llmm MIUTARY 'lEN-AT-ARMS SERIES 58 THE LANDSKNECHTS
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il l •< DOLGI .. \S \lILLER G.\ E\lBLETO:\" EDITOR: MARTIN WINDROW rillm1 HIUTARY MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES 58 THE LANDSKNECHTS
Text by DOUGLAS MILLER Colour plates by GAEMBLETON First publisht::d in Cn'at Britain in 1976 hy Osprt::}', an imprint ofRt'ro Consumt'r Books Ltd. ;\Iichdin Hou:.e. 81 Fulham Road, London SW3 6Rll and .\uckland, ~Idboumt::, Sin~port' and Toronto
e Copyrighll9;6 Rttd Internalional Books ud. Rt'print«l. 1980. 1981. IgB2. 198.J, IgB5. 1986, IgB7. 1988, 1990· 1991. 1992, 1993· 1995, 1996
All righb rescn ed.•\pan from any r.'lir ckalin~ for tht' purpost: ofpri\ Tht' author would like to thank Messrs O. & M. Hausser,J. Tonn, P. Kaus and?>.lr A. V. S. de Reuck for their most valuablt' assistance': in providing research material. If you would like to rccci\'c morc information ahout a'prcy ~Iilitary boolu, '111c O~prcy ~Ie,senl{l'r is a ~gular nc\,~I('lIcr whkh contains artida, l1e\\ title information and Slx',:ial om'n. Tojoin free ofcharge pkaw write 10: Osprey Milita.ry Messenger, PO Box 5, Rusbden, Norlhants NNtO 6YX Swabian alliance was fanned in 1487---a, which set Illfrorlllrtioll up an arm) to keep the po\\ erful princes of Bohemia and Bavaria at bay. This initial forcc of 12,000 foot and 1,200 horse is described by many as The word 'Londsknteht' first appeared in the the first anny of Landsknechts to be recruited on German language around 1470. 11 is said to have Cennan soil. In 1+87, in the same year thaI the last been coined by Peler von Hagcnbach, who records national joust look place in Cennan) al Worms, ha\'ing commissioned such troops for the service of the first units ofCennan Landsknechts wcre being Charles the Bold of Burgundy. Landsknecht trained in the strccts of Bruges b) Maximilian's literally means 'servant ofthe country' yel as early commander Craf Eitclfritz \"on Hohenzollem. as 1500 me word had already transfonnt"d into However, the campaigns in the ;\1"ctherJands and Lan;:;kn«ht as the pike became the trademark or the footsOldicr. No\\ ada)'s, howeYer, the term Lands~ knecht is usually associated wilh the type of Gem131l merccnal) originating from what is ((:>day Alsace, Baden Wiirtlcmberg and the Austrian T)roJ and who served during the reigns of .\Iax imilian I (1493 1;19) and his grandson Charles V ISI!rS6). When these troops were first employed, warfare was in a state of transition. The Burgundian Wars (1476-7) had shown that cavalry was virtually helpless against well drilled pike formations and the new handgun. The fifteen Burgundian 'Com pagnies d'Ordonnanccs' had outlived their useful ness and wcre considered as nothing morc than an army of redundant knights. Moreover the cost of raising such a force of mounted lroops had increased considerably due to lhe rise in the economic and political status of the European nobility. Those who stood to gain therefore were those 'gentlemen of war' or Kriegsherren, as lhey were called in Germany, who could supply large bodies ofmobile infantry, usually pikemen, able to Mn;milj*n I (1459'"'5'9) know.. as th.. 't.S( of dl.. kJUghls', lIuc:ceeded 10 lh..thro..., in '4'nand b), virt"..ofth., marriage- of follow in the tradition ofthc now famous and feared hin,,~"'f,hi...n, and his , .....d..n, pioed Ih., N.,thu....d".ad Swiss. Spain, HW>pry and Bob.,mia, lh... c:reating. v..1 Unp~ for his ...ec.'...r Charl.,sV and f..rtb.,rmembe oftheHabtibol~ It was against this background that Maximilian, dr-"Iy, Hi" mareb UIlO CoIOSft., in ISOS> ed with. balbc:o;d hcir to the Holy Roman Empire, had to raise a force allb., bead ofa c:ol" of~d.l<.oec:bl.b.,raIded • ....w.,...... Gennany, Apart fro th., erealio.. of Lb., ~ds"n.,du. 10., i. capable of upholding his claim to the Burgundian aI..c:red.iled withth.,d.,,,,elop....,..1of110., finl.dV&llc:ed "yst.,m of ord. .,... Both wer., 10 prov., vital ... lois ..m.,whal legacy of the Netherlands and of controlling his nlloro l)' c:ond :led fortip policy, future tcrritories in the cast. To this lattcr end the (P."mtotryD.m. A t.\u...... ,11..-. r,...... ! whieh set out th(' legal conditions under which the Landsknechts werc to sel"\'e, Having accepted the appointment and secured the means offinance, the colonel, or Obrist as he \\'as called, then began appointing in tum his sceond·in·colllmand and the captains in charge of thc Fa/mtein or companies which were to make lip the regiment. This done, drummers would be scnt out to beat for recruits, The muster \\as seldom a difficult task; colonels with great reputations such as Frulldsberg and "011 Sid:ingen \\ere capable ofraising annics of20,000 foot in a mattel' of\\ ecks. The problem in fact often lay in rejccting those who ,\ere either incapable or tOO ill-equipped to be accepled into the ranks. In spite of lhe selection process, \\ hich depended on whcther the recruit brought his 0\\11 \\eapons or not, the regiment must havc been a motle} crew of joume) men, (X'asalllS and students all inspired b) lhe chance of adHnture and. of course. pay and 1H ...... ter pa.rade (Mu§t"ru.acl was adopl~ Croon lh.e S....'4. loot. and the sons of wealth) patricians, there for and was u_tia1 U. d~e~ tile dlicieacyoCt.ia...... 1to tM: ~ The prK'OOdilio.. for .ec::qxaa~ Lato tile I'Jlks was the sake off."lmil} honour. thai ...Idien sloovJd po5Hl1. thei.. 0_ weapo.... It was the Ha\"ingsigned up, the recruits \\ere instructed to tat;k oCtile p-ytnaliler. wbo DOrm.al.Iy stood al ~ f_t arm.. arch, 10 _s1lre that thOH recruiu f*s.i.al!: throo&f;:h we.... of meet at a certain time and place for the muster· ....UDd mind and body. It oft.... ocaa.rred thai the paym.uter parade. Here the} \\ ere ordered inlo two columns ."Oped 10 _tinS tile recru.iIJi 'double-eowued' for tloe .....e offiaancial' i.e. 10 .windle the Kriq;_hltrT. facing each other and al the end ofthe gap between , 11"wt/M.,jlUl.l_ft_'Dn'tII/"''' LuJJ!;.u,f. ~,Fr"""i:lI81... G6t11t.: /8821 them an arch consisting oftwO halberds and a pike was erected. Jtwas throul;"h this that each man had lalCT in Bohemia, although successful. were to to pass befon" being acceptcd into the ranks. Itwas p,'o\'e that the nucleus of the 'German' anny the task ofthe recruiling officer losland at the arch consisted of nothing Illore than bands of ill and check lhat those mcn who passed through were organi.sed mercenaries. ofsound mind and body, At this stage the regiment It was not until after the storming ofthe fonn.'SS was divided up into FiiJmfein of 400 men, each of Stllhlweisscnbcrg in Bohemia in 1490, where Fiihllltin having 100 experienced soldiers, or DQppet· upon Ma.ximilian ordered his men to swear an soldner as they wen' called. since lhey recei\'ed oath of allegiance, thal the 'father of the Lands double the pay of the ordinal)' fOOlsoldicr. kncchls' succeeded in instilling his troops with a As soon as the Landskncchts had been paid one sense of discipline and csprit dr corps. Onl) by month's wage the) assembled in a circle surround emulating the Swiss, howcver, by adopung their ing the Ghrist whose duty it then was to read them customs and tactics, would the Cennan Lands· their rights, duties and restrictions in the form orthe kneeht be abk' to hold his (Mn and to this end 'Lctter ofArticles'. The artides consisted ora \'el)' ~laximilian modelled his whoit' milital) system on dctailed code of conduct laying out all the the amlics of the S\\ iss Confederation. punishable oflcnecs such as mutiny, unwarranted plunder, drunkennc"S on dllty, ha"in~ more than The Muster one woman follo\\ ing in the baggage train, and so According to S\\'iss tradition, if a lord required an forth. This \\ as followed b} an oath.taking cen"· arm) to scHlc a dispute he nOlmall} contracted a mall) in which e\"Cl') Landsknecht swore his gentleman ofwar b} means ofthe BtslaJlungsbriLfor allegiance to his cause, his Emperor and his officers, letter of appointment. This contained a recruiting and promisl-d to abide b) the la\\s set Ollt in the commission and the letler ofartidcs, .lrtiI.Asbriife. 'Letter ofArticlcs'. .., For the enforcement and administration ofthese parade. Commanding the rcgimelll was ofcourse laws the Obrist appoinled a Prot-osl and a &hulthtiss the Ftldobrist or colonel. Sometimes the Obrisl was respectively. During this ceremony the standards in command of several regimclHs at a time, in were handed over to the ensigns who were obliged which case he received the rank of Obtrster to swear an oath never to allow the standards to FeldlwllplmmJ1l. The task of leading the Feldobrist's leavc their hands in battlc. The ensigns in tum regiment in this case would fall to the joined their F{jhnl~in \\ here thc captain would be lAcoltntnl- lieutenaOl-coloncl the second in introducing the appointed adjutant, chaplain, command who onl) held the rank ofcaptain while doctor and quartermaster to his men. The remain the Obrist was present. ing formality was the formation of the Rollen or The colonel, as laid down in the Imperial Diet at platoons, each being rcsponsible for electing ilSown \VOllns in 1507, was enutled to a staff or S/(1o/ of Rottmtista. twellly-two officials. This included a chaplain. a scribe, a doctor, a scout, a quartcnnastcr, an ensign, drummer and fifer, and a bocIyguard of (9/;r{flllisotioll eight trustworth) men. ,Sec Tablt A. Each Fahn/eill had in turn its own complement of Each Regiment normally consisted of len Fiilmleill officials. The captain had the privilege of his own or companics-Fahnlein is the German word for a personal cook and servant and a bodyguard OflWO small flag or standard carried within thc unit. The DopptlsOidna. There \\ erc also an interpreter, a Fahnlein, as already stated, was divided up inlo chaplain, a scout, a fourier, and the usual colour Rottm or platOons. Each Rottt had ten common party with musicians. The sergeant majors, Ftld Landsknechts or six Doppe/siildlltr. A regiment ll·tibel, wcre given the responsibility of carrying thercrorc, usually numbcring about 4,000 mcn, was out drill and formation. There was normally divided into ten units of400, each unit having forty a regimental sergeant major the Ob~rs/rr platoons often men. It must be noted here that this Ftldwtb~/-who \\ as responsible for battle for 4,000 was by no means a standard number-the malion. General discipline and liaison between complement often depending on the number of officers and men was largely the task ofthe It'tibtl men who presented themselves at the muster (sergeants) and the Gtmtinwtibtl, the latter being elected on a monthly basis as spokesmcn for the Landsknechts. (Sec Table n.) In addition to lhe above there was an inde pendent group ofofficials who were responsible for ma.intaining discipline and ensllring that the Landsknechts conformed with the Articles. The most feared 9fTiciat of all was the Provost who remained unimpeachable during his period of office. His retinue consisted ofajailer, a bailiff and an executioner called the Frtimann, recognisablc by his blood-red cloak. The red feather in his berct and the 100is of his trade, name!) the e.xecutioner's sword and the hangman's rope which hung from his belt, acted as suitable deterrents for the Lands knt-chts, who gcncrall) regarded him as an untrustworthy character. Each Regiment had a full complement of The mUSl" p-rwde was followm by llte..-diAs of!.h., leu" of anid... (Verles_S). Hertupon the Laad...... ech~ we.... or- mililal) police and judges, including Ihe Schul dend 10 tonn a riDS uwI the colonel (Obrilft) Wonned !.hem of Gmltillll·~ib~/. their rip'" and 1"8&1 r...trairtt.lf. ne lett.... ofamd... which theiss, the Profoss PrO\·ost) and the always accompanied the letter ofconun.i..io.. waS read every The total pay for these oflicials came to 236 guilders s;" months and was invoked immediately hO"'tilitiu bega.n. (It'llIIodtwl bJ' JDII A_..... ) per month. 5 Table A Rank Pay Regiments Staat (ColoneLJs Staff) FeLdobrist Colonel 400 Guilders LorotirlLnt Lieutenant-Colonel '00 .. Kaplan Chaplain . 02 " Scnreibn Adjutant .. 24 .. Wadltmeistn Officer of the Watch. 4° .. Quartinmeisler Quartcrmaster 4° .. PrOl:iantmmln Storekeeper 4° .. F,ldKhn Doctor .. 4° " Feldar~1 Field Doctor 4° .. Trommelschlagn Drummer. 8 .. Pfeifer Fifer 8 .. Dolmet$cher Interpreter. 8 .. Koch Cook 8 .. Trabant (8) Bodrguard. 4 .. each Hurenweibel Sgt of the Train 02 .. Fuhrknuhl Seout 4 .. Table B Rank Pay Ead/ Foot Fannlein 1 Hauptmann Captain. 40 Guildm 1 LLutnanl Subaltern 20 .. 1 Fiihndrich Ensign 20 .. 1 Chaplain Chaplajn 8 .. I FeLdwehel Sgt Major. 12 .. I Filkrn Scout 4 " I Fourin Fourier .. 4 " 2 JVebeL Sergeants . each 4 " 2 TromfrlLlschliign Drummers. cach 4 " 2 Pftifu Fifers 4 .. each 2 Trabantm Bodyguards 4 .. each I DolmelsCntr Interprcter. 4 .. I HauptmlJnllJ Junge Captain's boy 4 .. I Fiihndriclu Junge Ensign's boy 4 .. HauptmanllS Koch Captain's cook 4 .. Reisiger Knecht Horseman 4 .. (From: Kriegsbildn dn drolschLn Landsknechle by \'on Zwiedeneck.Siidcnhorst.) The pay for the whole force of foot-soldiers regiment for a month was 34,624 guilders. Each numbering 4,000 (10 x 400) amountcd (0 32,000 La.ndsknccht was normally contractcd to serve for a guilders pcr month, DopptlsQldner receiving 8 minimum period ofsix momhs. guilders per month as opposed to 4 guilders for the At the Imperial Diet at Worms in 1521 the ordinary Landsknechl. Thus the total cost of a reforms of the military brought about are· 6 organisation of the war finance system, to assist tactical superiority that could be achie\'ed by a well Charles in his Italian campaigns. TIle Imperial lTained lxxIy ofpikemen. This superiority was soon army was set initially at 20,000 foot-soldiers and to be challenged by the arquebus (although in lhe 4,000 mounted, each Reichstand being obliged to first quarter ofthe sixteenth century it was still used offer a contingent. This force cost 128,000 guilders with some restraint). Despite the 'miracle of per month and although a new tax unit was Creazzo' where Frundsberg's arquebusiers, with invented-the Simplum, equalling the above drawing from earthwork to earthwork, wreaked amount-the problem of financing a lengthy havacon theoncoming Venetian fOOl, skirmishers in campaign could never be resolved. open order were considered to be tOO vulnerable. In 1526, Frundsberg, for example, was obliged to The upshot of this was that different generals pawn his estate and treasures (MindcJheim) for tended to adopt various sets oftaChes at these times 30,000 guilders in order 10 finance a campaign in largely depending on the composition of their Italy for Charles V. This sum, however, only forces and the type of terrain. The Swiss, for covered haifa month's pay and his troops mutinied instance, anxious to shorten their campaigns as on him. Similarly, the Spanish general Leyva had much as possible and being largely dependent on to melt down the chalices from the church in Pavia the strength of their pikemen and halberdiers, and even the gold chain from around his neck to preferred a short swift encounter and were there prevent his garrison ofCcrman Landsknechts from fore inclined towards a pike charge in echelon defecting to the French. formation of Vornut (van), Gewallhul (centre), and NMhhut (rear). This of course was in lum de termined by the lay ofthe land. The Germans and CJjf{tics {file!qorlll{ftioll Spanish, later relying heavily on the strength of their arquebusiers, tended towards a more de In the Burgundian Wan the Swiss had shown the fensive position, if possible on uneven ground to upset the impetus of a pike charge. As a result of these diverse tactics the general of the day was always at pains to outmanoeuvre his enemy so that when il finally came to a confrontation his forces would have the advantage of terrain. The German Landsknechts who often adopted defensive positions required a new formation which would ensure maximum tactical efficiency from both pike and arquebus. This formation adopted from the Swiss system was called thegmerle Ordnung and is the forerunner ofthe infantry square. In this formation the pikemen and the halberdiers formed a solid square in the centre with the two-handed swordsmen in the front and rear ranks. Behind the first two ranks of Dop/Nlso!dur stood the ensigns in the centre of the first three FiiJmlein. Then came a virtual fon:sl of pikes, in the middle ofwhich were to be found the ensigns of the four centre compan ies. At the rear came the final three ensigns amongst TIoe oado-takiDs ctremOOlY (v~s) (oU_cd tbe reuii..q o( doe articles -....d __ ....tt~pc 10 ....til dUeiplUoe -....d the most experienced troops in the regiment. These aUepa..ce into ... otberwUie wakDowa baad o(.....m... inlnot were positioned at the back to add impetus to the OQ mooey ...d .dvnoRlre. The «remo..y, which _. held by the Scloultheiu •• the official rflpoQ.ible (or .dmil1i.terUtl anack and also to discourage the faint hearted from junice, boWHI doe Lau r and slaughtering prisoners. In fact gcmlemanly 3· A suitable body of men ~hOllld be picked to conduct soon began to disappear from the form thc 'forlorn hope'. This should advance battlefield as devious tactics wcre introduced. in column at the side oflhe square. \'eerin~ off Fronsbergcr in his masterly work of 15561isLS fifteen and firin~ before droppin~ back to reload. ploys which the Ohrist of the day considered when 4· The regiment should always be organised in drawing up his anny for battle: such a way that the heavily armed men are drawn up on the plain while those nOI so well l. The strength of the enemy. his number of equipped should be placed at the rear or horse, and his ty{>(= of annour should be drawn up on the slopes ofa hill. The \\eakcst determined in advance and the lay of the troops should be facing the left flank of the land, the weather, the time ofday. all laken enemy. into consideration before deciding on the type 5· The infalHI) should keep together and avoid of battle formation to be adopted. extending imo a thin line. '2. Prisoners should be taken before lhe battle 6. Advantage should be taken of both the sun and subjected to torture to extract the desired and the wind and the Landsknecht should be information. reminded of the more sllbtle ways ofrl·ndcr· l'~{ ~~ ", - --,,-- - - , II was 1I---n)' the quartum.asler'. task 10 .d...... ~ ahead Dr ...... 11 a U'aiD of ~b1.. size uod clUarTa)'. It w.s 1Jo... anQ)' and tak.. can ofthe .«0...... 00.. ror dI.. troopL th ro eceuary to !lave _ .. Co...... of pollee to kiEep tioe n... woodC1&t, apia by DO~depictll. quartenna.ter iD full Towards the middle of the sixtcenth century, as the arqucbusier and mounted pistoleer grew in importance, somc ofthe morcdanng ploys began to disappear as movemenl became restricted by firepower. "Weapolls The major weapon of the Landsknecht was of course initially the pike. The ash stave was one and a half inclIes thick and usually between 14 feCI It wal Kfl.elltUll for the eaplain (above) 10 wear annOur al h.e iO norm.al.ly foughl in the fronl rank .longlide the DoppelllOldner and 18 feet in lc:nglh. The steel head was and was often cluI.UeDged to .. duel by h..i. eowUerparl. in the inches long and the tip had the shape of a 'frog's eDeDlY rlUI.k.JI. II il inleretlting 10 Qote th.at the dagger wal fuler>ed 10 the right teg by Dleana of a thiD Mlh_almost in mouth'. Adopting the customs of the mOlllHed 'PJUllia.g:er' fadoion. The _poD he is ea""""'g il a boar- knighl, the Landsknecht would sometimes tie a ~~t)' H.-J o..lJII} fox's brush or animal's tail to the tOp of the pike, 10 There were two main types ofsword designed for different types of combat. In the case of the Dopp~iJijldn~r both were carried. The smaller 'Roman' styled thruSting sword, known as the K(lt~b(llgaor 'mangler' had a short metal hilt which joined a broad double-edged blade about 28 inches long and had a guard of two S-curved quillons forming rings, It was carried in a leather or metal scabbard, and the weapon was usually worn horizontaJly over the stomach at the belt. TheZwti !Iandtr, the enormous battle sword about 66 inches long, also had a double-edged blade, sometimes undulating in design with a long grip co,'ered in leather or cloth. The hilt was reinforced with two curved quilJons and two nng-guards on each side. The lugs at the heel oCthe blade served as a second guard, to parry blows as well as to enable the user to grasp the weapon at a lower point, as prescribed in the drill movements. This was facilitated by a leather ricasso between the ring guards and the lugs. On the march it was sometimes slung over the back crosswise by means of a strap, The other weapon brandished by the Dop p~lsij[dntr was of course the arquebus. This was a hand gun fined with the matchlock, which con sisted ofa lighted fuse or match attached to an S shaped hook trigger which swung over to ignite the R~vift& twiee tloe pooy of ~ CO_OIl "1~. tloe Dop ptl.oklaol:r ao.-...al.ly "",Id the (roat aM rear posiliocu iD the touch powder when the trigger was pulled. This 'sevtu1e Onbl-l'.11 was !heir taP. to ad...... ee iD (nJQl otlhe cornlJlll'y swi..pc tIttir rwo-iaaadftlliWO...u. 10 ","I doWlllO tile pike uafb: oftlte-iDA: dratiDJ chit CrocIl ra.ab of tloe ~n>y'. lio.. of battle while doe ...... -.iaiaS ~~u: roUoWfll them up, co.... , , ~ solidatiDS thm posilioa i.a the pp. Tbrir prisb ~• . ..,- .. . became. boue ofCOIlleuUcn> with the nobility, who dema.nded _ tloe iDtroduetioD.or....uorm so WI ...... would be dUtiAsuiu . :..:x.:.:: lObi... M_ximiJi.n, bowevor.r. overruled their dem....d. 00 the ,- Jrounds that the f..aQddtaecht d~.....ed at Ie••• ollelwrury in • ._-_._- hi, miserable lif... Thul frefliom ofd,..,.._s S.....ted al the AuS~but'J · .. Imperial Diet at Ua 1503. - · , • , , , , , , , , • because of an aJlcgcd magic healing property and · the power of protection. · I i The haJberd, which was relegated to a 'secon · • dary' position, was carried by the NCO'S and Dop~uiildner and used to dress the ranks. It too had , a shaft one and a halfinchcs thick but was only six to seven and a half feel in length. There were of Fo..a .."..;.... (~ne OrdaI&Dfl) of ...- "'-' c.1540- If ~e squared fonnatioa _. auaeked by cavalry. the fonnaUOD course variations of the halberd, notably the ____ily adaptable 10 a d..fensiye ploy. The pikanea facias Voulge, the Glaivc, the Partisan, the Spctum, and in the respectiye dlrectio... with the erwI. of!JIeir pikK du« inlo !JIe .,..-th would _till fOnD tlae ...... wall while tlae a type of Fouchard which was used by Charles V's arquebu.ie... !IUl'TOundinS the... would advaac:e oul in liae to face the onoo....u.g bo....e. Afler their 6 ....1 yoUey. they would boc.l}'guards and borc the emblem oCtile two pillars ..elura 10 the front raak. ofpike to reload. ofHercules and the Burgundian cross on the blade. (F,rwrr. ..." <'lCltlh~r1-&b"JwUI) II had a range of up to 400 yards but was inaccurate posilion. The quarrel or bolt usually had a wooden and often rendered useless by a shower of rain. night which o'eated a rotary action in flight Although lhese guns must have had a considerable thereby increasing its penetrating effect. The weighl lhere is lillie evidence from contemporary crossbowmen normally carried a shield which in prints that the arquebusiers used a rest to support defensive situations was propped up with a stake or their weapons. The arrival of lhe longer·barrelled sword so that a wall could be formed. musket around 1520 necessitated the useofa rest. It The Fiihnftin were normally subdivided accord· was not umil the middle of the sixteemh celllury ing to the type ofweapon. Since the main weapon that the first major development was made in firing was the pike, the core ofthe unit was formed from mechanisms. The wheel·lock pistol made its first pikemen. This nucleus numbered 300, the remain appearance at the Battle of Muhlbcrg in '547. ing 100 comprising Dop/Nlsofdntr, 50 ofwhom were Invented by the gunsmiths ofNuremberg, this gun armed with arquebuses and a further 50 with two· worked like a cigarcuc lighter. When the trigger handed swords and/orhalberds. Later records show was pulled, a milled wheel driven by a spring SlTUck that the number of pikemcn began to diminish as a spark from a piece ofpyrites or flint which in tum the firearm became more popular. Thus, according lit the touch powder. Although used mainly by the to Wilhdm Fronsbcrger, by 1596 only 200-220 famous &hU!or{,t Rnkr these pistols also found their pikemen were required. way imo the belts ofofficers and DopptlsiJfdntr. The crossbow, which had originally been the forerunner of the hand gun, gradually became u1i1i//ery (/lideqllipJllent obsolete as the arquebus bcc....me accepted as the standard weapon. Yet at Marignano there were In Emperor Maximilian's biograph~, Wtiss Kunig, still 200 mounted crossbowmen in Francis' royal menlion is made ofthe talented young prince who guard, and Gascon foot brandishing crossbows. was capable of handling artillery pieces with The later crossbows were fitted with a cranequin, greater precision than any ofthe more experienced which consisted of a small iron drum filled with master gunners of the day. Weiss Kunig also hooks \."hich were actuated by a crank handle thus records how the young Emperor achieved a new drawing the bowstring back and selting it in technical superiority in one of the first·ever organised systems ofordnance. Thc new pieces which Maximilian ordered to be made at thc factOries of Beck at Augsberg, and of Sattler at Nuremberg incorporatcd several new developments. Firstly they were lighter, being cast in bronze, their calibres being bored out. For the firsl time the barrels were carried on carriages whereas earlier they had been carried on separate wagons. Trunnions and elevating mechanisms Huaprian Ordinanc.... In '53~, wb..... Chart.... V ....rc::bed began to appear and there were also developments .sain5t th... Turlo5, who wue be51"'llnS Vi_,.t th" bead 0(. buge armoy ftumbering 90,000 (oot and 300000 ho...... , h ... d ...viud in the type ofshot, which incidentally was now iron • ft~ ba,ll" (onnatiaft wbic::b would re.i51 any TurlWi.b instead of stone. Freysleben, the keeper of the uuult.Jovius d....cribes this (onn.doft.s haviBS. (remt ',000 paces to""S. It co_isted o( three uaiu o( pik~..... _c:b 'J,f,ooo Imperial arsenal, records the major types ofcannon fDnl strollS (a, b, &r. c). The... were • .utably spaced apan to aUow twO muses o(cavalry, Ncb c:ontaiaiftg 'n,GOO borH (A'" which the Emperor had constructed: B), to take up potIitio... Surrow:u1inS tbU nw>n:nous (onnatiOIl wall a five ...... deep 'I:oed,e' o(arqueb....ie... spaced :JO yanh (rom the pike aDd the bo There were IWO Pi'll in Ibis I. The Hauptbiithstn or heavy siegc·guns were 'I:oed(..... 10 allow th... ho to ch,....lIe th.rou&b at the edeIDY· Outside this bloc Ibe artillery was spaced at • .utable u.lervab nothing morc than huge gun barrels mounted aDd the whole (ormati_ was a...... ed by IWO wiDJs o( at an angle 011 wooden supports with numerous H_priaa bo...... -(D .. C).. Kftowa a. Ibe Huapriaa 0rdiD -oe. this sq..-re _s (ar (rom c:u.mbenorne aDd ...... Turks rows of shoring behind the barrel to take the were tuaI.ly repulsed by drec:tiv... c:ha'll" o(th" Imperial shock from the recoil. Often such cannon were lao aDd (oot. (F,.. R....IaI!. '(;,~Jnhif..umr 18141 so cumbersome that the) took days to set up 12 first uHd as • tactical ploy u. the HUliliite W do", ~.... kNld.ed _to_11:_ with ~doo.... necoUUDaDder.. lnat fon' oaIy prov~reaUydea.in lfthe anDy ccompaai~ was u._riably fOOUld iQ the C'e'Dl", of dae _p and ado by • -...,idet-abl", artillny uaia. To add ..u..tIlp aad lire ..taadard ..toed al the iwa.d. of",ny,roup or l....ttI or datil"'" power to dae O1Ir-rd 'w1llJ.,', La.rJe ana....ba.... W~ o(tna bdoasialllO dae fihaln.o.. (..t-. c.'UrJ ~,.. 8nllJl.\I_ and hours to load. As a result a protective barrel was usually twenty to fort}' times its width. shield pivoted on a frame would be placed in 4. ~laximilian also ordered the construction of rrOllt of the cannon and only raised on firing. siege Illortars, organ gUlls and grape guns, the The greatest example of such a monster was details orwhich are for the most part unknown 'Mad Meg ofChent'. Her barrel was eighteen because artillery makers or the day were feet long, had a 33 inch bore and a weight of pledged to secrecy in case the ellemy should firtecll lOns and required a span or30 horses to equip himse1fwith similar weapons. pull it. '2. Thc hcavy arullery, comprising the Schaif Concerning the colour schemes of the artillery. mtl<.t. Nachligalf, the long and short KOTtaunt the carriage was invariably painted black and the (cannon royale) and the ROlhbiichst, were metal fittings rcd. The wheels wcrc Icft in natural longer pieces and had a smaller calibre than colours. A wooden box was oftcn placed over the the Hauptbuchsm. As a rule the barrels had a firillgchambcr to k~p it dl)'durillg transport and a length 6"e to eight and a half times their small flag or pennant denoling thc colours of thc calibre, and a reinforcement abo\-e the firing regiment was attached to the traillcK, usuaJl~ on chamber. the left hand side. Because ofthe e.xtraordinal) sizc 3. The morc mobile medium artillcl) was com of somc cannon, notably the siegc pieces. a posed largely of &hlallgtn eukerins-both considerabl) largc train was required. Fronsbcrger long: and short, and Basilisks. The length oftile (1566' estimates that a train of 130 artillery pie<:es 13 including 100 field guns needed the following complement: 2,675 Horses 891 Carters 5 Geshimneister (Officers in charge of Ihe trans port of the pieces). 124 Master gunners (Biichsmmtister). 63 Ammunition carriers. 4 Fiihnlein sappers (often taken from the train, i.e. women and children). 200 Schneller (loaders), usually artisans. Apart from this a further 100 wagons were required for ammunition and equipment, with an additional 400 horses and 150 men. If one could keep running costs down to a quarter of a guilder per man and horse one still had to scrape together some 42,839 guilders a month !O prevent a mutiny! Added to this came the costs for the actual A 1lCl"D." taken from MIlXimi1illn'. bi"graphy 'd".. WeiSIl Kunilt' construction of the cannon. Fronsbergcr gives an depictiDg th" battle "f Utr«ht. n" main battl" lItandanf. displayOld are th" 'Haing"rna.hJ', incorporatiDg th" CI"Ou "fSt example ofsuch a bill: ADdrew, and the l:I"nnal battle Rag bearing. whit" CI'OSS on • ..Old backgl"Ow>d. (C Table of Ordnance under Maximilian 7jpe Weight Slwt JVagollJ Horses Artill"Jmm (tons) (kg.) Srknrfmtlze 5 50 3' 163 48 Basiliew 3i 35 17 119 30 ,N(Uhtigall 3 '5 13 88 ,6 Singtrin , <0 7 41 I' Large KartauM I, 8 6 '7 8 Small Karlaum 1* 5 , 16 5 RothschLange 21 Dmli RotJuchLange " 3'5 , 13 Sau (Bautt, Delise) I 10 , 17 Falkaum 1* 2-5 5 FaJl.end i I 3 &harffdinnle I, * Hauptbiichsm, &karfmetz.en, Basilisks, Singtrinnm and Kartaunen were the larger siege pieces, the remaining types made up the field artillery. There seems to have been a rationalisation oflhe artillery under Charles V: Table of Ordnance under Charles V Type Weight/Shot Weight/Baml Calibre Length oj BamL (kg.) (kg.) (mi.) (metres) Cannon Royale 18'7 ',goo 18 3'5 Mcdium Piece 11'2 2,300 15 3"4 Culverin 5"6 1,380 I' 3"9 Demi Culvcrin ,·8 1,230 9'1 3'5 Saker 3'0 1,235 10 2'9 Falconct 1'4 795 7 ,·8 Mortar 46'7 ',600 35'5 1'5 his marriage in the same ycar to Mary, the daughtcr ofthe Duke ofBurgundy, regarded Ihese CjJie {!tll/poiglls territories as his rightful inheritance. AI the ensuing Battle of Guingate in 1479 ~Iaximilian's foot Upon the death ofCharles the Bold ofBurgundy on regislered thcir first success in defeating Louis, In the batt.lefield of Nancy, the French King, Louis '493 when Maximilian became Hoi} Roman XI, laid claim to the Burgundian legacy, which Emperor, this somewhal personal conflict between included the Netherlands. Maximilian, by vinueof the French court and himself o\'er Burgundy was IS ne army on the D1.II.rdo DOrrnally adopted a Connauon wbido and rea.r. ne a..m.onuoition and provilion. were protected by a would be ea.ily adaptable libould it liuddenly corne under .e.-.eD oCpi.ke in the centre. h i. interntin! to Ii" the method auad.. nu. the onu",I was obliged to post}X>ne any plans for re,·enge. Early WoodCUI& &UUKI thai the arqu"bus wa& ..-ed wilhout After the dealh ofthe Duke ofLandshut, George the aid of& relit. ney w"re raLber primiliweaad ~berso_" afFai"> c:c: I1" _d wiLb & 1"Il-IlJ" of appro..-ately 400 'the Rich', in 1504, the Wittclsbach family began to yard&. ne dew"lopme," towards Lbe .,...... t:! look place La the "s- wlM:a the rul wa& Ualroduced, .. baadpas quarrel ovcr Ihe legacy. Thc Palatinate Ruprecht bec:a.m" er .... Ilad • wid" calibre. allied with Vladislav, King of Bohemia, whiJe (F,..; · + charged the Imperial 'forlorn hope' only to be lured. three year truce with the Venetian Republic. into a thick \\'all of pike behind them. Some 1,600 The Pope, who had meanwhile become fearful of men were slaughtered. The victory at Regensburg the growing po\\'er of Venice, now sought a and subsequent succ(..'SSful siege of the fortress of protectivc alliance with :-'Iaximilian. The resulting Kufstcin did much to enhance the military re· League ofCambrai formed in IS08 included Spain pUlation ofthe Emperor and al the Impel"ial Diet at and France. In Ihe following year lvlaximilian Constance which was held in 1505 all his demands, commissioned Frundsberg 10 march down the particularly for his militaI) budget, were met. It River ElSCh via Trient and recruit a regiment for was at this Diet that an organised system of the Alliance ",hich was now preparing to atlack the payment was establi~hed for the LandskncchtS. Venetian positions. Realising that their strength In 1508 ~Iaximilian dre\\ up plans to rene\\ lay in their diplomatic ralher than their militaI) imperial control in Italy. At thc Imperial Dict at cunning the Venetians tried to manoeuvre each Constance he had demanded financial support for member of the League into a position whereby his Rome campaign, promising knighthoods for quarrel and ultimale dissolution would become those princes who would follow. His desired ann) inevitable. Thus Pope Julius II and me Spanish of20,000 LandsknechtS was never realised. Of the King Ferdinand the Calholic were persuaded that 12,000 men that were placed at his disposal only a their interestS did not lie in the Habsburg camp. fraction e\'entualJ) took the field. It was obvious The League was dissol\·ed, Germany finding itSelf that r>.laximilian was intent on war \\ith Venice on the same from as I-ranee. Fnllldsbcrg, who had and not the French. The Venetian Republic barred meanwhile held the fortress city of Verona, was the way to Rome. This barrier proved to bc tOO relieved an~ joined the french force commanded strong, for in February that year the Emperor's by AlessuJ1Cl.ro Trivulzio. In May 1511 they anny ground to a hah at Trient. Without adequate succeeded in defeating the Papal·Venetian forces militaf) suppon ~laximjJian was obliged to sign a between Imola and Bologna and then pushed StaB" w",poa. or ~ 6f'1~Lh. aDd ....teeaLh. can..tie.: .) S It 6) h.ll.... la.are. de boeu.f; "'2) Partisans; I:J-Isl Military rork;".) Ahlforsdo; 3) RaJuo,o ..r or RunkaHI) Co.-que; ConeqlO"116) RWIb; '1) h.liaa Bill; ") Glaive. 18 Th~ basic difl"~rencebelWftft Swi5lll and German pikedrill ....s poliihonli of the drill, ...... y of which we.... adoplM by the lhal the German Landljkn~Ju. b~ld the pike al ",houlder Germanli. The armour shown I. Iypical Maximilian lityle, Ioel&bt wbenali the Swi",. prefft'Tftl tobold theirwcapo...at an cbaracreriRd bythe llw:nel'O'" HUM!liOn thebrea"t plat..aDd a.a.s1e or.bove the bead. TbiIi phoforapb mo_ the nllietItial the cuili..... (c..tU!J~tiIII&...... \~ ,11_. ;:'_ndj north-east, thus forcing the \enetians to \\ ithdra\\ It was at this stage mal a ne\\ power began 10 from their foru'csses in the Friuli dislricl. It is said make itself felt-Switzerland. The cnmil) between that with only I,Boo men Frundsberg succeeded in the Swiss Confederation and Germany had arisen defeating 9,000 Venetians and laking the fortresses largely due 10 the desire on the parl ofi\laximilian of Scala, Covelo and the 'impregnable' Cadore in 10 bring the Swiss under his political wing. The the Dolomites. The strategic importance of this n.'Suh had been a succession ofborder clashes me viclory was that il secured the main crossing points 'Swabian Wars' in 1499 in which a three pronged in north-eastern Italy for fUlure Imperial armies. Imperial assault froOl Alsace, Constance and lht' This was to be me only gain from Frundsbcrg's Tyrol had failed miserably at the Baltle ofDomach viclory, for ne\\ political developments had upsel on 22 July. From lhat day onwards the Swm the international scene once again. Confcderation bccame an independent political In 15" the Pope fanned a Hal) League with cmity. This break ",ilh Gemlany had strengmened Spain and Venice and Henry VIII of England Swiss sympathy for the French. Vel surprisingh the against France. Maximilian, secing this as a great finest troops in Europe had now entered the scr\ict' opportunity to seal the fatc of France and al the of Pope Julius II, thus helping to s'J·en.~then the same time secure haly once and for all, joined the Holy League which was no\\ intent on dri\ing League. France out of Italy. II 19 o:::;::::::.~=" The Battle of Ravenna .._..___-...._M...-__ ... f\t Ravenna in '5[2 tbe opportunity arose for the ------new allies to show their strength. The Papal. Spanish army under the command of Raimund Cardona made a stand three miles from the city, which the Frcnch commander Gaston de Foi" had deliberately besieged in an effort to draw the army of the League into a confrontation with his own force, which numbered 22,000 and included a contingent of5,000 German LandsknechtS. Draw· ing up his forces barely 30 yards away from the banks of the River Ronco, Cardona ordered earthworks to be erected across his front. With his Medium artillery p;«e5, probably Kartaune... In general the horse on both flanks and his infantry arranged in rate "ffiring WIIS ..low. Thi. was ..... part due 10 the D«essity 10 cool IlDd dean the bon: each time to p...,venl prem.ature echelon formation similar lO the Swiss tactic, the e"'plOt;io.... wben reloading; vinegar __ ....ed to cool the Spanish commander ordered wagons to be drawn barrels. up in front ofthe forward infantry square. On these commandcr his life. Ravenna was one of the wagons were placed large arquebuses, while lhe bloodiest ballies ofthai era. Over 10,000 bodies lay heavy artillery was positioned in front of the left strewn on the bauleficld with double losses for the wing ofcavalry. League. According 10 Machiavelli the French As the French advanced towards Cardona's victory was gained solely due to the stubborn front a heavy cannonade bcgan. De Foix, noticing resistance and fierce c1ose·quaner fighting or the that the enemy had placed mOSI of his strength on German Landsknechts. the left flank, ordcred his artillery to be drawn up Several days after Ravenna Maximilian ordered and for twO hours bombarded Cardona's weak all the German Landsknechts in the pay of the right (lank. The effort proved succcssful, for he French to return home. All except 800 obeyed their brought the enemy out of a strong defensive Emperor; and these Soo wcre to form the nucleus of position on to the field. Colonna, the commander of the infamous 'Black Legion'. In the following year the Italian horse, threw his troops against the the Holy League broke up on the death orthe Pope French right wing. Outnumbered twO to one the Julius II. The Venetian Republic, seeing that its French were forced back, bllt the advance of the real enemies were lhe Germans and the Spanish, Leaguc was soon checked by a counter-chargc from struck an alliance with France; and the Pope, a the French lancers in the rearguard and, thrown Medici, had other interests. illlo confusion, the League was put to roul. In the centre the Spanish and Italian infantl)' began their advance towards the German Lands· Creazzo and Novara kncchtS who stood in typical squared formation. In the summer of 1513 a new army 7,000 strong At this poilll the lauer, breaking into a great commanded by Frundsberg and Ulrich von Hlitlen charge, swooped into the ranks of the Spanish and crossed the Alps and was joined by the veterans of precipitated biller hand·to-hand figlaing. Seeing Ravenna. Uncertain of the political situation, that the Spanish were gaining the upper hand which was in a SlalC ofpcrpclllal fllIX, the Imperial Caslon ordered his horsc to attack the Spanish foot, army marched on Padua whcre a large Venelian causing the latter to take up a defensive instead of army was reported 10 be assembling. Reinforced an offensive formation. Surrounded on all sides, tbe with Spanish and Italian contingentS, Frundsberg, Spaniards tried to keep together and reach the after severa] minor skirmis.hes with local units, banks of the Ronco where lhey could make a turned nonh·wcst towards Creazzo wherc the retreat between the earthworks and the river. commander of[Jle Venetian forces, d'Alviano, had Furious ,hat the Spaniards were retreating, Caston confidcntly invitcd thc gentry of Padua to observe ordered a final charge which cost the French the resounding victory which he was about to 20 -- Th.. cul"..ria was on.... charact..riHd by th.. shan ~I ...... i.mpl.....ed:uuUsm al the ~.r ofl.h.. lraiI pi~. The 1"'D!th of pi~. -- the Joooe: U"Ili1 Th.. l-rn:1 _ elevated by meaas of. the ~I _aonnaUy 110 to 40 limo... its width. (Dnu) register against the Imperial forces. Yet Frunds· his imperial claim on Italy, was faced with a new berg and his Locolcllt!1l1 Jakob VOll Landau, selling problem. The young and impetuous successor to their men up in squared formation, converted what the French duone, Francis I, was intent on seemed a certain victol1' for the Venctians into a rccovering the lost Dukedom of Milan. In August humiliating defeat. Some 8,000 mercenaries ofthe 1515 a French army, 30,000 strong with a train of Republic met their death against only minor losses 72 guns crossed the Alps and surprised their for Frundsbcrg's men. encmies in the rear, pitching camp at Marignano f ~Ieanwhile the French had been forced to ten miles south·east of ~tilan. withdraw from Italian soil after suffering defeat at Francis had takcll the trouble to recruit 9,000 the hands ofthe Swiss at the BatLie of~ovara,June German Landsknechts under the command of the 1513. The French amly, encamped some 28 miles Duke ofGucldres, having lillic rcgard for his own west of Milan were taken by surprise by a '3,000 Gascon infantry. II is said that man} of the strong Swiss force. In Ihe deadly battle which Landsknechts belonged to lhe infamous Black ensued, the German LandsknechlS of the Black Bands, so-called because ofthe black uniform and Legion and the French Gascon foot were thrown armour which lhey wore. The Swiss, 25,000 Slrong, back and hacked to pieces by the Swiss halberdiers. had withdrawn to Milan where they received a ! Out of 10,000 men thc French suffered 50 per ccnt considerable bribe from Francis to turn against , losses. Those Landsknechts in the pay ofthe French their hosts. Howe\'er, careful persuasion b}' their f who surrendered were e.xecuted wilhout mercy by leaders made them realise that the French meant to the Swiss. Novara was the highwatcrmark ofSwiss destroy them. military achicvcment. The opposing forces met at Marignano on 1 By the end of '514 most of north·eastcm Italy Septcmber 13. Whilc the Swiss hesitatcd over the j wascomrolled by Imperial troops until in 1515 the bribe from Fmncis, lhe French king took up a Curtain began to rise on a new act in the Italian defensi\'e position. making dfcCli\'c U5C of the " tragedy. ditches which broke up the terrain in frolll of his c ranks. Having ordcred some ofthese to be built up j Marignano illlo eanhworks Francis placed his artillery, ar· c ~Iaximilian, who had juggled about with France quebusicrs and Gascon crossbowm('n in the front , and the Venctian Republic in an attempt to secure line. Behind this came the Gemlan Landskncchb in 21 fighting, the Swiss withdrew from the field with only 3,000 men left. The French were thus able 10 recover Milan, while Maximilian could only offer token opposition. When in 1516 the Emperor organised a cam paign from the Tyrol against Venice and ~liJan, his military bankruptcy was exposed. One half of his troops were Swiss mercenaries in the pay of the English, man} of whose comrades "'ere still in the pay of the French (lhe Confederation had been divided). l\loreovcr l\1a.ximilian was not e\·cn commander of the whole arnly. In spite of this his anny had managed to reach the gates ofMilan, yet when he hesitated over the assault of the city in H~ w .. flll'tbu esampl.. of _ aiI~ wiu aD onoat.. twisted barrtt IUld wa...,..,J .truu 10 add ...bill.,. l& U .. wIoole favour of a more stratcgic manoeuvre, his troops carriat.. d~ U"Ul$pan. (lkw; 'n.,~..s.u.udwj') grew impatient and demanded their Sturmsold. When this moncy was nOI forthcoming they mutinied, some defecting, some returning home, squared formation, Ranked by the French ho~. leaving the Emperorwi!.h no choice but to abandon Somewhat confused but anxious to get at their his campaign and make a hasty retreat to the T)TOI. treacherous enemy, the Swiss had meanwhile left This marked the end of Maximilian's military Milan and drawn themselves up in typical echelon engagements. Forced to adopt a more peaceful fonnation with a forlorn hope well ahead of the policy towards France, he concluded the Peace of main Cru.'a/tltut. Pressing forward, the 'forlorn hope' Brussels with France in December '516, by which reached a small fannhouse where, under cover he delivered up his last prize of the Venetian from enemy fire, the Swiss were able to SCt up the fourculverins which !.hey had taken from the Milan arsenal. Francis immediately ordered a troop of horse to approach the farmhouse with the illlention ofsetting it on fire. This they succeeded in doing, rendering the cannon useless. Pressing on, the 'forlorn hope' crossed the ditches, wading through waleI' in some places, and traversed the walls built by the French engineers. Complctely overpowering the Gascon archers and arquebusiers the Swiss van, now closely followed by the main body of foot, reached the last ditch protecting the Frcnch position and crashed illlo the German Landskncchts. In thc ensuing melee the Swiss captured several guns and for a while the two forces were locked together 'at push of pike'. Fortunately the Germans rallied and at their second assault the Swiss were checked by a Ranking charge from the French horse and salvoes from the Th.. Soor Sow _._l4bt fidd piece wiu_ 8TftIteT traj«cory thaa u .. mvuiD•. The equlpm....t req~ to rna.inu.in Lb.. French artillery, which ripped holes in their ranks. anillery ... load onieT ova. quit.. COG.id..~bJ.. , -.idtl" and By midnight the battle had reached stalemate. It is .cyth" for deariDl th.. uad"rvowtll, -.boyd. IUld KoOpS for th.. ean.bworks, boo.1a.a_ aDd wti.pt. for m ....urinJ out u .. said that both Swiss and Germans slcpttogether on doarJ" or papawd , I er buekeu for carT')'iD« U .. powder Cram ~ d p to u tadletl for cha.rJin&: uem, the battlefield until fighting was resumed the ad.. lP'ftH for ue wb_1s, plIO. barrel. of...... ns, _po c:aadI.... folJowing morning. Finally, after 28 hours of Ia.ot~ and thO! .ecunr')' tool.. 22 • ., , '\~ .0- .. J, HO;:r1'-;I,,'iN MiirtC'I'1U1 If. Land»knecht had committed. crime ....d lJu«ftCIed ... pIlC:" fro... the p.n the ProVOll( _llld IlOt ...... 1 .b.i.m.. IfI.bU e....di.ng the ProvOill by reaching one oCthe pnain the artillery law wa. broke. thea the Ulalltft'1lftle,,1 of the orda.a.nc:e had par'" he autom.atiCll.1ly had the ris"bt of .....<:mary for ~ the ritl:btto withdraw hi. artillery train from the ..nny. dar-. As lcml .. the Cgptiv" remaUo.ed wit.hia • nuii... of 2f ( Dtis,: 'DIU dnl/MItI SMJ4Ino&w" ) Wars-the CityofVerona to Francis. In the same pronounced aim ofa 'A!onorchia L'nivtrsaliJ' which year Charles, Duke of Burgundy, the grandson of posed a great threat to France. Maximilian, inherited the Kingdom ofSpain from Ancr several minor engagements in northern Ferdinand. This suddenly posed a military threat Spain (Villalar, 1521) and thc Netherlands nOt only for France but for the Pope too, for the (Bouchain) hostilities resumed in northern Italy. whole of soulhem Italy belonged to Spain. Thus Francis had renewed his alliance with the Venetian when Maximilian died in 1519 Pope Leo X allied Republic and Genoa and had recruited an anny of with Francis I, seeing this as the only move capable 16,000 Swiss mcrccnal;es under the command of of countering a possible pincer movement which Albrecht von Stein and his uco/rnent Arnold von any future Gennan emperor could mounl. Winkelried. The French forces under the supreme TheeJection ofCharles as Hoi) Roman Emperor command of Lautrec had occupied most of the was no clear cut malleI'. Francis I, w;th consider kingdom of Lombardy. able financial resources at his disposal, set about Frundsberg, commander ofthe Imperial forces, wooing the German princes who were responsible was approached by several Italian princes to raise for the election. His challenge was shortlived. an army and hah the French advance, With the Charles succeeded in securing the necessary help of hundreds of peasants he cleared a way for financial supporl from the rich Fuggcr and Welser his Landsknechts through the snowed-up Bergam· families of Augsburg, thus enabling him to askian Alps and joined the Imperial-Papal forces influence several ofthe more importam princes. At under the command of Prospero Colonna at Milan the same time Maximilian's grandson arranged for in February 1522. The French Army, which had an army to be despatched to Frankfurt the venue meanwhile been forced back cast of~lilan, decided for the election). This showofforce commanded by to make a stand at La Bicocca in April 1522. This Frundsberg and Franz von Sickingen was 3. was a decisive baule not for any strategic reasons sufficient deterrent for Francis and his prospective but because for the first time Swiss and German voters amongst the German Electors. This con mercenaries faced each othel" in considerable frontation meant a revival of the Habsburg-Valois numbers. struggle which was to be intensified by Charles's 23 Q 10 SO fl-~'TI---'~--'--r, '-'-I miles 020 80km Salzburg. SWISS AUSTRIA CONFEDERATION 100 elnnsbruck T Y R 0 L • Castel Roncolo ~s Pieve de Cadore , ~ ~ o Trient. v o <:) La Bicocca Milane • Novara Genoa • Florence Map oftbe North Italian and Tyrol~ theuret ofwar during tbe fint quarter of Ihe .Ui:1e..ntb century. 24 I hnperial Herald, 15'15 :I Georg von Frund1bers :J GOI:! von Berlichingen (1481 15&:z) ·0 -.J . . A The Em.peror Manmilian I B ( • c.ptaio:l, '520 'lI Schu1tl>~ ••• c"52i! 3 Standard Be-ftl'. '500S "• L:::::;;;:_"'~ ~~------,,~_---= ./c Arqu~bu,per, lsao 2 ~m~i.n ..·~bel, Wi.llibald Pird<.b~;m~r Rq;u...nu. ':>29 3 Pikeman, "·'5'10 • • .: .... • • t. o LocoU'''ezll,1>45 , '-.... -----~ ... E>,I!lllTe)'" F I DoppelHklau ohhe Black ~ 'po ~ SutJererl. 3 Pr0v051 , ~----4 ~~~.------~ \ \~ .'-3.il .. --~ \ ( 5 , , •. Rrichntunnfi.h.ae (hnperial MltI" Raldi ~ Suuodanl of friedrida of Bavaria. 15:P; 3- Standard oCOuo..les Viol_ Sta.Qdard o(M••i_ili... i.ncorporatinJ the B~d.ia.ncron of 51. Andrew; So SULadard ofGeo"l VO" fna.ndsb..'l;1 6. ero.. oCSI. Andrew; 7- Standard orthe fuge" £an>i1Yi 8. Standard of 1\.1"...mi"8""1 9. Slandard of the Geor."cbild Rin"rgell"lIl'<'hafl (Ln8"'e of Swabian Knigbl.); 10. Reichsrennfahn... H Bicocca and Pavia Colonna, the Italian commander in chargc of the Spanish cOlllingent, had realised that the hunting lodge at La Bicocca presellled a considerable defensive position. A sunken lane ran between the bottom ofa garden and the fields which separated Ihe two armies. He ordered the bank to be built up on the garden side illlo a rampan, and positioned hjs arquebusierson it in ranks four deep, aJong with several heavy cannon. The German pikemen took up the rear ofthe rampart. As the Swiss advanced across the fields (with roeks and sand in their hands ready to throw at their enemy) their ranks were decimated by the murderous fire from the Spanish arquebusiers and artilleT). Those who succeeded in reaching the lane found themselves in a deathtrap and were slaughtercd by the arquebusiers, who were so high that the Swiss pikemen could not even louch them. Frundsberg, adopting the Spanish 'tercio' method, had deployed his pike in chequer board formation behind the arquebusiers. This proved to be unnecessary, as his pike rushed down ...... ~..~~ w."- into the lane (0 finish olfthe Swiss. In the ensuing ...... s."iItlI. ,• ..,d:oSlm ...... -r.. melee Albrecht von Stein and Arnold von Winkel &eo... von Fl"WId.sbe..., Ifn-1sa'. Lord of MiJodoeUoeioa, is ried were killed at the hands of Frundsbcrg. Some reprcled by m_y.a Lbe true 'C.Lbn- ofthe LaacbJutecbu'. He bec:arne Iiupreme corornauder of the Imperial forc:eli IlJlIdn 5,000 Swiss, including 2'2 of their officers, were Charleli V portly afler the latter Ii"cc~ed Lbe throoe. killed in theonslaughl. La Bicocca was a disaster for Fn&Ddabe"l! fougbl hili finl _g.g",,_1 .pinal !he Swi•• in 1499 aDd in the same year wu amo,,& the Imperial 11'00I"' the Swiss. Lautrec ,,·as forced to withdraw from de.paldoed 10 ..sis, the Du.l Loc:oc_1., or ...... I...... I-Coloaft. fine &pre: a. the Ioead ofdoe ~e.1I or FiJ:mJeiD. II ...... _ 11 .....1~ H_~. ·AmpMlt-lli,-.!RnrJt.J.js.L.s'. ~4t IUllCOlllU:llOa .0 6Dd theeou;ip ia do.. L1Uclo: ofthe &.o.y def~ ~~.,4tt.M..d lIIQ: .raadard Iiteno.Uy wido toodo ....l Bail. Jori..... doe halia.. RlOIfT: hiJiu.ria.a, tP\"eS ... aCCOlPlI or a dead eo:uip fowod Da doe TIle UlIilp WlUI a1 .....ys haDd-picl \ J / _. Tak... (renD Ihot 'ScbwfturKhlacht' by Ha.oo. Holbela, this .... like. Tbe more KaabaJ«er pro~·ed ...osl elfeo;:ti~·e al do.e vivid po""'raJ or Wto.al 'bad war-i.e. a coftf"rOIlt.atiOIt qllltrters apia.sl Ihot cumbersome halbercltl aad plkes. betwee:a $wi.. and Germ.... mercenaries_m...l hit.... beftl rc..kV IN 10 ~,jtrJtuftJ.U/1'dl, BIU/t) 30 through Hungary, had arrived at the gates of Vienna. Charles, who had bttn involved in re ligious conflict wiLh factions within the Empire, was forced to concede to the Protestant princes once again in order to acquire arms and money at the Imperial Diet at Augsburg in 1530. In 1532 he ad\'anced on the Turks at the head ofa huge army and repulsed them in the woods ofVienna. Despite their defeat the Turks maimained their aggressive policy. [n the ).,Iediterranean Barbarossa, the much-feared pirate, became the scourge ofSpanish and Italian shipping and in 1534 crowned himself 'King of Algiers and Tunis'. In the same year he approached Genoa with his f1cct as an open gesture of challenge to Charles. The lattcr promptly relaliated and with an army of 30,000 and an Map ofme Battle ofRav_l.) CoIOJUla with800beavy bOrM b) 6,woSpamsh ialuatry. c)600 b_vy cavalry. d) ,,-WlUlt"; armada of some 364 ships and galleys attacked m Iquan< uader Carda-. e) 400 bnvy borM. f)..- (__ ,) PHcanl. whh .,_ l.if!:;bl bof'ft_ .J Duke of Fern... with 7SO Barbarossa at Tunis, uttcrly defeating the Turkish be.vy ca...try from me Compllpn d'Ordoroaaaee.•) 1,000 commander both on land and at sea. Francis, who Gee...... LandslulKhu u.ader MoUard and Jaoob von Ern•• 3) ,,-e.- aDd Picard)' U'y m .uppo.....tJ La l'ali .. had In pan instigated the aggressive Turkish with s80 beavy cavalry. s) 00 WaJlU'y, rnaiaJ)' h ..l 6) ],000 liS11i bol'M. policy, was unable toolfer the Turks any dircct hclp (1-;_ R...IIN.. '~sdN.u tl61'!f1Ul1~'''', f·.... Ij since thc Imperial campaign had the aura of a crusade for '-Veslcrn civilisation. He did, however, alliances with the Turks and Charles promised to hastily conclude the so·calJed 'Capitulations' with yield Sa\'o) and two-thirds of the territory of Suleiman, strengthening their alliance III an Piedmont to the French. Milan \\as not discussed. attempt to restore the balance of power. The Turkish pressure was soon to gather fresh momenlUm. In 1538 Corfu fell to Barbarossa and Ferdinand was dealt a second blow b} Turkish Campaigns of 1536 54 forces at PCSI in Hungary. Charles was obliged to In the meantime the war in Italy had flared up undertake a second expedition, Ihis time against again. Francesco Maria Sforza, the last Duke of Algicl'S. His flcet ravaged by the clements and his ~lilan, died in 1535 without an heir. The Duchy of arm) drenched b} rainstorms, the expedition Milan therefore fell to Charles V. Francis promptly proved abortive. In the light of these defeats claimed the Ouch)' for his son Charles Ill, Duke of Francis decided to declare war on Charles once Orleans and occupied Turin in 1536. As a result the again, using the murders of his diplomats as a German Emperor crossed the Alps once again, this pretext. Aftcr a succession of inconclusive cam time entering his opponent's tcrrito')-. With an paigns the French lost Luxemburg and much of army 50,000 strong he devastated Provence and their southern from around Piedmont. In February began besieging ~'larscillcs. He was soon forced to 1543 Charles entered illlo an aJliance with Henn. beat a retreat as his ranks were decimated by the VI II ofEngland and in June the same} ear the (1('\\ plague, and he retumed to Germany with his Imperial ally declared waron France. The idea W Aj Got-t von Btrlichingtn (1481 1562) Conclusion Known as 'Gotz of the Iron Hand', he belonged to Although the L.'tndsknechtS \\lere 10 sec service the class of Imperial knights who were fast throughout Europe, it was precisely this in· becoming an anachronism al Ihis time ofupheaval. tcrnational involvcment which caused their ul· His iron hand was a substilute for the onc he had timate disappearance. Charles was continually at lost at the Siege of Landshut in '5°4-. Largely pains to acquire funds and support for his cam· celebrated as a 'robber baron', he took part in paigns from his Princes, who wcrc inclined to o[fer many campaigns in Burgundy, Lorraine, Switzer· financial aid only at a political price. The Lands· land and for Maximilian in t497 and 14gB; his knechts, for their pan, suOered largely from a career ended wilh the wars against the Turks in breakdown in discipline, as the mercenaries were Hungary in 1542 and the campaigns ofCharlcll V prepared to renounce their allegiance to the against Ihe french in t54+ He was also prominent Emperor at a price. The ultimatum 'No in the Peasant's Revolt, in which he led L11e peasant money no Landsknechts' was often beard. Many 'Bw/dsdlUh Regiment'. (Thc standard was a red nag historians are led to believe thai the decline of the with a green shoe and trailing ribbon motif.) He Landsknechts began upon the death ofFrundsberg. was acquitted by the Imperial Chamber for his part Certainly the original conception of .Maximilian's in the rebellion, bUI seized by the Swabian Alliance reign-that ofa lxxIy ofpikcmcn who would be a in 1528 and kept prisoner at Augsburg until 1530. malch for the S\\liss-had gradually been super ceded due to the progress offirearms. B}' the second B TIlL Emptror Maximilian I halfofthe sixteenth CCOllll) garish costume began to disappear, and e\'en the word Landsknecht soon Apart from his contribution towards the creation of made wa) for 'kaistrlichtr Fussknuht' (Imperial the LandsknechtS and Ihe development of a ~1aximilian FOOl.soldier), thus marking the end of one of the 'modern' artillel)' system, was also most colourful periods in European military responsible for the production of one of the most history. important styles of renaissance armour. Known as 33 nu. rather wCc:u.nlte reprneae.tioD of P by P.tiDier lm.peria.I eroo.. are forciol their _,. thro"tl:b th", breach io a1pCures, oevenheles.. the maio fcatvru of the nle. I... the the wall ofthe Park ofMlnboo:Uo. I... the forqroUDd, the cla.ab cop Ide ofthe piclure0011' caD seeAlenl;oD'a croops io their vain belW_ th", Fnncb 1D0Ufteed e-darrn.,. .Dd Lanno}"a .uempe to eacape .eros. the Tiu;ioo. I... the CftIln: the eavalry ;. cl.....ly vi.iblt:. (Au.rllm/«ulMs MIlSt~'"' j'ItMIJ) 'Maximilian armour' in referencc to the support was Cuslomary to find the'Hauprftutt' in armour. which lhc Emperor gave lO the amlOuring guilds in This captain is wearing a lalcr fonn of 'Max Gcrmany and Austria, this style was dominanl in imilian' armOlU· wilh ornamenlal flulings. A laler lhc ycars between 1500 and 1530. II was character dcvclopment was the so-callcd Trablwmisch or ised by the multiple groovcs and flutings which trOlling armour, which was a much lightcr form of affordcd both omameillation and greater pl'O~ protection with more rounded articulations, wider teclion. The Emperor owned IwO sets of horse ann-guards and shoulder pieces. Hcadgear in furnishings. The larger battle armour retained a gencral consisted ofa felt. beret with a basin-shaped Gothicoutline and \\as festooned with the Imperial crown and a wide brim. Often this was cuI al device (the two-headed eagle). The horsc furniture regular intervals all round, and sometimes turned depicted here is the lightcr sct bearing the Austrian back 10 fonn stiff loops. This was suitably adorned coat of anns notc the Tyrolean eagles on the with bright fealhers, or ruffled wool. pectoral. C2 S(kullh~iss, C.1520 CI Captain, 1520 Since this office was usuall) taken up by a village Since they were expected to fight in the front rank it magistrate or somc other public dignitary, lhe 34 ul1ifonn Tarel)' underwent a transfonnation ofany ing needle, grease, rag and clout was worn at the sort. The important features arc the chain ofoffice waist and suspended beneath this \'0 as a small tin and the Slaff, a foml of roar spear, which was phial containing olive oil for cleaning and lubricat probably the forerunner of Ihe officer's spontoon. ing the moving parts of the arquebus/musket. The skull cap he is wearing, known as a calQ/lt, was Further accoutrcments were the small touch. usually made of cheesecloth or thin linen, de· powder horn, somctimes hooked all to the butt of corated with slashjng. The purpose ofthe cap was the gun; the iron ramrod, which was later replaced to keep rolh hair and hal in place but in actual fact by a wooden version; and a four.foot.long match it was originally a type of hairnel worn by the which hung from the belt on the ri~ht hand side. In womenfolk. The tunic, in Italian Renaissance style, \'oct weather this was carried under the berel or in is Iypical of the dress worn b)' officers, members of the leather pouch. The invention of the cartridge the nobility and indeed Ihe mounted troops of the case in lhe lauer half of the sixteenth centul1' day. greatly facilitated the wholc procedure ofloading. C3 Standard BeaUT, 15°5 D2 Gem~inlL'thtl, lI'illibold Pirdhelmtr Rtglment, 2 Hairstyles were still long at the beginning of the 15 9 sixteenth centuI) and beards were not yet in The only attempt made in these times at some fonn fashion. With the advent of the Spanish trends in of uniformity was made by the Nuremberg pat fashion a reversal in slyies look place, short hair rician Willibald Pirckheimer, who raised a regi being preferred, together wilh long, orten exag~ ment in 1529, fining it out wilh red jerkins and gerated beards. A certain AUSlrian by the name of hose, red being Ihe heraldic colour of :'\Iurcmberg, Andreas von Rauber, it is recorded, let his beard and also blending in well with blood! This corporal grow to the ground and whenever he fought tied it is wearing the Donnal shin gathered at the neck, round his waisl; and the Oberst GrafEiteifritz von \\;th full slecn."S which were pulled OUI through the Hohenzollern plaited his beard from his chin slashes in the puffed-out jerkin. The origin of downwards! The red cross, which was the field sign 'slashing' probably lies in the complete un· for Imperial troops (the other being a red sash) was suitability ofsixlcenth century costume for fighting. sewn all to the doublet. The Swiss mercenaries wore An oversized shirt, often gathered at the neck, and a white cross on their jerkins to distinguish tight-fitting hose and doublet restricted movement themselves from Ihe foe in times of"bad war'. The at the joints. Realising this the Landsknecht sel standard is the 'BlutJalm£ which was carried in the about com'erting and adding to his ·unifonn'. The 'forlorn hope' to remind the Landsknechts of the first step was to slil open thejerkin at the elbows and deadly situation in which they found themselves. shqulders, the hose at the knees and hips. To create a more striking appearance, slrips of ribbons were Dl Arquehusitr,1520 tied round tbe arms and the shin was pulled through the jerkin in bunches. Before the early 15205, which marked the arrival of the musket, the arquebusiers rarel) used rests. With D3 Pikffllon, (.1520 the introduction of the musket, incorporating a longer barrel, rests became more common. It was It was uncommon for the nonnal foolSOldier to also cuStomary for arquebusiers 10 carry Ihe wear armour. The 'true' Landsknechl never \\-ore a powder, unmeasured against the number ofbullets, backplate since he nevcr turned his back on the in a hal'll around thc neck. Herc, however, we see a enemy. It was, however, due 10 lack of resources bandolier bearing the 'Elcven Apostles', Ihe eleven that Ihis cuStom was adopted. The len leg was oftcn charges equalling 1 lb. ofpowder. Each charge was left bare, free of any hindrance, so that pike drill contained in a wooden vessel with a leather could be carried Qut with greater de'\tcrity. covering, which was preferred to the somewhat Sometimes lhis was carried to the extreme, the noisy copper vcsscls, and attached finnl) to the bUllOCks being completely exposed. The hose were bandolier. A leather pouch containing shot, clean· sometimes slashed in the upper part and striped in 35 the lower. The Icgs were of different colours and were also developments in the horse-armour, which decoratcd in various ways wlth pipings, stripes and began to show greater articulation, notably with spiral bands. the three-piece hinged 'pcytral' or pectoral buckled to the main body-piece by means ofleather straps. E Locolmml, 1545 The bulbous ornamentation on the pectoral, known as the glance-knob, was designed to parry Armour underwent several changes during the lance blows. sixteenth century. A complete suit of armour usually weighed between forty and fifty pounds. it Fl Drummtr, 1525 was therefore necessary to introduce as many articulations as possible to increase mobility in The drum was often large and cumbersome and some way. By 1530 the Maximilian-styled armour was usually carried on the back during the march. with its multiple grooves and flutings had disap Sometimes it bore the Imperial motif either the peared, with the breast plate and the cllisscs double-headed eagle or the Burgundian crossed revcrting to their former smooth states. The breast staves and fiery devices. plate bcgan to assume a more curved shape, taking on the form of a peascod. The neck-piece was F2 Landskntehtl c.1553 replaced by a collar with a gorget which was The origin of the CPluderhost' the huge baggy articulated in lobster fashion, as were the upper hose dates back to 1553 when they first appeared arm sections and the gauntlets, which had jointed in the camp of Prince Moritz of Saxony who was fingers. The saddlery, which at the bcginningofthe besieging ~Iagdeburg. So monstrous was their sixteenth century had been essentially iron with the appearance that the clergy banned them. The cantle fiued to its mountings, was now made of court priest at Berlin, a certain ~llusculus, in a great wood and leather reinforced with iron, affording treatise on the subject complained that the hose did greater comfon and freedom ofmo\'ement. There more to expose the anatomy than hide it since it was divided at the hips by a huge often obscene; cod piece in the form of a bow of slashed material. Before its acceptance as a fashion it was not uneommon for Landsknechts caught wearing Pludtrhost to be incarcerated. Essentially the hose consisted of yards of material held up by' slasht:d bands sllspended from the waist at the front and rear. F3 Ensign of Nuremberg, 1550 By the mitl-sixteenth century costume had under gone a considerable transformation, being influenced to a large extent by Spanish trends. Beards became more pointed; and the wide slashed beret gave way to a much smaller version, or to a helmet ofmarion and burgonct type. The burgonet had hinged cheek-pieces, and often an additionaJ faee plate known as a beaHr. The marion was a simple open helmet used particularly by the arquebusiers. Doublets were prone to c.xtensive 110e "Redu de:r .....,"'"' Spies""or'jud&m",",1 o(thepikes'...... a vcrtical slashing, and the shirt was rurned at neck rOnD ofn>aai.ot me p_deL After the priamler bad Hna tried and cuffs in typical Spanish fashion. Footwear by jury l:Ie ...... led 10 eM plaICe O( .....ecutio... wlricll ...... aD av",",ue O( OM pikes o( Iris c:ontndes. Aller the uecuticm, 1M began to cover the whole instep at this stage. in the Pro~_1 ~edthem_ICe moreo(the "mela'and thoe <:os! or Tailia& to obey them.. earlier period an exaggerated type of shoe called 36 Ixlle.-diDS auwI the 'wheel'. {Woo'(MI ~, BMr~t-lrf ..... As WIIS ofteo the CII""'. jUlilice .ameli...... h.d lO be .dJniDi.... '"-M' lerfll withoul lrial. Co...mon (ormJl of eseculioR were 'Wtiu Ii. Mf"t',(I>M1Ul7 8111IJh ,1/Mmt1>l1 •Kuhmiiult' -cow's mouth-had been fashionablc, group ofsoldiers grew originally from a nucleus of but the open instep and elaborate toe section was some 800 Landsknechts in French pay \\ ho refused accordanc~ quite impractical on mudd) battlefields. to return to Cemlan) in with ~1a.ximilian·s decree artcr the Imperial defeat at GI DopptlsolJntr ojtht Black Ltgion, 1520 Ravcnna in 1512. Cnder the command ofthe Duke Known as the 'Black Legion' or 'Black Bands', this of Gueldres, this nOLOrious compan) was outfitted 37 DnunDlrr and Piper: Found invariably in th....nlouragr ofth., r"rry 6".. beats of th.. drum. During th., march On" tnuliici.an "Dsi"" thr m.usicians w ..r .. relipo.u;;bl.. fot' m.aintaiaing th.. Dormll1ly joined th.. rear. intpetus i.D th.. aliliauh, mo".,mrnt being art a' W .... pile.... for (1I'oodo / The whole _uale ' oneo derisively caJ.lecI the 'wltorn artlo_rb or...tid, the artillery. The w .....e u-aia wu uader aDd...... n', wu in y retlpKU • ....ul in iudf,"'~;ta the c:om.rnand ofthe HtlreDwllibd, ... offieer with lIM: raak of Owa ..laAdard aDd. of1_ bdDti en>pJoyecl 10 ...... trua c:apuiD wbo had biti _ ti~,etUUI', eaa;p...... Rrw-t'L 39 headed cagle. When the Emperor was not present the standard ofthe commandingofficer became the leading baule nag. H2 In the Turkish Wars, '532, the standard of Friedrich of Bavaria who was the supreme commander ofthe Imperial forces was used instead ofthe double-headed eagle. It bore the figure ofSt ~Iichael on the Bavarian colours beneath the words 'DE COELO VICTORIA'. H3 Charles V as successor to MaximiHan in herited an immense empire. This was s~ mbolised on a new Imperial flag depicting the twin pillars of Cunp' Wil1t.in ...... was_ Cort., doe I ..od,kn~u: w~ Wt to Hercules i.e. German)' and Spain and the motif .....ft.- ...... ~. to 6JKI or ~ .....m ...... abdt...... Thit oCtao lOOk tile Corm oC ...impl.. leaa-co Or aD l.locI-.l>aped lau' __d.. 'PLUS OULTRE' or in Gcnnan ':',lOCH oCb...... d>... -....d mud .upported ... aD A' &a.m... oCIoalbndL WElTER'. 110.. (:IlIDp ~ Itevtr _ to 0_ be 40 mmIJ mmIJ MILITARY MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES MILITARY An unri,'alled source ofinfonnarion on the unifonns, insignia and appearance afthe world's fighting men ofpas1 and present. The Afetl·a(-Amu titles cover subjects as diverse as the Imperial Roman anny. the Napoleonic wars and Gennan airborne troops in a popular is-page format including some 40 photographs and diagrams, and eight full-colour plates. COMPAN10N SERIES FRO~1 OSPREY ELITE Detailed information on the uniforms and insignia oCthe world's most fa mOlls military forces. ~lch 64-pagc book contains some 50 photographs and diagrams, and 12 pages offull-colollT artwork. WARRIOR Definitive analysis ofthe amlouT, weapons, tactics and motivation ofthe fighting men ofhislOry. Each 6+-pagc book contains cuta",ays and exploded artwork afthe warrior's weapons and armou.... NEWV NGUARD COmpl"C~hensi,·~histo...ies ofth~ design, dC"e!opment and opcn1tional us~ ofthe world's armoured "~hiclesand artillery. Each 048-page book contains eight pages offull-eolour artwork including a d~tailed cutaway ofthe vchiclc's intcrior. CAMJ)AIGN Concise, authoritati"e accounts ofdecisivc encounters in military history. Each 96-pagc book contains more than 90 illustrations including maps, orders ofbanIe and colour plates, plus a scrics of three-dimensional battle maps that mark the critical stages ofthc campaign. PIe