BaBesch 74 (1999) The pithoi from the ancient Anatolian city of Pessinus. An integrated archaeological and petrographical analysis. G. Devos, P. De Paepe & F. Vermeulen Abstract and that plagues of weevils or rodents had to be con- trolled. Cato writes: Food conservation was a major preoccupation of “To keep weevils and mice from damaging grain all ancient communities. In the classical world of supplies, make a slime of amurca3 and add some the Eastern Mediterranean large ceramic con- chaff. Leave to soak and work thoroughly. Cover tainers, most commonly called pithoi, were the the whole granary with the thick slime and sprinkle standard utensils for the in-house bulk storage of with amurca. After the layer of amurca has dried, such essential food products as grain, wine and store the cooled grain there. The grain supply will oil. Although widely found on protohistoric and not be damaged by weevils.”4 historic sites, these common and often crudely The same principle is described by Varro who also produced containers did not receive much atten- draws attention to the following: tion by archaeologists and ceramologists. This “Wheat should be stored in granaries above ground, paper tries to focus on these artefacts by open to the draught on the east and north. It must analysing the excavated pithos material from the not be exposed to rising damp.”5 central-Anatolian town of Pessinus. The However, there was no consensus of opinion about diachronic approach – with finds from Phrygian the best way of storing grain. Nevertheless Pliny times up to the early Byzantine period – as well seems to prefer silos. He writes: as the integrated archaeological and petro- “The most appropriate method is to store grain in graphical analysis, shed light on such aspects as holes, called siri, as is done in Cappadocia, Thracia, ceramic production techniques, typological evo- Hispania and Africa.”6 lution, commerce and food conservation and con- Varro writes about these siri: sumption in an inland town of classical Turkey. “The bottom of these siri is covered with straw. It is of the utmost importance not to let moisture or air touch them, except when the grain is removed for I. STORAGE OF GRAIN, WINE AND OLIVE OIL IN CLASSI- use; for weevils do not breed in anaerobic condi- CAL ANTIQUITY tions. Wheat stored like that keeps as long as fifty 7 The diet of ancient Greeks and Romans consisted years, and millet more than a hundred.” mainly of grains (principally wheat and barley) Excavations all over the Roman world revealed that processed into porridge and bread, supplemented with this was a widespread method of storage, even in vegetables, fish, poultry, spices, and to a lesser extent relatively damp areas such as England. According 1 to Tacitus, the ancient Germans dug subterranean meat . In addition to that, wine was one of the main 8 beverages consumed by all classes. Olive oil was also storage rooms where they stored their grain . To an essential ingredient of the diet of the ancients2. ordinary farmers, silos offered a user-friendly and One of the principal occupations in the history of economic storage method. However, this method mankind was the successful cultivation and har- could not be used for state purposes. Grain barns vesting of crops. But storing the product was equally and large horrea were more appropriate. important, for that way man could make sure that In addition, grain was preserved in earthenware there would be sufficient supplies to tide over times receptacles. Among the common types of large con- of scarcity until the next harvesting time. A variety tainers, we find the so-called pithoi or dolia. One of of storage techniques were developed. The specific nature of the product to be stored and the nature of the storage itself determined which conservation 1 White 1984, 63. method was most appropriate. 2 Id. 3 Amurca was an important by-product of the oil production. 4 Cato, De Agri Cultura XCII. Grain 5 Varro, De Re Rustica I. LVII. 1. 6 Pliny, Naturalis Historia XVIII. LXXIII. 306. Roman authors writing about agronomics knew very 7 Varro, De Re Rustica I. LVII. 2. well that stored grain had to be kept cool and dry 8 Mauny 1979, 49. 79 their main purposes was the storage of grain for a wine was stored in containers which were buried short or half-long term9. The fact that grains of corn entirely or partly to protect them against climatic were found together with dolia and the discovery of conditions; in other places people stored these con- several broken receptacles that had been repaired tainers under shelters.”20 with lead, which made them unsuitable for the con- In regions with a warmer climate such as Campania, servation of liquids, are proof of this, both directly the finest vintages were preserved in smaller con- and indirectly. They are often found isolated in a tainers (cadi) placed in the open air21. Pliny contin- corner of the living quarters, which implies a mod- ues: “One side of the cella vinaria, or at least the est grain production and a familial, non-collective windows, should face north-east. These cella vinaria control of the goods. should not be located in the vicinity of dunghills and In addition, smaller containers were used, e.g. the tree roots, particularly fig trees. Objects giving off seria 10, the amphora 11 and the cadus 12. Each of a strong smell should not be placed nearby since the these ceramic forms was multifunctional and was wine could be easily impregnated. The dolia must applied for a whole series of products such as wine, be widely spaced to prevent the spreading of germs oil, grain and vegetables. as wine is extremely sensitive to infection. Moreover the shape of the dolia is important: pot- Wine bellied and wide-necked dolia are less suitable. Immediately after the rising of the Dog Star, they During the Graeco-Roman period the making of should be coated with pitch and afterwards rinsed wine involved essentially three processes: treading with seawater or salted water, and then sprinkled in the vat, pressing out the juice in the press, and with ashes of brushwood or else with pottery earth. fermentation and storage in large containers. After Then they should be scrubbed clean and fumigated the pressing process, the wine was channelled or with myrrh. Wine cellars should undergo the same piped from the (the vat under the lacus torcularius treatment regularly. Weak vintages should be kept press) to the cella vinaria for the first stage of vini- in buried dolia, but full-bodied wines should be kept fication. On reaching the cella vinaria, the newly in dolia exposed to the air.”22 pressed and as yet unfermented wine (mustum or gleukos) was run off into earthenware containers, Olive oil ranging in capacity from dolia 13 or orcae (up to 200 modii) to the smaller seriae 14. The manufacturing of this essential product which After the initial phase of fermentation, which usu- was used in the kitchen, but also served as fuel, for ally lasted about nine days, the lids (opercula) were lighting (oil lamps), as an equivalent of soap and for put on, and then sealed to prevent air from enter- religious purposes (e.g. libations), was much more ing15. Every thirty-six days the containers were complicated than the production of wine23. To make inspected16. The entire fermentation period took six oil, olives had to be stoned without crushing the months, during which the liquid was constantly stone since this would spoil the flavour of the oil24. skimmed17. The fermenting vats were opened dur- After pressing the oil had to be separated from the ing the spring festival of the Pithoigia (Greek) or commercially useful but highly contaminated Vinalia (Roman)18. The wine was then transferred amurca or lees. to askoi, cullei, amphorae or cupae for transport and The oil was stored in dolia (dolia olearia) too, sale, or to dolia or amphorae for storage. which were normally proofed by steeping them in The storage arrangements for wine were more com- plex than those required for oil, considering the 9 Amouretti 1986, 72. nature of the fermentation process. The wine was 10 White 1975, 187. best kept in dolia that were buried (dolia defossa). 11 Ibid., 124. Thus a cool and constant temperature and limited 12 Ibid., 129. 13 Dolia vinaria were pear-shaped, with their maximum width contact with the air were guaranteed. This method at the shoulder, to allow for the expansion of the contents dur- was used to prevent after-fermentation. Before they ing the earliest phase of fermentation. cf. White 1975, 145. were buried, pitch (dolia picare) or resin was put on 14 White 1975, 113 the inside – and sometimes on the outside – of the 15 Ibid., 146. 16 Seltman 1957, 70. dolia or pithoi. This was done to reduce the perme- 17 Forbes 1965, 117. ability of these vessels. Later on, it was done 18 Id. because the ancients appreciated the peculiar taste 19 Ibid., 116. 20 Pliny, Naturalis Historia XIV. XXVII. 133. thus imparted to the wine, a flavour that is still typ- 21 19 Pliny, Naturalis Historia XIV. XXVII. 136. ical of the Greek Retsina . 22 Pliny, Naturalis Historia XIV. XXVII. 133-134. Climatic conditions were a determining factor: 23 Amouretti 1986, 153-169. according to Pliny “in districts with a milder climate, 24 Columella, Res Rustica De Arboribus XII. LII. 6. 80 Fig. 1. Location of Pessinus. amurca for a week25. Contrary to the cella vinaria, locating the famous sanctuary of the Phrygian the cella olearia required a higher ambient temper- mother goddess Cybele, whose cult spread from ature26.