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Research Article Diabetic Ankle Fractures: a Review of the Literature and an Introduction to the Adelaide Fracture in the Diabetic Ankle Algorithm and Score

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Research Article Diabetic Ankle Fractures: a Review of the Literature and an Introduction to the Adelaide Fracture in the Diabetic Ankle Algorithm and Score Hindawi Publishing Corporation BioMed Research International Volume 2014, Article ID 153146, 7 pages http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/153146 Research Article Diabetic Ankle Fractures: A Review of the Literature and an Introduction to the Adelaide Fracture in the Diabetic Ankle Algorithm and Score Joshua Yee,1 Anand Pillai,2 and Linda Ferris3 1 Department of Orthopaedics and Trauma, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, 28 Woodville Road, Woodville West, SA5011, Australia 2 South Manchester University Hospital, South Moor Road, Wythenshaw, Manchester, UK 3 The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Woodville West, SA5011, Australia Correspondence should be addressed to Joshua Yee; [email protected] Received 21 April 2013; Revised 16 October 2013; Accepted 17 October 2013; Published 5 January 2014 Academic Editor: Padhraig O’Loughlin Copyright © 2014 Joshua Yee et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Diabetics who have acquired an ankle fracture may be easily missed given their atypical presentation. As such, it is not infrequently seen that these patients are either initially misdiagnosed or ineffectively managed resulting in unnecessary hospital length of stay and procedures. Multiple review articles and retrospective studies have been previously published in the literature, but complete guidelines to assist in accurate diagnosis and cost-effective management for this complex problem do not currently exist. Through a critical analysis of the current literature, a proposed diagnostic and management algorithm and scoring system that can be used to quantify risks in the surgical management are presented for consideration. 1. Introduction databases between the months of September 2010 to March 2011 by the primary author (Joshua Yee). Search terms Both diabetes and ankle fractures are increasing in incidence included “diabetes,” “ankle,” and “fracture.” Available abst- worldwide.In2003,itwasestimatedthat194millionpeople racts of all articles (i.e., no date restriction to search resu- in the world have been diagnosed with diabetes and this is lts) published in the English language in the above databases predicted to exponentially increase to over 333 million by searched within the above timeframe where included for 2025 [1].Anklefracturesareamongstthemostcommon initial review to determine suitability. Inclusion criteria for injuries encountered by orthopaedic surgeons, with its inci- full-text review were that articles must be relevant to diabetic dence on the rise in parallel with general life expectancy [2, 3]. ankle fracture diagnosis and management. Manual search Extrapolated from this data, the incidence of diabetic ankle of the all the references in the full-text publications was fractures will inevitably increase. There is, however, a lack in a also completed to further identify additional publications standardized diagnostic and treatment guidelines for diabetic for potential inclusion. All included full-text publications for ankle fractures. Additionally and not uncommonly, diabetic review were further defined as either a notable or supportive. ankle fractures have been misdiagnosed resulting in delayed A publication was defined to be notable if the study design management.Forthesereasons,weproposeadiagnostic (i.e.,cohort,retrospective,casecontrol,andcaseseries)and and management algorithm that incorporates a quantitative level of prognostic strength (i.e., level IV or higher) were met. scoring system in hope to achieve a practical approach to this Notable publications were subjected to further critical anal- complex and challenging problem. ysis. Exclusion criteria were the following: publications not 2. Materials and Methods published in English; all conferences, lectures, review arti- cles, and publications that were neither published nor pub- Publications were identified by conducting a comprehen- lished in the above databases. Duplicate results that occurred sive keyword search of Medline, EMBASE, and CINAHL in different databases were truncated to a single result. 2 BioMed Research International Medline CINAHL EMBASE Cochrane database Abstract 118 citations 34 citations 197 citations 3 citations screening 37 included 4 included 18 included 0 included 81 excluded 30 excluded 179 excluded 3 excluded 59 papers retrieved and full text reviewed Full-text review 9 additional papers added after reviewing full text references Literature eligible 19 notable papers 49 supporting papers for further analysis for detailed analysis Figure 1: Literature review results in detail. Diagnostic algorithm Table 1: Notable publications in detail. Total number Ankle redness, Study type Publication details swelling and/or pain of studies Wukich and Kline [2] No Risk No Review articles 3 Prisk and Wukich [18] factors Diabetes Myerson and Edwards [6] Consider Screen for Acquire Cohort study 1 Guo et al. [20] other diabetes plain Retrospective SooHoo et al. [21] cause radiographs 2 study Ganesh et al. [3] No Diabetes McCormack and Leith [22] No Fracture +/− Jones et al. [23] dislocation Case control 6 Flynn et al. [24] study Blotter et al. [25] Charcot’s Kristiansen [26] Bibbo et al. [27] Figure 2: AFDA diagnostic algorithm. Costigan et al. [28] Ayoub [14] Holmes and Hill [29] 3. Results Case series 7 Kline et al. [30] White et al. [31] A total of 352 abstracts were initially screened. From these Schon et al. [32] abstracts, 59 articles met our inclusion criteria for further Low and Tan [33] full text review. 293 articles were excluded. Nine additional articles were found after reviewing all the full-text references (Figure 1). Nineteen notable papers were identified for further critical analysis (Tables 1 and 2). From these results, we Asian, African, and Hispanic); positive family history or ges- propose the Adelaide Fracture in the Diabetic Ankle (AFDA) tational diabetes; age greater than or equal to 45 with either algorithm and score (Figures 2 and 3, Table 3). a body mass index (BMI) greater or equal to 25 or prese- nce of hypertension; and established cardiovascular risk fac- 4. Discussion tors or disease. If risk factors are present, screening for diabe- tesissuggestedusingeitherHBA1c(greaterorequalto6.5%), The AFDA algorithm consists of two parts: a diagnostic and two-hour plasma glucose (greater or equal to 11.1 mmol/L) management part (Figures 2 and 3), having its own respec- during an oral glucose tolerance test, or fasting blood glucose tive goals. The diagnostic part is targeted for primary care (greater or equal to 7.0mmol/L) [4]. physicians and nurse practitioners with a goal to accurately If the presence of diabetes has been excluded, other causes and timely provide a diagnosis to any presentation of ankle of ankle redness, swelling, and/or pain should be considered, redness, swelling, and/or pain; and if such a presentation is which can include: gout, infection, septic arthritis, deep vein encountered, the algorithm progresses to assess or screen for thrombosis (DVT), and haemarthrosis [5, 6]. Furthermore, the presence and risks for diabetes. if there is an absence of systemic signs of infection (i.e., fever, Risk factors for diabetes include previous history of elevated white cell count, or CRP), then infection is unlikely impaired glucose intolerance; high-risk ethnic groups (i.e., [6]. BioMed Research International 3 Management algorithm Consider primary arthrodesis Calculate AFDA Score ≥5 score No Consider primary Requires ORIF fixation Stage 0, No AFDA II, III Fracture +/− diagnostic ∙ Non-operative dislocation algorithm Assess management Eichenholtz ∙ Multi-disciplinary staging reviews to manage and optimise Charcot’s Stage I ∙ Follow up in orthopaedic OPD to re-review progress and staging Figure 3: AFDA management algorithm. Since the introduction of the Ottawa ankle rules [7], there also be considered. As Eichenholtz stage I has traditionally has been a significant increase in cost efficiency to plain been considered to be the acute fragmentation stage, the radiograph usage in assessing acute ankle injuries. However, current literature recommends that this stage can be managed there has been question of whether the Ottawa ankle rules nonoperatively in the interim, with nonweight bearing and apply in diabetics [8, 9]. If there is a history of diabetes or serial total contact casting. Additionally, frequent followup newly diagnosed diabetes, we suggest that plain radiographs and further patient optimization through multidisciplinary can be acquired independent of the Ottawa ankle rules. This review and management can be considered. Endocrine input should be interpreted for presence of a fracture, dislocation, for consideration of intravenous bisphosphonate therapy (i.e., and/orCharcot’sarthropathy.Becauseofthepossibilityofan Pamindronate)hasbeenshowntoinhibittheincreased insensate lower limb, the patient’s history may be difficult to osteoclastic activity that weakens bones during this acute elicit which has occurred first: the fracture or acute Charcot’s. stage [16, 17]. Optimization of diabetic control, nutrition, and However, if any of these are present, the AFDA management vascular status whilst this stage progresses will likely achieve algorithm and score can be applied. a better outcome. Once Eichenholtz’s staging progresses out- The AFDA management algorithm and score will assist side of stage I, progression for fixation consideration is sugge- the
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