALP as worms and stagnant water – found up Amplexus occurs and spawn consists of Belly is orange to proposed arthropods. to 590m altitude. Males small clutches of 10-40 eggs which are European bright red in colour controlled Tadpoles eat have a loud, melodic call. attached to vegetation. Several of these fire-bellied with black bars algae and plant Hibernates in hollows or clutches are rapidly produced and a toad and stripes. Dorsal matter. under stones in winter. female may lay a total of 80-300 eggs. surface is lime Tadpoles hatch after 2-5 days and green with black metamorphosis occurs 5-12 weeks later. spots. Sexual maturity is reached at an age of 1-2 years and the lifespan of these toads is up to 10 years.
Bombina Up to 4 cms long, IPAC Extreme IPAC Extreme Currently Insects and Semi-aquatic – found in Reproduction occurs from late spring until orientalis bright green back undeclared under invertebrates such warm, humid forest areas. early summer (May-mid August in Nthn with black mottling CaLP unlisted, CaLP unlisted CALP as worms and Males call with a light, Hem). Pelvic amplexus is used. Clutches and a bright proposed arthropods barking croak. vary in size from 40-160 eggs, laid in Oriental yellow-red prohibited groups of 3-45 eggs. Females can deposit fire-bellied underside multiple clutches within a season. Hatching toad One of World’s occurs in about 2 months and Worst 100 metamorphosis is complete approximately Invaders 3 months. Records report these toads surviving for up to 20 years.
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8. Pipidae Family: Species Specific Table
IPAC Incursion status Species General classification In the wild Image Diet Habitat / Behaviour Breeding description & CaLP declaration VIC AUS
Xenopus Can reach up IPAC Serious Kept under Qld have under Scavenger – The African clawed toad is Sexual reproduction in this species is laevis to 12 cm long. CaLP permit legislation for eat anything, native to southern Africa and reached in 10-12 months. Mating can occur This species CaLP Controlled, Approved research permits. but highly has been used worldwide for throughout the year and may occur up to 4 has a proposed Collection One animal carnivorous biomedical research purposes times each year. Mating occurs as pelvic African flattened head prohibited Zoo previously held in since the 1940’s (Tinsley et al amplexus, females lay clutches of 500-2,000 Clawed and body and high security 2015). Introduced populations eggs at a time which stick to stones and Toad is normally facilities acquired had survived in the cooler other underwater objects. A female is green-grey in through seizure climates of the UK and Wales for therefore capable of laying up to 8,000 eggs colour, (IPAC 2007) 20-50 years. Two years of per year. Eggs hatch within a week and although freezing, dry winters have seen metamorphosis occurs from 5-7 weeks later. albino morphs the extinction of these The longevity of this species may be up to are available. introduced populations (Tinsley 15 years. et al 2015). This is an aquatic toad – native to wetlands, ponds and lakes across southern Africa. This species burrows into mud to aestivate and have a wide salinity and temperature tolerance. The Clawed toad is Immune to B. dendrobatidis fungi and may be responsible for its’ worldwide spread. Pipa sp. This toad is IPAC Extreme Currently Not known in the Small fish and Entirely aquatic – live on muddy Breeding occurs in response to an increase almost flat, undeclared wild aquatic bottom of tropical rivers in Sth in water levels and a decrease in water Surinam and is mottled CaLP unlisted under CALP invertebrates America. Eggs develop on temperature. Females deposit 60-100 eggs brown in females back, hatch live near the surface of the water, they are then Toads colour. They toadlets. Males produce a sharp fertilised by the male and distributed over the (star- may be clicking sound, rather than a back of the female. The eggs sink into the fingered between 10- croak, to attract females. dorsal skin and after 10 days each egg is toads) 20 cms in embedded in an individual chamber. They length, with remain on her back for 12-20 weeks until tiny eyes. fully metamorphosed. The young then break out through the membranes which cover each chamber.
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9. Excursus – Asian black-spined toad Duttaphrynus melanostictus Following the 2014 Asian black-spined toad incursion at Sunbury, the below listed methods were utilised in the surveillance and detection of a small numbers of animals in a peri-urban landscape. They should be considered/read in the context of the above listed information.
Table 1: Delimitation survey options
Please refer to Table 3 for a comparison of these options
Method Comment 1. Active Active searching should be undertaken immediately around the site of detection. All holes and searching – line cracks in the ground are investigated thoroughly, as are areas lit by street or house lights.. transects 2. Spot Light Spot light searches are used as the primary surveillance option, with particular attention paid to searches areas around street lights, areas of wet or moist ground and open spaces (like parklands). Surveys are more effective on wet or humid evening and in temperatures above 12-14 degrees Celsius. All spotlight searches should be tracked using a GPS to record the coverage of the searches. 3. Auditory Auditory monitoring should always be undertaken in conjunction with spot light searches as Monitoring auditory monitoring will detect far more individuals and species than visual surveillance alone. Sound recorders should also be used in areas that are considered to be potential habit for target species. Recording should start an hour prior to sunset and continue for four hours after sunset. Recordings can be done at other times of the day, however are far less effective. A limiting factor in the usefulness of this method is the fact that only males will call. This limits the potential animals detectible to only 50% of the population. 4. Auditory The use of an acoustic lure can be used as an axillary survey technique. A good quality speaker monitoring using is required and the monitoring is undertaken for a period of 3-10 minutes at each site acoustic lure 5. Toad Light The use of toad traps in built up areas where there are other artificial light sources is not very traps effective. Lights used as attractants need to be very bright. 6. Education Door knocking the surrounding area is an effective method of gathering intelligence and building Campaign up a local passive surveillance network for the species. Social media can be extremely effective at getting information out to the wider community whilst also being targeted. Any engagement on the species will lead to an increase in the number of misidentified reports, particularly of endemic species such as the Eastern Banjo frogs (Limnodynastes drumerlii). 9. Egg, tadpole Eggs are laid in strings similar to cane toads (Rhinella marinus) which is quite distinguishable and metamorph from native species. The use of dip nets is not recommended in most situations, however bait sampling traps with glow sticks were moderately effective, though effectiveness varied on geographically and temporally.
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Table 2: Specific Delimitation survey options for the Asian Black-spined toad
1. Active visual survey – line Undertake this method in the area immediately adjacent to the initial point of detection transects or quadrats
2. Spot Light searches Recommended method
3. Auditory Monitoring Recommended method – will pick up males only
4. Auditory monitoring using Recommended method - will pick up males only acoustic lure
5. Toad Light traps Only undertake in non-urban areas Recommended, however it should be targeted. 6. Education Campaign Only use at point of entry or at ports. 7. Active Inspection of containers/ships Only use in areas that are geographically contained. 8. Pit fall trapping Recommended in areas that have waterbodies close by 9. Egg, tadpole and metamorph sampling Limited application for amphibians 10. Use of a motion sensor triggered camera
Table 3: Detection, control, monitoring and breeding calendar
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Detection √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Treatment √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Monitoring √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Breeding √ √ √ √ √
Detection and monitoring is more dependent on weather and seasonal conditions than on the time of the year. Night minimum temperature is the key variable, as there is greater activity when night temperatures are above 12-14°C.
Pre-Incursion Plan PIP003 Toads and Frogs 28
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Cossell, JO, Gaige, MG and Sauder, JD. 2012. Electroshocking as a survey technique for stream-dwelling amphibians. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 36 (2): 358-364.
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http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query?where-genus=Dendrobates&where-species=tinctorius http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Asian-Toad-Risk-Assessment.pdf http://www.frogforum.net/content/african-bullfrog-pyxicephalus-adspersus-care-breeding-118/ http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animalhttp://www.honoluluzoo.org/surinam_toad.htms/ReptilesAmphibians/Facts/FactSheets/Afri canclawedfrog.cfm http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/ReptilesAmphibians/Facts/FactSheets/Orientalfirebelliedtoad.cfm http://www.waza.org/en/zoo/choose-a-species/amphibians/frogs-and-toads/bombina-bombina https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banded_bullfrog http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullfrog https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_tree_frog
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Photographic References
References sourced on 09/03/2010 & 14/7/2015
Species Website Cane Toad http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bufo_marinus_from_Australia.JPG
Black Spined Toad http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bufo_melanostictus_female.jpg
Marbled Toad http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bufo_stomaticus
Blue Poison-arrow http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dendrobates_azureus_(Dendrobates_tinctorius)_Edit.jpg frog
Splash-backed http://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dendrobates_galactonotus.jpg Poison- arrow frog
Dyeing Poison- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dendrobates.tinctorius.7037.jpg arrow frog
Green Poison- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Poison_dart_frog_panama.jpg arrow frog
Cuban Tree frog https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_tree_frog#/media/File:Osteopilus_septentrionalis_6.jpg
Banded Bullfrog https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ChubbyFrog_03.jpg
African Bullfrog http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pyxicephalus_adspersus,_Boston_Aquarium.jpg
(North) American http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:North-American-bullfrog1.jpg Bullfrog
Common Coqui http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Common_Coqu%C3%AD.jpg
European Fire- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bombina_bombina_2_(Marek_Szczepanek).jpg bellied Toad
Oriental Fire-bellied http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bombina_orientalis.jpg Toad
African Clawed http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Xenopus_laevis.jpg Toad
Surinam Toad http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?query_src=aw_lists_genera_&where- taxon=Pipa+pipa&rel-taxon=begins+with&where-lifeform=specimen_tag&rel-lifeform=ne
Pre-Incursion Plan PIP003 Toads and Frogs 32