The Creationist Revival

an international humanist magazine

Summer 1991 Vol. 11, No. 3

Pandas Attack Science Education Scott Brande Then a Miracle Occurs Victor Bernard The Creationist Theory of Abrupt Appearances Arthur Strahler

The New American Pragmatism Thelma Lavine

(V Biology, Sex, and Love co Anthony Walsh N- r- Love and Mate Selection in the '90s Elizabeth Rice Allgeier and Michael W Wiederman

Also: The Road to Baghdad and Basra; Possession and Exorcism; Religion and the Polls SUMMER 1991, VOL. 11, NO. 3 ISSN 0272-0701

Contents an international humanist magazine

3 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR Editor: Paul Kurtz Senior Editors: Vern Bullough, Gerald Larue 5 EDITORIALS Executive Editor: Tim Madigan Notes from the Editor, Paul Kurtz / Humanism and Religion Managing Editor: Andrea Szalanski in West Africa, Norm Allen, Jr. I Religion and the Polls, Vern Contributing Editors: Robert S. Alley, H. James Birx, Jo Ann Boydston, Bullough Paul Edwards, Albert Ellis, Roy P. Fairfield, Joseph Fletcher, Antony Flew, Levi Fragell, Adolf 10 Waging the Battle Grimbaum, R. Joseph Hoffmann, Marvin Kohl, Skipp Porteous Jean Kotkin, Ronald A. Lindsay, Delos B. McKown, Howard Radest, Robert Rimmer, Svetozar 12 ON THE BARRICADES Stojanovic, Thomas Szasz, V. M. Tarkunde, Richard Taylor, Rob Tielman, Sherwin Wine

ARTICLES Associate Editors: 14 Saint Paul's Conversion on the Road Doris Doyle, Thomas Flynn, Steven L. Mitchell, Lee Nisbet, Gordon Stein to Damascus Nina Rulon-Miller 16 Lest We Forget: Bruno, Galileo, and the Power Editorial Associates: Robert Basil, Jim Christopher, Fred Condo Jr., to Define Roberto Giammanco Thomas Franczyk, James Martin-Diaz, Molleen Matsumura MODERN VIEWS ON SEX AND LOVE Executive Director, CODESH, Inc.: 20 The Biological Relationship Between Sex Jean Millholland and Love Anthony Walsh Chief Data Officer: Richard Seymour 25 Love and Mate Selection in the 1990s....Elizabeth Rice Allgeier and Michael W. Wiederman Typesetting: Paul E. Loynes Audio Technician: Vance Vigrass THE CREATIONIST REVIVAL Staff 28 Pandas Attack Science Education Scott Brande Brent Bailey, Kim Gallo, Steve Karr, Anthony Nigro, 31 Then a Miracle Occurs Victor Bernard Alfreda Pidgeon, Ranjit Sandhu 37 The Creationist Theory of Abrupt Appearances: FREE INQUIRY (ISSN 0272-0701) is published A Critique Arthur N. Strahler quarterly by the Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism (CODESH, Inc.), a nonprofit corporation, Box 5, Buffalo, NY 14215-0005. Phone (716) 44 The Re-Enlightenment Tim Madigan 636-7571. Copyright ©1991 by CODESH, Inc. Second-class postage paid at Buffalo, New York, and 45 The Case for a New American Pragmatism.... Thelma Z. Lavine at additional mailing offices. National distribution 49 Freedom of Thought and Religion in by International Periodicals Distributors, San Diego, California. Bangladesh A. B. M. Mafizul Islam Patwari FREE INQUIRY is available from University Micro- films and is indexed in Philosophers Index. 51 VIEWPOINT Subscription rates: $25.00 for one year, $43.00 for Unequivocal Humanism Roger E. Greeley two years, $59.00 for three years, $5.00 for single issues. Address subscription orders and changes of address to: FREE INQUIRY, Box 5, Buffalo, NY 14215- 53 BOOKS 0005. Reading Rorty, John M. Novak / The Philosophy of `Flow,' Manuscripts, letters, and editorial inquiries should Timothy William Grogan / The Road Too Traveled, Tom Flynn! be addressed to: The Editor, FREE INQUIRY, Box 5, Buffalo, NY 14215-0005. All manuscripts must be Disneyland Christianity, Tom Franczyk / Books in Brief double-spaced and should be accompanied by a stamped, self-addressed envelope. Opinions 61 READERS' FORUM expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors or publisher. Postmaster: Send address Growing Toward Unbelief / Humanists and Death changes to FREE INQUIRY, P.O. Box 5, Buffalo, NY 14215-0005. 62 IN THE NAME OF GOD Agnosticism was not on the list. I submit it here: Agnosticism—Maybe shit happens Letters to the Editor and maybe it don't.

Andy Meier New Lebanon, N.Y.

The List Hists the Fan by substituting John F. Kennedy's "Life is Not Fair," but I discovered that the Your "Short Guide to Comparative In our Spring 1991 issue, we published result "Calvinism: Life is not fair be- Religions" (Author Anonymous) is in a humorous piece entitled "A Short cause you don't work hard enough," and extremely poor taste, falls very short of Guide to Comparative Religions." While others didn't evoke any laughs. being amusing, and is not up to the many readers found it amusing, a A bit of vulgarity appears to be a standards we expect from your pub- significant number were deeply offended. rather essential ingredient. lication. It was not our intention to insult anyone's sensibilities. Read on for the gamut R. Bigelow Laurie B. M. Lever of reactions.—EDS. Gays Mills, Wis. Sarasota, Fla.

"A Short Guide to Comparative Reli- gions" uses the obscene word for excre- The "Short Guide to Comparative I'm not sure I want my favorite magazine ment twenty-one times. By printing this Religions" needed two more entries: to take notice of my favorite religion. tasteless piece you have seriously dam- Jehovah's Witnesses—Only 144,000 Nevertheless, I can't help but add it to aged your reputation as a literate, of us will get out of this shit. the very amusing chart: intellectual magazine. The editor that Agnosticism We don't know Baha'i Shit is progressive! allowed the "Guide" into print should whether or not shit happens. be removed from your staff. Elaine Thompson John George Alpena, Mich. George Wood Dept. of Political Science Malibu, Calif. Central State University Edmond, Okla. Vulgarity is often the distraught cry of the inarticulate; but in this so-called What kind of people do you think your "Short Guide" it is the blatant cry of readers are that they would think "A My first impulse upon reading "A half-baked wit expressed by an arrogant, Short Guide to Comparative Religions" Short Guide to Comparative Religions" know-it-all. As Alexander Pope said: funny? It is crude, vulgar, uncouth, gross, was to cancel my subscription. Upon "True wit is nature to advantage and whatever other appropriate adjec- further reflection I decided not to deprive dressed, tives there may be. I am not surprised myself of the many well-reasoned articles What oft was thought, but ne'er so that the author chose to remain anony- in what I had heretofore regarded as a well said." mous. Your editorial staff should be first-class publication. Which reminds me: The space were embarrassed and ashamed for having The article had no class! It is my better used by printing a poem of displayed their miserable and perverted hope that this departure from the good uplifting value. taste by giving space to bumper-sticker taste I have come to expect from and graffiti humor. FREE INQUIRY was an aberration. Gerald F. Rogers Wilton Manors, Fla. Russell E. Simmons Richard Goodapple Raton, N.M. Quincy, Ill. A few days ago I came up with a "religious" saying that I thought could Another thank you for printing "A Why not make this addition to the be attributable to Saddam Hussein— Short Guide to Comparative Reli- "Short Guide to Comparative Reli- "Shiites happen." Then came the Spring gions." I actually laughed out loud at gions?": 1991 FREE INQUIRY with "A Short several of the items and I think the Secular Humanism—There are valid Guide to Comparative Religions." Coin- author should come out of the closet reasons why shit happens. cidental, miraculous, or paranormal? and be properly acclaimed as a profound wit. Costas Hercules, M.D. Douglas A. King I tried to tidy up some of the entries Rapid City, S.D. Riverside, Calif. Summer 1991 3 Loved "A Short Guide to Comparative ists, religious or secular, do not expect a theist, or a believer in spiritual dimen- Religions." Here's one more for the everyone to believe as we do. UUs are sion to reality. On the record, however, list: not like that. whatever the tradition of toleration that Southern Baptists—Shit only hap- I am a Unitarian. I am a humanist. the answer to this question reflects, the pens to moderates. I am comfortable with both categories data lend themselves to the alternative As always, your magazine is top- and, until now, thought the two positions conclusion that humanism is not simply notch. Good luck and continued success were completely compatible. I don't feel a "strong strand" but is still the largest in the future. that I must label myself "religious" or common strand revealed by your survey. Charles Clifton "secular." The drafters, editors, and Marietta, Ga. signers of Humanist Manifestos I and Howard B. Radest II did not. If you are trying to drive Director, Ethical Culture people like me out of your movement, Schools Unitarian Survey you have taken a large first step. You New York, N.Y. should really wake up! Your movement Paul Kurtz and Vern Bullough's article needs dedicated people and you should "The Unitarian Universalist Association: not be driving them away with your rigid The survey points to a 38 percent portion Humanism or Theism?" (FI, Spring and narrow definition of acceptable of Unitarian church members who con- 1991) was very informative, but reached thinking. sider themselves humanist or atheist, a curious conclusion. The authors felt which is a strong minority but still a that humanism "is not the dominant Glen E. Jensen minority. The article gives the necessary voice" in the UUA, yet the respondents Carmel, Ind. information that allows the reader to to their survey of ministers and presi- make an assessment as to its validity (and dents of UUA congregations denied the different readers may come to different divinity of Jesus by a ratio of more than I could not resist commenting on your conclusions). 20 to 1, and denied the divine inspiration survey of the Unitarian Universalist Stories emerge from within the Uni- of the Bible by more than 30 to 1. Association. It's easy to turn statistical tarian congregations that there is an In 1989, the UUA conducted its own information to just about any purpose upsurge of people committed to mysti- survey, and found that only 15 percent and to interpret data to suit whatever cism and superstition amongst their of the members referred to themselves ends we have in mind. For example, members. But it is up to humankind to as Christians, while 55 percent called when we combine Atheist, Agnostic, and maintain its livable environment or themselves humanists. Humanist categories, we find that 51 extinguish its own life-form. No prayers, It is true that the current UUA percent of the congregations are in those no mysticism, no transcendentalism will president, William Schultz, is trying to categories. We might note that if UUA do it for humankind; only reasoned, move the organization in a more spiritual membership is around 200,000, that determined effort will. direction. However, the membership would mean that more than 100,000 are Many consider Ludwig Feuerbach's should prove resistant, and could use the within a humanist or proto-humanist nineteenth-century statement that "Man support of such staunch humanists as orbit, which is more than the combined has created god in His likeness" a Paul Kurtz and Vern Bullough. memberships of all the other humanists cornerstone of humanism. Every human organizations in the country. being is her or his own god, in other David P. Swain, Ph.D. When we get some of the more terms. Humanism is secular by defini- President, Unitarian Fellowship detailed issues of "belief' that you report, tion, and this is something that should of Huntington we find some striking items that lend not need to be stated; however, at a time Huntington, W. Va. further weight to an alternative to your when, on some university campuses, so- conclusions, particularly in the light of called Christian Humanist organizations Unitarian Universalist roots and history. are being established, one has to ask the I am disturbed by the tone and the Thus, 197 out of 261 (75 percent) question whether or not an attempt is conclusions of the article. I question your respondents identify Jesus as a "human being made here to absorb humanism small sampling of UUs and the way you being; 157 out of 222 (71 percent) believe into religion. This tends to force hu- have interpreted the results. Assuming in "human mortality"; 258 out of 266 manists to emphasize the secularity of you have a valid cross-section of Uni- (97 percent) believe the Bible is "a human humanist organizations. "Religious tarian Universalists, it still looks like document"; 134 out of 173 (77 percent) humanism" is an oxymoron, after all. humanists and humanistic thinking, believe the universe "has no divine while not technically in the majority, source"; etc. Shades of Humanist H. E. Schreiber certainly represent a huge plurality. Of Manifesto I! Humanist Association of course it is not dominant, i.e., command- Perhaps the source of your conclusion Canada ing, controlling, or prevailing over all really lies in the "liberal" answer to Ottawa, Ont. other beliefs. Nor should it be because question 13, i.e., the possibility of being Canada we UUs who consider ourselves human- a Unitarian and also being a Christian, (Continued on p. 60)

4 FREE INQUIRY Desert Storm was justified, but we wish to express our profound misgivings Editorials about its moral character. Possession and Exorcism

I recently had an opportunity to debate Notes from the Editor Reverend James LeBar on demonic possession and exorcism. This was my The Road to Baghdad second joust with LeBar on Cable News And Basra Network's "Larry King Live" show. LeBar is the special advisor to New York ow that the conflict with Iraq is propaganda build-up had claimed. This Cardinal John O'Connor on exorcism. Nover, it is time to reflect on the was used to paint him as a Hitler, when Cardinal O'Connor has spoken approv- brutal character of the "surgical war" and he may only have been a Mussolini. ingly in recent months about this to raise a dissenting voice amidst the The paradox of this situation is that barbaric rite, which he said was being popular acclaim. The willingness, even neither Saudi Arabia nor Kuwait are practiced by members of the Roman eagerness, of the United States to engage democratic states, so we were not making Catholic clergy. in a massive war effort is very disturbing. the world safe for democracy. Moreover, This particular program was devoted We are grateful that allied deaths were the untold suffering of millions of Kurd to the exorcism of Gina, a sixteen-year- kept to a minimum, but we are horrified and Shiite refugees and the environmen- old Florida girl, which had been aired about the great number of casualties, tal damage caused by oil spills and on ABC's "20/20" television program a civilian and military, suffered by the burning wells are a further reminder of week earlier. The program showed Iraqis, including the slaughter of thou- the unforeseen consequences of war. It several people, including LeBar and sands of troops retreating from Kuwait is all too easy to demonize your enemy another priest (Reverend "A"), hovering to Basra and Baghdad. We still do not in order to justify the use of military over this unfortunate girl. The charade, know how many civilians and soldiers force, but every effort should be used, which lasted several hours, involved died or were wounded—estimates range in our judgment, to negotiate and strapping Gina to a chair, abjuring her, from 100,000 to 300,000. Given the press compromise before resorting to jingoistic and commanding the demons to leave. censorship, the exact figures may never military adventures. We realize that The young girl kept pleading, "Some- be known. The victory over Iraq appar- humanists may differ on whether or not body help me! What did I do to deserve

ently has set a record for slaughter by d. SNOut.O HAVE e high-technology Western weapons. The KEPT GOING "smart bombs" were successful beyond RIGHT INTO reserv hts

the wildest dreams of Pentagon planners. BAGHDAD. ig l r

This is in no way an attempt to justify Al Saddam Hussein's tyrannical regime. te. dica Nor do we condone his unilateral n Sy

invasion of Kuwait. President George ss

Bush has talked about a "New World l Pre Order" and the need to defend helpless THEN TAKE CARE of countries from assault. We approve of SYRIA, JORDAN AND iversa THE ocCuPIED f Un the collective action by the world o

community to maintain the peace. But, TERRIToRIES. ion iss

in our view, if the Bush administration rm e

had acted more prudently by diplomatic p ith

means prior to the Iraqi invasion of d w te in

Kuwait and not given confusing signals, r the war might have been avoided. More 4- Rep pointedly, Bush should have given THEN SWING ABOUND s.

international sanctions a chance to work, BAcK INTo SAvol ARA8'A. New lo and once the Iraqis indicated that they

were willing to retreat, there should have Bu ffa

been an effort to halt further bloodshed. The

Some doubts have been expressed as to 1991 0

whether Saddam had indeed gassed ES

innocent Kurd civilians, as the pre-war TOL

Summer 1991 5 this?" and she complained that the cross share of fear-mongering. In 1986 he tries have sprung up. However, funda- that was pressed constantly on her asserted that the devil, or Lucifer, exists mentalist forces are still gaining ground. forehead was hurting her. During the and was a "fallen angel," "a cosmic liar Muslims and fundamentalist Christians exorcism Gina writhed and uttered and murderer." He insisted that Satan in Africa and fundamentalist Protestants obscenities, often in a husky voice, and "has the skill in the world to induce in Latin America, for example, are she made mystifying statements such as people to deny his existence in the name having a strong impact. Thus it is "My name is Minga." But all this was of rationalism." important that the humanist point of hardly proof of demonic possession. In spite of these solemn pronounce- view be heard. Gina had been undergoing psychiatric ments, it is hard to take seriously belief Secular humanism as a eupraxophy treatment at Miami Children's Hospital, in the devil or exorcism. The primitive is virtually the only alternative to the and her psychiatrist, Dr. Warren mind, unable to explain deviant behavior religious outlook. It has four criteria: Schlanger, said that she had been and mental illness, attributed them to (1) skepticism about traditional religious "actively psychotic," "suffering halluci- unknown demons. But this was only a beliefs in a deity, reincarnation, or nations" and exhibiting disordered be- substitute for ignorance. Historically, immortality; (2) a commitment to the havior. She has subsequently been many human afflictions—epilepsy, scientific outlook and rational methods treated with haloperidol, an anti- blindness, dumbness, paralysis—were of testing knowledge claims; (3) a focus psychotic drug, and has shown some similarly interpreted. But they now can on humanist values here and now; and modest improvement in her symptoms. be given physiological or psychiatric (4) commitment to democracy, human Yet Reverend LeBar insists that Gina explanations: paranoid schizophrenia, rights, and building a world community was "possessed" and that any improve- depression, multiple personality syn- without ethnic rivalries. ment in her condition was due to the drome, etc. Tourette's Syndrome is a I am pleased to report that a second exorcism. He claims that there are four particularly graphic affliction, from humanist group, Ethical Dialogue, has tests of possession. First, the patient which some 20,000 patients in the United been established in the Soviet Union. "must be able to levitate." There is no States apparently suffer. Among its The group was founded at the University hard evidence for levitation ever occur- symptoms are motor uncoordination of Moscow but now includes people ring, for it would violate the laws of and the involuntary utterance of obscen- from throughout the Soviet Union. It physics. The reason why Gina did not ities (corprolaia). This malady is treated will focus on cultivating humanist values. levitate, according to LeBar, was because by haloperidol, which restores enzyme Many new humanist organizations are she was tied down. balance and blocks the patient's neuro- being formed in Eastern Europe, par- Second, the possessed person must transmitters. ticularly in Hungary, Poland, and have "superhuman strength." Gina did In my debate with LeBar I said that Czechoslovakia. Indeed, there will be a not display such strength, although she Gina had not given her informed consent round-table dialogue in Prague with attempted to wriggle from her bonds, for the exorcism rite, and that he was Eastern European humanists this to no avail. guilty of child abuse. I also said that summer under the auspices of the IHEU. Third, the possessed person is LeBar was a "Satanist"—a remark that In Latin America, humanists are organ- allegedly "clairvoyant." LeBar claimed offended him—for, if a "theist" is one izing in Costa Rica (that group's new that Gina was clairvoyant because she who believes in God, then a Satanist is magazine is called Iconoclasta) and read his mind and knew of events that one who believes in the reality of the Mexico, and a Positivist, freethought were occurring elsewhere, but he pro- devil. Reverend LeBar most certainly group is being revived in Brazil. In Asia, vided no evidence for this except his own qualifies as a Satanist in that sense. strong efforts are underway in Bangla- subjective, anecdotal account. Evil does exist in the world, but it desh and Thailand, and new groups are Fourth, the possessed person speaks lies in the misdeeds and actions of human forming in India. Norm Allen recently in "strange tongues." Gina did utter beings, and is not due to hidden or returned from Africa, where he met with nonsense syllables, but they did not mysterious Satanic forces. members of the newly formed Ghana appear to be xenoglossy or glossolalia, Rationalist Centre. Two new secular but rather the confused babblings of a Humanism Worldwide humanist groups have formed in Nigeria. disoriented person. (See his editorial in this issue). Last, we The sad fact about Americans today On a positive note, I am pleased to report are pleased that the Giordano Bruno is that 55 percent, according to a recent, that efforts to encourage the develop- Freethought organization is being well-publicized Gallup poll, claim to ment of new humanist groups are revived in Italy (see the article in this believe in the devil. Sixteen percent of meeting with some success thanks to the issue by Roberto Giammanco), and that those surveyed said that they did not efforts of the Council for Democratic new groups are forming in Spain and know whether he was real, and only 37 and Secular Humanism (CODESH) and Ireland. percent reject his existence. The Roman the International Humanist and Ethical These efforts are part of an uphill Catholic church is contributing to the Union (IHEU). Until recently there had battle to advance our cause. Secular current Satanic scare, which already had been sixty-five humanist organizations humanism needs the support of all been fueled by fundamentalist Protes- in twenty-three countries, but new humanists worldwide if it is to continue tants. The pope especially has done his groups in an additional thirteen coun- to flourish.—Paul Kurtz 6 FREE INQUIRY government allocated the same amount for the construction of a Christian church. Humanism and Religion in But when a Seventh-Day Adventist pastor of the church demanded a second tithe from his congregation—adding up West Africa to a total required donation of 20 percent of each member's annual income—he ontrary to popular opinion, West schools can be found beside them. was severely criticized throughout the CAfrica is not devoid of humanism The problems encountered by hu- country, and his congregation dwindled and rationalism. Matey educated Afri- manist groups in Africa are many and away. cans greatly appreciate the importance varied. But African humanist leaders are I learned that until ten years ago, of reason, science, and secularization. dedicated, enthusiastic, and persistent in many Nigerians still held the belief that African publications routinely carry their efforts to spread humanism people who had been hit by cars were articles emphasizing the value of edu- throughout the continent. cursed by the god of iron; many accident cation and modern technology. But Ghana's Rational Centre shows much victims had gone unaided because people humanists are clearly in the minority. promise. Headed by the energetic Hope were afraid of upsetting the deity. This I confirmed that fact in April, when N. Tawiah, the group plans a newsletter belief is no longer prevalent among large I traveled to Ghana and Nigeria to meet and to support a government immun- numbers of Nigerians. with newly formed humanist groups. I ization program for children. They But despite the main religions and visited each country for about one week, would also like to start a humanist superstitious beliefs that permeate the and I was thoroughly impressed with the library. On the last day of my visit, African continent, many Africans are groups and their leaders. I gave lectures African Americans for Humanism, the interested in learning about humanism. and was interviewed by the leading Rational Centre, and the W. E. B. Du During my meeting with the Action for newspapers and radio and television Bois Memorial Centre for Pan-African Humanism group in Ogun State— stations, all of whom were eager to learn Culture agreed in writing to work headed by Emmanuel Kofi Mensah— about humanism. together to promote Pan-African cul- one member expressed interest in start- Nonetheless, religion is a dominating ture, "humanism, rational thought, and ing a humanist group in his country of influence. I immediately noticed that ethical approaches to life." birth, Cameroun, which has been des- virtually every taxi cab and mini-bus in In Ghana I visited a few "slave cribed as not being very religious. Men- both countries displayed religious slo- castles," and was deeply moved by the sah expressed great interest in forming gans inside and outside the vehicles. In experience. It was very easy to imagine groups in the French-speaking Congo Ghana, the first stop on my journey, I the suffering endured by the enslaved and the Cote d' Ivoire (the Ivory Coast). saw a bumper sticker that read: "Men Africans—those who survived the ardu- There is a newly formed Humanist can't help you but Jesus does." ous march from the hinterland to the Friendship Centre in Imo State, headed There have been many interesting coast—as they awaited the torturous by Charles Ufomadu and which, accord- controversies involving religion in journey to the New World. Inside the ing to Mensah, is doing great work in Ghana in recent years. About two years Cape Coast Castle can be found a fetish advancing humanism. ago, the Mormons and the Jehovah's shrine that existed long before the castle The potential to spread humanism Witnesses were banished by the govern- was built. Many enslaved Africans throughout Africa is greater today than ment for defrauding their followers. The prayed at the shrine even as they were ever before. The African media and Mormons had told officials that they had packed into the dungeons with hundreds many individuals and organizations in many black followers in the United of other slaves. Africa want to learn more about it. Only States, a claim that could not be I noticed what a Libyan tourist had with the generosity of humanists from substantiated. Ghana Broadcasting written in the "comments" section of the wealthy countries will the African Corporating (GBC) then televised doc- visitors' signature book: "Thank God humanist groups be able to grow and umentaries that detailed the history of you are free now." I immediately thought prosper. They are in need of current racism in Mormonism. As a result, to myself that, had a perfectly loving God books on humanism and black studies, Ghanaian citizens abandoned Mormo- existed, slavery could have never existed, new or used office equipment such as nism in droves. Today, all religions in nor would human beings have had to typewriters and personal computers, and Ghana must be registered with the engage in wars to end the institution. funds for operating expenses. government and are closely examined to In Nigeria, I learned of more controv- Today, there is a golden opportunity prevent abuses. ersies surrounding religion in recent to make humanism more attractive to A sad testament to the strong influ- years. In 1981, the Nigerian government Africans. We only have to seize it. ence that religion has on the Ghanaian allocated $10 million Naira (about $1 population is the fact that some of the million U.S.) for the construction of a —Norm Allen, Jr. most beautiful buildings in Ghana are Muslim mosque. But many Christians Director, African churches; but, in many cases, dilapidated demanded similar treatment, and the Americansfor Humanism Summer 1991 7 Some 39 percent of those identifying themselves as Muslims were unmarried, as were 38 percent of the Buddhists, and 31 percent of the Hindus. This seems Religion and the Polls to represent a classical picture of immi- gration, with a single adult coming to the United States, then after saving eligious affiliation is a subject upon interviews with some 113,000 adults money sending for others, including Rwhich there are conflicting num- conducted between April 1989 and April perhaps a spouse. bers. Most statistics given in the alma- 1990. The surveyor, after making sure Rhode Island is the most Catholic nacs and similar sources rely upon the respondent was eighteen or older, state in the United States, with some 62 information gathered from individual requested information about the per- percent identifying themselves as Cathol- denominations. Unfortunately churches son's religious identification. The ics, followed by Massachusetts (54 differ in the way in which they report respondent was not asked whether he percent), Connecticut (50 percent), and their memberships. Some count all bap- or she attended church, had been Louisiana (47 percent). Mississippi, on tized members, others only count people baptized, made financial contributions the other hand, is the most Baptist state who contribute financially to the church, to a church, or even was an actual mem- in the Union, with 55 percent of the while others count only those who attend ber. Respondents were, however, ques- population reporting as Baptists. Ala- on a given day when the annual census tioned on their marital status, ethnic and bama followed with 51 percent and is taken. The inevitable result is that the racial identity, and on political affilia- Georgia with an equal amount. Dela- statistics of one denomination cannot be tion. Data for information in large states ware has the greatest proportion of fairly compared to another. such as California and New York was Methodists, with 27 percent, followed by At the end of World War II, I was based on seven thousand interviews, Iowa and South Carolina with 16 percent assigned to determine the attendance at while smaller states such as South each. North Dakota has the largest church services on the army base at Dakota and Vermont had less than three proportion of Lutherans (37 percent) which I was stationed. There were some hundred respondents each. Only 2.3 followed by Minnesota with 34 percent. eight chapels, most of which held two percent, representing an estimated four New York, with 7 percent of the pop- services on Sunday, plus special services million people in the United States, ulation identifying as Jewish, has the on Friday night or Saturday. The first refused to respond to the questions. greatest percentage of Jews, followed by time I collected the data, I simply asked The result is a fascinating data base New Jersey, Florida, and Massachusetts, the chaplain or the lay person in charge that challenges some commonly held each with 4 percent. Oregon has the how many people had attended the assumptions. For example, the pollsters largest number of people identifying with services that week. The numbers varied found that most Americans who claim no religion (17 percent), followed by widely, with one chaplain reporting more Irish ancestry identify themselves as Washington and Wyoming with 14 people attending his services than there Protestants and not Catholics, indicative percent each. were seats in the chapel. When I reported of the massive numbers of people who Politically, those identified as Jewish the figures to the sergeant who had immigrated from northern Ireland in the and Baptist are most likely to belong assigned me the job, he advised me to early years of the nineteenth century, and to the Democratic party (43 percent) count those in attendance at the services who continue to do so. The study also against 22 percent and 27 percent myself. The chaplain who had reported found that significant numbers of recent Republican. Pentecostals and Catholics standing room only in his church had immigrants from Arab-speaking coun- are also more likely to be Democratic. only about fifty people at each service. tries, from Asia, and even from India The Methodists are evenly split between Later, he told me that his chapel would are Christian rather than Muslim, the two parties, while 51 percent of the be filled if people had an opportunity Buddhist, or Hindu. The authors, Mormons are Republican (23 percent to come, but, since army life made it however, did make some corrections in Democrat), as are 44 percent of the difficult for them to do so, he felt he the figures for Muslims, Buddhists, and Presbyterians (28 percent Democratic), should count them since they were there Hindus because of what they termed 41 percent of the Episcopalians (25 in spirit if not in body. language problems, which might mean percent Democratic), and 37 percent of Since that experience I have ap- that the religions of recent immigrants the Lutherans (26 percent Democratic). proached most church membership are undercounted because they do not The total statistics can be reported statistics with considerable suspicion. fully understand questions. in a number of interesting and different Recently a new survey was released, Mormons had the highest percentage ways. One way is to report that the conducted under the auspices of the of individuals over eighteen married: Roman Catholic church is the largest in Graduate School of the City University some 73 percent, emphasizing that an the United States, with some 46,004,000 of New York, which gives some inter- early age for marriage is the norm among people over eighteen identifying them- esting data. Unlike previous surveys, this them. Unitarian Universalists on the selves as Catholics—nearly a third of the one was conducted from the bottom up. other hand had the highest rate of 151,688,000 who identify as Christians. It was based on random telephone divorced members, some 18 percent. The second largest denomination is the 8 FREE INQUIRY various varieties of Baptists, with some eight million people who simply iden- What this seems to emphasize is that 38,964,000 members. tified themselves as Christian but gave there are large numbers who identify Another way of interpreting the no denominational affiliation, and the culturally with religious groups but do statistics is to compare them with seventeen million who claimed to be not adhere to doctrine. What is of most statistics reported by the various denom- Protestants without any further identi- interest to humanists is that over thirteen inations themselves. For example, the fication. The same is probably true of million people are estimated to have no most optimistic estimates of the Unitar- the large numbers identifying as religion, and that a total of 1,186,000 ian Universalists claim only 200,000 or Catholics. are agnostics. Only 29,000 are estimated so members. According to the poll, to be humanists, slightly more than the however, some 463,000 claim to be n the other hand, some groups 24,000 who belonged to the Four Square Unitarian Universalists. Similar dispro- actually have far less members than Gospel Church, the 20,000 listed as New portionate numbers are reported for the they claim. Organized Judaism, for Age (a spiritual movement combining Methodists. Some fourteen million example claims somewhere between 5.5 mysticism, psychology, and healing), or individuals identified themselves as to 6 million members, yet only 3,137,000 the 18,000 listed as Eckankar. Obviously Methodists, which is about two million in the survey identified themselves as our job as humanists is to somehow more than the Methodists themselves Jewish in terms of religion. Similarly reach the vast number of agnostics and claim. The various Baptist groups claim Islam in recent years has claimed unchurched. With all the social pressures only about twenty million members, a somewhere between two and three in our society to list oneself as a believer much smaller number than those who million members, but the pollsters of one kind or another, for thirteen identify themselves as Baptists in the reported slightly under a million Mus- million Americans to say they have no poll. Obviously people who had not been lims in the United States, 40 percent of religion and another million to list in a church in years, perhaps since whom were black. Large discrepancies themselves as agnostics just emphasizes childhood, retained emotional, tenuous also existed for the Orthodox churches the tremendous potential for humanism. ties to the religion in which they were in the United States, including the Greek, raised. This fact is emphasized by the Russian, Syrian, and others. —Vern Bullough

Institute for Inquiry Workshops "What Is Secular Humanism?" This special one-day workshop will deal with the ways the nonreligious can cope with the challenges of life in an affirmative, humanistic manner. Topics to be discussed include Secular Humanism in its Historical Perspective, The Ethics of Humanism, Religion vs. Humanism, and Humanism and Self-Actualization. Workshop leaders include Paul Kurtz, Editor of FREE INQUIRY, and Tim Madigan, Executive Editor.

9:00 A.M. - 5:00 P.M. 9:00 A.M. - 5:00 P.M. Saturday, September 28, 1991 Sunday, September 29, 1991 Airport Marina Hotel-8601 Lincoln Blvd. Hanalei Hotel-2270 Hotel Circle North Los Angeles, California San Diego, California

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Summer 1991 9 ment would occur for the doctor performing the abortion. So, the pre-born child is in fact a human being, and a Waging the Battle born child is in fact a human being, therefore the same punishment prevails. That is, if capital punishment could be brought on someone who killed a one- Skipp Porteous day-old child, then the same punishment would occur with someone who killed everal months ago, I appeared as a Gonzales: Oh, so what are you saying, a child in the womb. guest on "Sound Off," hosted by Gary, is, if you catch homosexuals in Gonzales: So Gary, you would agree Paul Gonzales on WSB in Atlanta, the act, then the Bible says to execute that a doctor performing an abortion Georgia. The program was scheduled in them. should receive capital punishment? response to statements I've made about DeMar: The Bible lays forth the DeMar: Obviously, if abortion were Christian Reconstructionism. Gary severest penalty, which would be capital illegal, and he performed an illegal DeMar, a member of the Coalition On punishment for two men who publicly abortion and killed a pre-born baby, the Revival's (COR) Steering Committee, engage in sodomy. same punishment would apply. and a leading Christian Reconstruction- Gonzales: Does it say "publicly" in Gonzales: How about adulterers? ist author and lecturer, was also invited the Bible? DeMar: Now, the law in scriptures to speak. Throughout the program, DeMar: You've got to have at least concerning adultery means that the Gonzales emphasized that I've main- two witnesses who would come forth and innocent party has as [recourse] the tained that COR membership alone does testify against the two people who toughest penalty that could be brought not mean that one advocates all the engaged in sodomy. The severest pun- on the guilty party—the death penalty. tenets of Christian Reconstructionism. ishment would be capital punishment. So, for example, if a woman had a What follows is a brief excerpt from that It doesn't mean that has to be the husband who was a constant womanizer, interview. punishment. she could bring charges against her DeMar: The definition of Christian Porteous: Now, there was a case a husband for adultery, and the severest Reconstruction is simply this: The Bible couple of years ago, and I believe it was penalty could be, according to scripture, applies to every facet of life. That means Georgia... . the death penalty. I want to go back and not just the judicial aspects of life, such DeMar: It was Georgia. underscore something: Most of the laws as civil government, church government, Porteous: Two men were seen by the in the Bible were designed not so much to be implemented, but to keep people but business, economics—every facet of police, because the police came in the from practicing particular behavior. society. The Bible has something to say house for a different reason, and saw them having sex, engaging in homosex- When there were laws on the books that about each area. For example, on ual activity in bed. could punish homosexuality, it didn't do homosexuals: We do not believe that DeMar: Sodomy. away with homosexuality per se, but it homosexuals ought to be executed. The Porteous: They were arrested. So, kept it hidden. Kept it in the closet. Bible doesn't say that homosexuals you're saying that these two men, Gonzales: If, indeed, the Reconstruc- ought to be executed. What it says is according to the Bible, could receive the tionist movement ever made it in this: If two men lie together like a man death penalty? America, would you advocate these and woman, they are to be put to death. DeMar: Well .. . biblical principles being carried out: the Porteous: What the hell do you think Porteous: Is that what you're saying? execution of the adulterer, the abortion- that is? DeMar: First of all, remember, the ist, and the homosexual? DeMar: Well, wait a minute. If a guy Supreme Court upheld Georgia's law. DeMar: I'm saying that they could comes up to me and he says, "I'm a Second, yes, I agree that the Bible lays be implemented, yes. homosexual," that doesn't mean he's to the death penalty for two men who are be executed. If you understand the engaged in sodomy in public. hristian Reconstructionism is to the scriptures, it says very clearly, if a man Porteous: Does the Bible allow the 1990s what the Moral Majority was comes up to you and says, "I've mur- same punishment for an abortionist? to the mid-1970s and mid-1980s. dered somebody," that doesn't mean that DeMar: If abortion were illegal, the Local politics is now the major focus. person ought to be executed. question comes down to, what punish- One group, the National Association of ment would there be for someone who Christian Educators/ Citizens for Excel- Skipp Porteous is a regular columnist performed an illegal abortion? Now, if lence in Education (NACE/CEE), for FREE INQUIRY. His book, Jesus the pro-life community is correct, which boasts of having helped to elect 450 born- Doesn't Live Here Anymore, will be I believe it is, that a pre-born individual again Christians to school boards across published by Prometheus Books in is in fact a human being, then the same the nation in 1990. NACE/ CEE's September. rights are accorded to the pre-born child director, Robert Simonds, is a member as a born child. Then the same punish- of COR's Steering Committee. Simonds

10 FREE INQUIRY has expressed his Christian Reconstruc- tionist beliefs in his book How to Elect Christians to Public Office. The how- to manual has been used in hundreds CODESH Headquarters Progress of successful political races. In the book's Introduction, Simonds states: "The Report: Phase I Dedicated Christian religion (the Bible) is the basis for all morality (right and wrong). Yet the Church has layed [sic] down its Biblical mandate to impact and trans- base I of the Center for Inquiry, activities to be consolidated at the form society." CODESH's new 5,700-square-foot suburban site, further enhancing effi- "Atheistic secular humanists," headquarters complex, was inaugurated ciency and setting the stage for growth. Simonds continues, "should be removed at a gala luncheon attended by more than A total of $1.5 million must be raised from office and Christians should be 100 people. Consolidating CODESH before we can embark on Phase II elected." He adds, "Government and true and FREE INQUIRY administrative and construction. As with Phase I, if our Christianity are inseparable! ... There editorial functions at the new site will fund-raising is to succeed, the support can be no morality (right or wrong) enhance operational efficiency, while its of our readers and friends will be critical. without the Bible—man's only reliable location adjacent to the State University Please give generously. If you have con- book on right and wrong." He emphas- of New York at Buffalo/ Amherst Cam- templated making an extraordinary gift izes that only "Christians can properly pus will streamline the staging of to the humanist cause, this is the apply Bible principles to government, seminars and conferences and simplify moment. If you would prefer to arrange because they are the ones reading the CODESH's outreach to the academic a significant gift in three yearly install- Bible and trusting its teachings to be community. ments, we will be happy to arrange your true." Simonds concludes, "Holding up CODESH is constructing the head- pledge. Christian standards can be done by quarters complex in cooperation with The names of donors of $1,000 or electing Christian officials." the Committee for the Scientific Inves- more will be entered in a commemorative Simonds also promotes a book called tigation of Claims of the Paranormal album that will be displayed in the Phase The Political Mission of the Church, by (CSICOP), Inc., publisher of the Skep- I building. Donors of $5,000 or more Billy Falling, head of the Christian tical Inquirer magazine. Thanks to the will also be honored on a metal plaque Voters League. The book shows generous support of readers and friends, in the lobby of the Phase II building churches "how to evangelize the com- it has been possible to acquire the land when it is completed. Seminar rooms in munity through the political process." and complete Phase I construction with- the Phase II building will be named after To date, Simonds's groups, which I've out incurring bank debt. patrons who give $25,000, and a wing dubbed "CEE-cells," have been estab- The focus now turns to Phase II, an of the building will be named after lished in more than four hundred school ambitious all-new building that will pro- anyone giving $100,000 or more, if they districts. They've also organized over 220 vide almost 25,000 square feet of space. so desire. Public School Awareness (PSA) com- It will house a permanent home for our Please give today. Make checks mittees. PSA's are organized in churches new research library, seminar/ meeting payable to CODESH and mail to the to help the church "fulfill the political rooms, additional office space, and other CODESH Center for Inquiry Capital mission of the church for Christ." vitally needed facilities. Equally impor- Fund Drive, Box 5, Buffalo, N.Y. 14215- According to Kathi Simonds, tant, it will allow all CODESH activi- 0005.—The Editors NACE/CEE's National Operations Manager, "It takes a couple of years to control a school board." She said that in school board races, "we are usually completely defeated, or we usually completely win." Last year, in San Diego County's fifteen to twenty school districts, Simonds's group won an astound- ing thirty school board seats. The Christian Reconstructionists are probably the only special-interest group in the country that has targeted the nation's 17,500 school districts. Their successes have gone almost unnoticed. To defeat them, we need to identify them, CENTER FOR INQUIRY OFFICE BUILDING II and then, through the media, expose Proposed design for the 25,000-square-foot Phase II building that will fully realize the potential their radical agenda. • of the site immediately adjacent to one of America's largest university campuses. Summer 1991 11 On the Barricades

Poles Face Issue of the arts, and other social spheres. "We Bush Reiterates that We are State Religion are not a religious party," says Atal 'One Nation Under God' Behari Vajpayee, a leader of the Bha- The new government of Lech Walesa is ratiya Janata party, "We have never been Speaking to a conference of religious facing the dilemma of whether to declare a religious party. But we do take note reporters, President Bush was quoted as Catholicism the state religion of Poland. of the changing Hindu psyche." saying that he is "very sensitive to the The nation's bishops have called for an The party was behind the recent question of babies suffering from AIDS, end to Poland's constitutional separation efforts by Hindu fundamentalists to innocent people who are hurt by this of church and state. President Walesa, destroy a sixteenth-century Muslim disease." His remarks were strongly a devout Catholic who received a great mosque and replace it with a Hindu criticized by several homosexual rights deal of support from the church in his shrine. "Many Hindus believe they have activists, such as Robert Bray, a spokes- recent campaign, favors this initiative, been taken for granted and are reacting person for the National Gay and Lesbian but many in his own party oppose it. to this," Vajpayee said in an interview. Task Force, who said, "When will the Jerzy Rusecki, a senior member of the "The B.J.P. is the only party not catering White House learn that all people with committee that is currently redrafting to the Muslim vote." It is feared that AIDS are innocent and that to designate Poland's constitution, was quoted as parliamentary elections in late May only some as innocent implies that some saying, "I believe that the separation of could result in religiously provoked are guilty?" church from state is an expression of violence throughout the nation. Bush also stated that he was un- a modern state. I see no reason what- comfortable with his own public dis- soever why modern Poland should Wave of Anti-Semitism play of religion. "I don't want to act become a theocratic state." Senior law- Hits Japan like I'm holier than thou, or that I makers have said that it is unlikely that want to wear my religion on my sleeve, the initiative will be adopted by the In the wake of the Persian Gulf War, or that I'm the guy in the temple present Parliament, which has a number several best-selling books in Japan have beating his breast the loudest," he said. of holdover members from the Commu- dealt with the theme of the influence and But he is not planning to relinquish nist years. But it stands a good chance power of Jews. One such book, Coun- his bully pulpit, as the following re- of being passed sometime this fall, after terattack of Hitler, which denies the marks make clear: "And yet I want to Poland holds its first fully free parlia- existence of the Holocaust, has sold over do what many that have gone before mentary elections and after the June visit 30,000 copies while another, Confessions me have done, and that is to try to of Pope John Paul II, who will return of the Jews, written by two followers amplify as best one can that we are one to his homeland for the first time since of extremist Lyndon LaRouche, accuses nation under God. And let others the fall of the Communist regime. the Jews of being behind international determine what God is and how that God drug trafficking. It, too, has sold briskly. operates." India's Days As a Secular Critics of the books are troubled less by Republic May Be Numbered their specific content than by their `Education' President Calls general respectability. Counterattack of for Parental Choice India, which was founded in 1947 as a Hitler, for instance, was advertised on secular nation, is facing increasing the front page of the Asahi Shimbun, President George Bush has unveiled a internal pressure to declare itself a Hindu the nation's most prestigious newspaper. plan that would commit the federal republic. The right-wing Bharatiya Paradoxically, the few hundred Jews government to giving tax dollars to pay Janata party, strongly critical of the living in Japan have experienced no for public, private, or parochial schools. rational, secular legacy of Jawaharlal discrimination, and relations between According to Education Secretary Nehru and his Congress Party (at press- Japan and Israel have been good for Lamar Alexander, the president will time without a leader, after the assas- many decades. An official of the Amer- encourage states and local districts to sination of grandson Rajiv Gandhi), is ican Jewish Committee who protested change their rules so that parents could gaining acceptance. It has castigated the to the publishers of some of the anti- apply tax dollars to send their children left-wing ruling coalition government for Semitic texts found them to be puzzled. to either public or private schools, and challenging the age-old Hindu caste "They told us, "You're a member of a will propose that Congress change laws system, which still gives a minority of superior race and you come from a that limit the amount of federal aid that upper-caste Indians effective control of successful group and we're surprised this goes to children in private or parochial the government, academic life, business, material concerns you.' " schools.

12 FREE INQUIRY The president's plan is a central part made by a politician twenty years earlier. of his new effort to make good on his Only about one-third would protect Allen and Taylor to Receive campaign pledge to be the "education absolutely a citizen's right to buy Forkosch Awards president," but it has incensed many magazines with nude pictures, and only of the nation's educators. By expanding about one-fifth said they would protect Steve Allen has been selected by the idea of choice to private and at all times the use of slang words the FREE INQUIRY editors to parochial schools, Bush opens the referring to sex. Only 20 percent said receive the fourth Morris D. possibility of public tax money flowing they would fully protect the right to Forkosch Book Award for his away from public schools and blurs the publish pornography. Americans display Steve Allen on the Bible, Religion line between church and state, they say. "an alarming willingness to remove and Morality, published in 1990 by Some state "choice" programs already legal protection from forms of free Prometheus Books. The $1,000 in existence, such as one in Milwaukee, expression they disagree with or find prize is awarded annually to the Wisconsin, are currently being chal- offensive," said the report. "This is a best single volume published dur- lenged in the courts as unconstitutional, predicament that would have made ing the previous calendar year that which will likely be the fate of the Bush James Madison and Thomas Jefferson deals with the concerns of hum- plan. shudder." anism. Previous recipients are Arthur Strahler, for Science and Earth History: The Evolution! Government Censorship Philip Mass (1921-1991) Creation Controversy; Sidney on the Rise Hook, for Convictions; and Ste- FREE INQUIRY is saddened to announce phen Jay Gould, for Wonderful Representative John Conyers (D- the death of Philip Mass, the first Life. The award will be presented Mich.), chairman of the House Govern- chairman of the Robert G. Ingersoll to Allen at the upcoming FREE ment Operations Committee, has issued Memorial Committee. A long-time INQUIRY 10th annual conference. a statement accompanying the release humanist activist, Phil spearheaded the The Selma V. Forkosch Award, of a report by the Government Account- movement to save the birthplace of for the best article on humanism ing Office, which found that between Ingersoll in Dresden, New York, from published in FREE INQUIRY in October 1, 1989 and March 31, 1990 imminent destruction and to erect a 1990, will be given to Richard federal agencies conducted 10,598 museum on the property. Phil was the Taylor for his "The American screenings of communications by federal recipient of the first "Robert G. Ingersoll Judiciary as a Secular Priesthood," employees, including 163 books, 2,915 Award" at the 1989 FREE INQUIRY which appeared in the Spring 1990 articles, 1,752 speeches, and 5,554 conference. His dedication to the prin- issue. He will receive $250. miscellaneous writings, at an estimated ciples of free inquiry and secular The awards were established by cost of $750,722. "It is quite unnecessary humanism never wavered, and his the late Morris D. Forkosch in and inconsistent with constitutional presence will be missed. Roger Greeley 1988 to help further the cause of principles to have government censors has agreed to succeed Phil as Honorary humanism by honoring individuals determining what acts of expression and Chairman of the Committee, which will who make the greatest contribu- creation by federal employees may be continue Phil's efforts to preserve the tion to its advancement. permitted," said Conyers. "It is intoler- legacy of Robert G. Ingersoll. able in a democratic society to have one group of government employees Fundamentalist GI-IRISTIAN censoring the expression of former employees."

ON SALE NOW! Freedom of the Press Not WER 190,000 BOOKS SOLD! FROM WE

WE ARE PIZWD Widely Supported THE END ID ANNOUNCE MAT REVEREND SFOONS IS NIGII KOK HAS WÑÉ A study by the Nashville Tennessean has BV REV WIU.IS RIB SPOON511ACK NI MS APFtWB VEWHMEW OFTHE ~TO CO A demonstrated that, while Americans 10 PÑ SIAN WIZ SADDAM AMI- LEAS 041215T, AND WHY WE KIM.% RSOMETIEME~ "believe they believe" in free expression, GIRSUMED BY ME BEF VE DEC.12m IN FEBpl 7/ "it is obvious that they don't." The study surveyed more than 2,500 adults and found that just 36 percent would Efs MIN allow journalists to keep sources con- jVOL~LIC~L~1L7 =CI fidential if authorities demanded to i=L7C~~ know. Thirty-four percent would not mum on Milo

even allow reporters to report mistakes lerN eo4N nst@mI N Summer 1991 13 auras" experienced by many epileptics, sometimes leading to "excessive and inappropriate religious expression,"4 which surely could be said of St. Paul. Saint Paul's Conversion on the After Jesus, Paul is the most important figure in Christianity.5 He had been Road to Damascus: a religious Jew, trained for the rabbinate. His vision on the road to Damascus An Epileptic Hallucination? transformed him from religious Jew to religious Christian, and his subsequent missionary journeys were largely responsible for the transformation of the early church of the Christian Jews into one Nina Rulon-Miller of the world's major religions, the Christian church that spread around the first became aware of the question Restak's main concern seems to be world. I of St. Paul's temporal lobe epilepsy that such speculation is "personally While traveling on the road to from the New York Times Book Review. offensive to those for whom religion is Damascus, Paul had an experience The writer, Stuart Sutherland, was more than something to be cured of. similar to hallucinations suffered by reviewing a book about consciousness . . ." This is probably in reaction to many patients with temporal lobe and the brain. In an aside, Sutherland Sutherland's statement, "Malfunction- epilepsy. He had an ecstatic, out-of-body mentioned the possibility that Paul's ing in a small area of the brain can not experience when he "saw" a bright light conversion on the road to Damascus, only cause epilepsy but can render and "heard" Jesus speaking to him. After an event that marked the beginning of someone highly religious and make him the seizure, Paul was blind and could the Christianity we know today, might give up all addictions, such as drink and not eat for three days. have been caused by an epileptic hal- tobacco; it also takes away sexual desire. Paul tells the story of his vision in lucination. The irony inherent in this ... When the epileptic focus is removed, 2 Cor. 12:1-9. He begins by speaking supposition delighted and intrigued me, the person returns to normality: he gives of himself in the third person: and I decided to research it. up religion, enjoys a drink and takes an Richard Restak, a well-known interest in sex." I knew a man in Christ above fourteen authority on the brain, later wrote to I have been "personally offended" by years ago, (whether in the body, I the Book Review to object to the idea some of my formerly atheist or agnostic cannot tell; or whether out of body, I cannot tell: God knoweth;). . . . he that "one of the world's major religions" friends who have become devoutly religious during this distressing past was caught up into paradise, and might have "neurological foundations." heard unspeakable words.... [Cor. Restak attacked Sutherland's rather mild decade of rising religious fervor. These 12:2, 4] statement that "It may be that the form former comrades in rational thought Christianity took was the result of an now pity me and pray for me, trying and then switches to the first person: epileptic attack suffered by St. Paul on to "cure" me of my a-religious state. To me, ideas and theories that provoke some the road to Damascus"2 as a "throwaway And lest I should be exulted above critical thought about religion are a gratuitous slap at Christianity," and measure through the abundance of the welcome relief. Also, I have found that attempted to discredit Sutherland by revelations, there was given to me a most religious people are not apt to be thorn in the flesh, the messenger of asserting, "One can speculate, I suppose, personally offended by such speculation: Satan to buffet me ... [2 Cor. 12:7] that Moses suffered from migraines; that They simply say that God works in the Ten Commandments represent mysterious ways. St. Paul himself Paul's uncertainty whether he was "in nothing more than a product of the thought of his malady as a precious gift the body or out of the body" is a state excitement that sometimes precedes a from God (2 Cor. 12:9).3 often experienced by patients with migraine attack." Why not? It makes D. Landsborough, M.D., wrote temporal lobe epilepsy.6 more sense than a meeting with God on about St. Paul's possible temporal lobe Luke, Paul's close friend and a a mountain, and I hope Restak's letter epilepsy (TLE) in the Journal of Neu- physician, confirms that Paul was blind has inspired some research on the state rology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. and unable to eat for three days after of Moses' health. He bases his theory on numerous case the episode on the road to Damascus studies: his own, those of colleagues, and (Acts 9:9).7 Although blindness is Nina Rulon-Miller is an ex-Catholic, a some from historical medical docu- somewhat unusual after an epileptic kindergarten teacher in Princeton, New ments. In his article, Landsborough attack, Landsborough cites twenty-two Jersey, and a graduate student in English offers evidence suggesting that St. Paul's cases when it has occurred. He also notes at Trenton State College. religious visions were neurological in that anorexia occasionally follows such origin. He describes "ecstatic religious seizures.8

14 FREE INQUIRY Landsborough anticipates colleagues' land's remark about a "small area of the infirmities, that the power of Christ may rest upon possible objections that Paul's conver- brain" whose malfunctioning "can ren- me." (This and all my following biblical citations are from The King James Version.) sation with Jesus was "too elaborate for der someone highly religious ... ," but 4. D. Landsborough, "St. Paul and Tem- TLE" with: Restak does allow that "certain distur- poral Lobe Epilepsy," Journal of Neurology, bances in areas surrounding the tem- Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, No. 50 (1987), p. 662. Epileptic experiences can be patterned poral lobes ... can render a person more 5. See Peter Calvocoressi, Who's Who in the by pre-existing events, especially serious, more reflective, perhaps more Bible (London: Penguin/ Viking, 1987.) emotional ones.... Paul ... "heard open to themes and experiences of a 6. Landsborough, p. 660. 7. "And he was three days without sight, and sacred secrets" [2 Cor. 12:4]9 . . . religious nature." Here, Restak seems to suggesting an intensely esoteric, rap- neither did eat nor drink." turous state associated with an elab- be in agreement with Landsborough's 8. Landsborough, p. 662. "Conclusion": 9. Landsborough's citations are from The orate auditory sensation. ...lO Moffat Translation of the Bible. 2 Cor. 12:4 in The King James Version reads, "heard unspeak- Paul had been a ruthless persecutor [Paul's] "thorn in the flesh" was the able words." 10. Landsborough, p. 662 and 660. of the Christians and was on the road occasional supervention of grand mal attacks ... and ... he may have had 11. "And [Paul], yet breathing out threaten- to Damascus to arrest some." But he an attack of TLE on the road to ings and slaughter against the disciples of the had been thinking very deeply and Damascus ... this taking place while Lord, went unto the high priest, And desired of him letters to Damascus to the synagogues, that privately about the faith of the early he was undergoing a profound spir- if he found any of this way, whether they were Christians: itual change. ...19 men or women, he might bring them bound unto Jerusalem" (Acts 9: 1, 2). If illness had not caused Paul to 12. Landsborough, p. 662. ... the conversation with Jesus may 13. Ibid., p. 660. represent an intensely vivid psychic convert from ruthless persecutor to 14. "[If Paul's] recorded subjective experience aura, the nature of which was engen- fervent believer, perhaps Christianity of a single attack.... [w]ere an isolated event dered by Paul's thoughts and growing would have never gotten off the ground. without recurrences, it would be difficult to sustain the diagnosis. But Paul experienced other spiritual conviction during the preced- It's too bad that Luke wasn't able to ing days.1z 'visions.' ... in one ... he saw a Macedonian prescribe phenobarbital. standing before him appealing to him to cross over to Troy from Macedonia to help (Acts 16:9); Epileptic visions are sometimes accom- in another, Jesus speaks words of encouragement panied by auditory hallucinations. Paul Notes to him (Acts 18:9); in another, while praying in Jerusalem, he fell into a trance ... and saw Jesus had been thinking deeply about the 1. Richard Restak, "Letters," New York (Acts 22:17-21)," Ibid., p. 661. Christian faith and about Jesus, perhaps Times Book Review, February 25, 1990, p. 40. 15. Ibid., p. 660. (All following Restak citations are also from this 16. Landsborough's Moffat translation uses longing to speak with him. Such intense one-page article.) "stake" for "thorn." preoccupation would have been enough 2. Stuart Sutherland, "What Your Brain Is 17. Ibid., p. 660. to trigger a hallucinated conversation.13 Up To," New York Times Book Review, January 18. Ibid. (King James Translation: "Ye know 14, 1990, p. 18. (All following Sutherland citations how through infirmity of the flesh I preached Paul had several other seizures. He are also from this one-page article.) unto you at the first.") refers to an "abundance of revelations": 3. "Most gladly therefore will I glory in my 19. Ibid., p. 663. • The one on the road to Damascus was not an isolated event.14 These seizures Audiotapes from FREE INQUIRY's 1990 Conference were accompanied by what Paul called his "thorn in the flesh," which may have "Humanism and Liberty" are now available ❑ ❑ been a "disagreeable sequel [to his] Session 1: Religion & Liberty Session 4: Humanism & Feminism/African (2 Tapes $8.95) Americans for Humanism (1 Tape $6.95) delectable and ecstatic" visions15 : ❑ Luncheon-Alan Dershowitz (1 Tape $6.95) ❑ Session 5: Roots of Religious Liberty (2 Tapes $8.95) ❑ Session 2: Humanism & Atheism [The thorn suggests] a recurring (1 Tape $6.95) ❑ Session 6A: Raising Children unpleasant motor disturbance [follow- ❑ Humanistically (2 Tapes $8.95) ing pre-seizure auras:] If Paul's Session 3: Humanist Laureates (2 Tapes $8.95) ❑ Session 6B: Love & Liberty/Sexual ecstatic visions represented the auras Freedom (1 Tape $6.95) of TLE then ... his "[thorn]16 in the ❑ Banquet-Paul Kurtz, Gordon Stein, Ishmael Dan Barker ❑ Session 7: Humanism, Libertarianism, flesh" was the supervention . . . of Jaffree, Stephen Jay Gould, (2 Tapes $8.95) Altruism (3 Tapes $10.95) ... grand mal seizure[s].17 D Complete set: (17 Tapes $70.00) Surprisingly, Landsborough does not Charge my ❑ Visa DMasterCard ❑ Check or money order enclosed Total $ elaborate on a piece of evidence he gives # Exp Signature

from one of St. Paul's letters: "Although Name it was because of an illness ... that I preached the gospel to you ..." (Gal. Street 4:13).18 It seems clear that Paul's illness, City State Zip rather than his intellect, prompted him to preach. FREE INQUIRY, Box 5, Central Park Station, Buffalo NY 14215-0005 Richard Restak objects to Suther- Or call toll-free 1-800-458-1366. 6/91 Summer 1991 15 Lest We Forget: Bruno, Galileo, and the Power to Define

Roberto Giammanco

n May 24, 1990, Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, Prefect are so intimately connected to them that the definitive of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith character of such propositions stems from the Revelation itself (since 1967, the name for the Congregation of the ... the Gospel ... inspires and guides the entire spectrum 0 of human behavior. Therefore, it is the Magisterium's mission Holy Office that before 1908 was called the Congregation to distinguish between the acts that are in themselves coherent of the Holy, Catholic, Apostolic Inquisition) issued a true with the exigencies of faith and promote its expression in "Bill of Rights" of the Church of Rome on the power of life and those that, on the contrary, because of their intrinsic definition of truth and dissent, faith and heresy. Humanists, malice, are incompatible with them. [Italics added.] freethinkers, and whoever honestly, critically, and, let me say, eupraxophically, wants to assess the true nature of the church's Cardinal Ratzinger's circular argument closes: power of definition and its impact on our lives and those of future generations must examine its methods of securing Due to the link between the creation order and the revelation order and since it is necessary, in view of salvation, to know the survival of its claims. and to scrutinize the moral law in its totality, the Magisterium The Prefect writes in his Instruction on the Ecclesial of the Church extends itself to anything connected with the Vocation of the Theologian: natural law. On the other hand, in the revelation are included moral teachings that, in themselves, could be known by natural God gave to his Church, through the gift of the Holy Ghost, reason. But, because of his sinful condition, man has access a participation in his infallibility.... As successors of the to these teachings with great difficulty. It is the doctrine of Apostles, the Pastors of the Church receive from the Lord the faith that these moral propositions can be infallibly taught the mission of teaching all peoples and preaching the Gospel by the Magisterium. [Italics added.] to all creatures, so that men can all be saved.... In order to fulfill this task of teaching the Gospel and giving an The first "prefigured factor" in this resumé of theocratic authentic interpretation of the Revelation, Jesus Christ authority is that man is a sinful creature. To be saved he promised to the Pastors of the Church the assistance of the must reunify what was originally divided as a consequence Holy Ghost. In particular, he endowed them with the charisma of his sin, which is the second prefigured factor, the order of infallibility as far as matters of faith and customs are concerned (omnia et singula quae circa doctrinam de fide of creation and the order of revelation. The Church, through vel moribus ab eadem definitive proponuntur). the revelation and "the assistance of the Holy Ghost" has access to divine infallibility, and this is the third prefigured This charisma is exercised factor. Therefore the unification of the two orders, which is the only way to salvation, is only possible through the power when the bishops, in union with their visible Lord through of definition the Church assigns itself over all the aspects a collegiate act as in the ecumenical councils, proclaim a of the two orders. doctrine or when the Roman Pontiff, fulfilling his mission The history of the Church shows how ruthless, unrelenting, as Pastor and Supreme Doctor of all Christians, proclaims and implacable its claim to that power has been over the a doctrine ex cathedra. The mission of saintly preserving and ages. The cardinal theologians of the Holy, Catholic, Apostolic faithfully expounding this entrusting of divine Revelation implies that the Magisterium can proclaim definitive Inquisition who sentenced the unrepentant Giordano Bruno propositions that, even if not included in the truths of faith, to be burned alive (ei vivi in igne mittuntur) and obtained, after torture, the abjuration from Galileo Galilei (Abiurare Roberto Giammanco, intellectual historian and mass aliud non est quam damnare et detestari errores) were simply communications analyst, lives and teaches in Italy and the reaffirming that power by setting the two most illustrious United States. He is a widely published author and the editor examples among the thousands and thousands tried, tortured, of La Nuova Ragione, the journal of the National Association and burned sola suspicione of heresy. of Freethought "Giordano Bruno." However important and historically motivated the "warfare of science with religion" was then, the most important aspect

16 FREE INQUIRY

of these two trials is what they represented, and still represent. book on the "New Astronomy." Following the hypothesis They are popular, untarnished symbols of the functioning, principle, he tried to demonstrate that there was no in different historical perspectives, of a system of authority incompatibility between the deductions of the Copernican based on structured and self-legitimated terrorism. Galileo's theory and the biblical accounts. Roberto Bellarmine, to whom and Bruno's trials showed that the definitions of the Church Foscarini had sent his book for approval, wrote back in had to become legally enforced laws and prescriptions to apparently conciliatory terms: guarantee social control through obedience, submission, and ... if concrete proof will be found that the sun is fixed punishment. and does not revolve around our earth ... it will be necessary "Errare possum, hereticus esse non possum" ("I can make to proceed to the explanation of the biblical texts ... and mistakes but I cannot be a heretic") sounded Augustine's it would be preferable to say that we have misunderstood dictum, and today Cardinal Ratzinger scolds his dissenting these texts than proclaim that to be false which is proven. theologians "in the name of the right of the people of God It is well known that on March 5, 1616, after Galileo to be integrally delivered the message in its purity." However, received an "absolute injunction" and met with His Excellency the theologian "who cannot practice his discipline without the Cardinal Commissary-general, all the books of the "New an appropriate historical competence is aware of the Astronomy" inspired, related, or derived from De revolu- decantation that takes place through the ages." Some past tionibus orbium celestium were placed in the Index librorum judgments of the Magisterium "are justified by the time in prohibitorum. Catholic apologists, and unfortunately some which they were pronounced . . . contained, inextricably secular academics, "partly blame" Galileo himself for the later interwoven, true and unconfutable assertions and other developments of the case that brought his indictment and assertions that were not certain." Not certain, but not erroneous. Not certain from what standpoint? From the the sentence in 1633. The scientist had been too confident standpoint of the global development of the human quest about his findings through telescopic observation, and the for knowledge? From the recognition of the theoretical physical evidence he produced was not sufficient to turn the consequences of the scientific empowerings of the society? hypothesis into an acceptable teaching. It was a simple question From the standpoint of an internal, albeit slow and of timing, muse the apologists. And at least in this they are imperceptible, "democratization" of the decision mechanisms right. In fact, it took 206 years before the Holy Congregation of the Magisterium? would allow the teaching of the Copernican system. In 1820, the books supporting "the hypothesis and the experimental Index. oth Roberto Bellarmine, almost four hundred years ago, findings connected to it" were removed from the Band Cardinal Ratzinger today equate certainty with However, it would take another fifteen years for the actual orthodoxy. Must not any intellectual quest ultimately submit teaching of "the heliocentric theory" to be authorized. As far to the power of definition of the Church in order to avoid as the Index was concerned, it would not be abolished until the error of relying upon uncertainty? Thus obedience to 1966. In the time of the Church, everything turns into dust. authority can be believed to have its "scientific" justification On December 10, 1979, Pope Wojtyla said that "the Galileo and can be peddled as "internal" to the quest itself. The circular question" had to be "restudied" and that "theologians, argument implies that it is for the Church to decide when historians and scientists should loyally analyze it in depth uncertainty becomes certainty. acknowledging the wrong on both sides." The pontiff's words In 1614, Paolo Foscarini, a Carmelite friar, published a were interpreted to suggest that the Church was ready to open

The former National Association of Freethought "Giordano Bruno" headquarters in Rome. The building, just opposite the Vatican, was destroyed by the Fascists under Mussolini.

Summer 1991 17 its archives to qualified scholars and, on the basis of missing did the Church have to adapt those instruments to the new decisive documents, to redefine the juridico-ideological power relationships.2 framework of the trial. These expectations were deluded.' Today, the Church, after the consolidation of the The "revision procedure," it was indicated, would have authoritarian rule of John Paul II (i.e., the Canon Law of drawn inspiration from the Constitution Gaudium et Spes 1984 and the oath of obedience), tries to restructure its power (par. 1431) of the Vatican Council II stating that "the of definition at acceptable symbolic levels to offer to political methodical research in any discipline, if conducted in any power and the competing religious conservatism the model discipline in a truly scientific form and according to the moral of a unifying authority, uncluttered with dissent and well norms, will never be in conflict with the faith." But, again, equipped to handle its share of social control and economic who will establish the criteria for judging whether a scientific resources. No wonder then that Cardinal Ratzinger, in method is true or false? And what about the moral norms silencing his dissenting theologians ("suffer in silence and that are given as a prerequisite for scientific research? pray') warns his flock against the Church's worst enemy, Cardinal Ratzinger, echoing John Paul II's encyclical Freethought: "... the ideology of philosophical liberalism Redemptor Hominis, is quite clear. Perhaps some of the permeating the mentality also in our age ... opposing freedom judgments given in the past by the Magisterium were "faulty" of thought to the authority of tradition, considered cause of because slavery ... this so-conceived freedom of judgement becomes more important than truth itself...." the Shepherds did not understand all the aspects and the complexities of the problem at hand. But it would be contrary o freethinkers, rational humanists, and materialists in this to the truth if considering a few specific cases, we would last decade of the twentieth century, the trials of Giordano draw the conclusion that the Magisterium can be repeatedly wrong insofar as its prudential judgments are concerned or Bruno and Galileo Galilei have a great symbolic value in that it does not have the divine assistance in the global exercise helping us become aware of today's power of definition of of its mission. the Church and the instrumental value of every offer of "revision." Galileo never denied that power. As a matter of A perfect paradigm. fact, he believed that his scientific quest would have proven In the light of the Church's participation in all the processes the parallel harmony of the "Book of nature" and the Scripture. of social control and its manipulation of social communication, As we read in the report of the "Conforters" (February the question is no longer how to argue with Cardinal Ratzinger 17, 1600), whose task was to extort repentance and "save on whether or not Galileo's trial was "right and rational." the soul" of the heretic whom they would anyway lead to As freethinkers we have to question the premises of the his death, Giordano Bruno was burned alive as eretico Church's theory, and praxis, of dealing with "error-heresy" impenitente because he "had remained firm in his despicable and how the Magisterium did and does prosecute it. stubbornness" (stette sempre nella sua maledetta ostinazione). In light of this approach, the Inquisitorial trial is not only His mind was "foggy and confused by a thousand errors and a "concession" of the Church to "temporal" power or the vanities" ("aggirandosi it cervello e l'intelletto con mille errori simple development of previous, juridical systems with e vanità') added the pious conforters. He asked: "What do connected atrocities "common at the time," but primarily the I have to repent of?" coherent, original use, and legitimization of violence and Giordano Bruno had long since rejected the ecclesiastical surveillance for social control. Didn't Nicole. Machiavelli say power of definition. So great was his transgression that, in that the ecclesiastical princes own the states without having a final assertion of authority, the friars had him muzzled on to rule them? his way to the stake in Campo dei Fiori. Thus, once more, As far as the historical Inquisition is concerned, it is no the flock was protected from his heretical utterances. accident that it appears as an organic system of ideologico- In our secular times, we are probably witnessing the fastest political surveillance to secure consensus through suspicio, and most thorough redefinition of authority ever. On the one delatio, and punishment when the Church had to affirm more hand, there is the accelerated centralization of decision-making vehemently its power. It reached its maximum efficiency and mechanisms while, on the other, a powerful centrifugal trend mercilessness in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Then is shredding all social and cultural textures. In this context, the Church had to face both the alienation of large masses mediated by manipulative multimedia communications, the of common people and the threat of a generalized philosophical findings of science are rarely conceived as a primary cognitive and scientific debate beyond its control. The centrality of its conveyor of social progress and often become excluded from power of definition was threatened along with its immense the social imagination. Their results can be, and often are, parasitical socioeconomic power. It was then that the easily manipulated into simplified formulas for mass Inquisition trial was perfected as a true model of institution- consumption in a one-way process that obstructs awareness alized terrorism (consensus-repression, absolute power of the and verification. prosecutor judge, confession as the only decisive evidence, Within the unfolding process of the powerful social secret proceedings with no defense allowed, de plano et sine production of our electronic age, the Church is reaffirming strepitu advocatorum, delation as a duty of the "Christian the need for the unifying power of authority on the definition people" under poena excommunication acis). Only because of the imaginary. In the cognitive realm the Church can do of its changing position as a center of socio-ideological control it only symbolically, but, in the spheres of social commun-

18 FREE INQUIRY ication and social control, it can operate in the most assertive way. That is why, for example, issues like abortion are considered so fundamental by the Church in charting the The The Question course into the future of its power of definition. Threatened Transcendental of Humanism with voices even harsher than its own, primarily the choir Temptation Challenges and Possibilities of throaty Christian fundamentalists, the institution is edited by David Goicoeachea, A Critique of Religion and John Luik, and Tim Madigan the Paranormal reaffirming its authority by trying to preserve its dogmatic The contributors to this volume identity while joining the wider conservative offensive against NOW IN PAPERBACK investigate the many ways in which rational, humanist, and materialist values. Will its rusty Paul Kunz humanism is evolving and how it will thunderbolts of infallibility command the same thrust in the In this widely acclaimed and highly meet the needs of the 21st century. controversial book, Paul Kurtz 341 pages • Cloth $29.95 deceptive and ubiquitous flux of the commercial media? examines the deeply rooted tendency within the human species toward In Pursuit of Satan magical thinking—the "transcen- The Police and The Occult Notes dental temptation." Robert D. Hicks "A well-written, readable, and carefully re- 1. The "new, tolerant approach" to the "Galileo question" was followed Robert Hicks provides abundant a year later by the appointment of a committee by the Secretariat for searched compendium of the skeptical challenge and position." —Choice proof that there is no evidence for the Nonbelievers, loaded with names of Nobel Prize winners and illustrious 500 pages • Paper $16.95 the existence of nationwide satanic mandarins of all possible disciplines. It was ironically observed that such crime networks. a committee seemed to have been gathered this time to give Galileo a "Hicks catches the 'cult cops' red-handed trial by jury, "as if he had been an outlaw." So far the Committee has On The Gods .. his thoughtful, even entertaining exposé published Galileo Galilei, 350 ans d'histoire, edited by Paul Poupard and And Other Essays could function as a casebook for the intelligent a reorganized collection of documents on the trial, edited by the Vatican. Robert G. Ingersoll debunking of any pseudoscience." Neither in the learned essays nor in the collection of documents is there This collection of essays, long out —Booklist anything substantially new added to the previous scholarship, nor anything of print, captures Robert G. Ingersoll 420 pages (index) • Cloth $23.95 that might shed light on the real structure and the related purposes of at his eloquent best. that terroristic trial. Galileo was ultimately condemned in 1633 because 177 pages • Cloth 31755 The Supernatural, he did not comply with the Praeceptus, the 1616 precept of Cardinal the Occult, Bellarmine, and he published Dialogo sui Massimi Sistemi. Practically, Robert G. Ingersoll the only new archival "finding" is the original of the Praeceptus, but, since and the Bible it is not signed, it has the same validity of the copy we already have. A Life Gerald A. Larne There was no "rehabilitation" of Galileo, even in the Church's terms Frank Smith of the "unfortunate misunderstanding." From all essays he still emerges A comprehensive biography of In- Gerald Larue explores the affinity as the scientist "too hasty" in attributing certainty to his findings. As a gersoll that explores the life and between biblical supersition and the matter of fact, few today seem to remember that Galileo already had two thought of this complex, charismatic occult beliefs prevalent today. such "rehabilitations," one in 1757-1758, on the issue of the motion of man. "Angels and space aliens have more the Earth, and, again, in 1893, on the issue of his physical theory as "A superb biography of an extraordinary similarities than one might think" —Free Inquiry conflicting with Scriptures. American." —The Bookwatch 303 pages • Cloth $21.95 "No historian," said Paolo Rossi, a specialist on the Galileo question, 417 pages (Index/illustrations/photographs) "can accept a discussion controlled by the calculated release of documents Cloth $29.95 ... and that is particularly painful and hard on us who see, today, how Setting the the Vatican agrees at least with one of the fundamental theses of Galileo, Atheism, Ayn Rand, Captives Free that there was no contrast between science and faith...." \ictims of the Church Tell Then Stories 2. 0f all the academic analyses sanctioning the `judicial pardon" of and Other Heresies history of the Inquisition (i.e., Richard Kieckhefer's) I find Edward Peters's George H. Smith Austin Miles Inquisition (New York, 1988) absolutely irresistible. In this example of A wide-ranging collection of articles, One of today's most outspoken and historical anesthesia, the reader is taken by the irony Peters pours over essays, and commentaries analyzing visible critics of the church shares the "invention" of the Inquisition, mostly by sixteenth-century Protestants, atheism and its relevance to society letters he received after the Italian anti-clericals, and the entire tradition of the literary imagination. today. publication of his bestselling Don't Since the whole framework of reference is the self-legitimizing continuity "A brilliant display of intellectual fireworks." Call Me Brother and provides a of the Church, the Inquisition is a "myth," a simple matter of perception, —Roy A. Childs., Jr., hardhitting examination of the and falls automatically under the category of "misunderstanding." In Laissez Faire Books characters who control much of the discussing the ideologico-political system of institutionalized terrorism that 324 pages • Cloth $22.95 religious thinking of our time. was the Inquisition trial, Peters chooses to ignore the massive juridico- 239 pages (index) • (loth $18.95 historical scholarship that proves its "originality"—how it perfectly fitted the model of papal and ecclesiastical authority and even how some of NOW AVAILABLE—BOOKS FROM THE PROMETHEUS "GRFAT MINDS" SERIFS its basic tenets were and are being used by modern secular juridical systems. I must limit myself to quote Storia dell intolleranza in Europa. Sospettare e punire:/'Inquisizione come modello di violenza legale by Italo Merou The Origin of Species On Christianity (Milan, 1979) from which could be extracted a page-by-page, document- Charles Darwin Edward Gibbon by-document confutation of Peters's harangue. 434 pages (glossary & index) • Paper $9.95 135 pages • Paper $8.95 My humanist friends will forgive and, I hope, appreciate these little sentimental remarks. In Peters's book Galileo and Bruno are referred to with the condescension of quote-unquote "martyrs" and "victims" of the At better bookstores, or order directly from Inquisition, the rigo roso esame (that is, torture) imposed on the old Galileo as "a legend," and, finally, the oldest Italian association of Freethought founded after the unification of Italy was "a secret society" named after Prometheus Books Giordano Bruno. Not even the anti-modernist pamphleteers of the turn Call toll free (800) 421-0351 (24 hours) of the century believed that. By the way, Modernism was condemned in 59 John Glenn Drive • Amherst, NY 14228-2197 1908, and on that subject Peters tells us that "although the Congregation Add $3.00 p&h for first book, $1.50 for each additional of the Holy 0ffice did participate in the condemnation ... it appears book ($9.00 maximum). NY State residents add sales tax. to have played a far greater advisory than executive role" (p. 120). These remarks are precious documentation of an apologetic literature ad usum n4* delphini useful to reconsecrate our day's authority. •

Summer 1991 19 The following articles by Anthony Walsh, Vern and Bonnie Bullough, and Elizabeth Allgeier and Michael Wiederman are part of FREE INQUIRY's continuing series on modern views of sex and humanism, edited by Vern Bullough. The Biological Relationship Between Sex and Love

Anthony Walsh

hilosophers have been debating the relationship for the survival of a species whose young has a longer between sex and love for centuries. The impression dependency period than any other. As we ascend the phylo- gained from perusing the history of the debate is that genetic tree, infancy and childhood dependency periods they always knew that sex and love somehow "went together," become longer and increasing emotional attachment of mother but also that they wished it were not so. Following Plato's and offspring is observed; mammals do not simply "lay 'em example, the Christian church made a sharp distinction and leave 'em" as do the reptiles. We do not, however, observe between sacred (agape) and profane (eros) love. The Church a similar increase in emotional attachment among nonhuman enshrined and blessed the former, but consigned wanton eros adult males and females. No special affinity is observed among to hell. Poets waxed eloquently and freely about love, for stallions, bulls, or dogs for the last mare, cow, or bitch mated it ennobled and elevated us, but the lusty bards of sex had with, and the feeling is mutual. For species with short-lived to dodge the censor's wrath, for the rising penis had become dependency periods, the only necessary male role is the a symbol for the fall of man. Many modern works also divorce provision of stud service. Thus, the "love as derivative of sex" love from sex, but aim to raise the penis rather than the proposition is not a general biological principle throughout spirit. the entire animal kingdom. From the perspective of the individual human being, love An emotional attachment between men and women that and sex are certainly distinct phenomena (although a happy is qualitatively different from the frenetic mating of lower concomitance is often observed) that can be, and often are, species had to evolve, not to simply attract them to one another, pursued independently of one another. Taking a broad species but also to keep them attached to one another sufficiently approach rather than an individual one, the human sciences long to raise the vulnerable fruits of their passion. Human appear to be coalescing around the position that love is an love in its ideal form is attraction plus attachment. Anthro- epiphenomenon of sex, a position exemplified by the statement pological evidence suggests an infant and child mortality rate that "Love is a snare set by sex to ensure the survival of of between 53 and 65 percent among Plio-Pleistocene the species."' While I agree with the general thrust of this hominids. It has been speculated that these rates would have proposition, I view love as being much more than a simple risen to levels that would have spelled doom for the species derivative of sex. Love springs from sex, and thus shares with had not some evolutionary mechanisms been selected into it a certain oneness of essence; but love pursues an independent the human repertoire of traits to bond male and female together existence, and in doing so elevates and ennobles that from as a child-rearing team.2 which it sprang. The evolutionary saga leading to the selection of biological processes coding for the emergence of the emotion we call The Role of Human Intelligence and Dependency love probably had a lot to do with the importance of intelligence for our species. We are a physically puny species Certainly our vaunted sexual appetites are enough to ensure with low fecundity. Such a combination of disabilities would ample pregnancies, but reproduction alone is not sufficient have been disastrous for our hominid ancestors had they been as highly adapted to a particular ecological niche as many Anthony Walsh is professor of criminal justice and statistics species are. The more a species is adapted to a particular at Boise State University. He has written a new book, The niche, the more its responses to environmental stimuli are Science of Love, (Prometheus) and numerous journal articles stereotyped. In essence, this means that the genes of such on love. a species code for brains with neurons that are "hard-wired" (directly and permanently connected) to assure that species

20 FREE INQUIRY members will instinctively pay attention and respond appro- The Chemistry of Attachment priately to aspects of the environment that are vital to them. Because of the vulnerability of our hominid ancestors to The brain's natural opiates, the endorphin peptides, probably predators, they had to depend on guile to survive encounters provide the chemical foundation of attachment. When an with them, and had to frequently migrate to new environments infant is snuggled in mother's arms, endorphins keep it to avoid them. Hard-wired stereotypical responses to stimuli contented. Separate the infant from its mother and endorphin would be counterproductive to organisms inhabiting highly levels fall, and levels of the stress hormone cortisol rise, variable environments in which new responses were constantly triggering anxiety and crying. It has been shown that only required. This meant that the genes had to surrender much the administration of exogenous endorphins will mollify of their behavioral control of proto-humans to a less rigid separated infants in the same way that reunion with the mother and fixed system for determining responses to stimuli—the will.9 Mothers are good for us, they keep us happy, they ease plastic human brain. our anxiety, they make us feel warm and secure, and they Human infants take about one year to reach the stage keep our endorphins at pleasant levels and "high" on life. of development at which other mammals are at birth, and The intimate link between love and sex has its origins in their brain weights triple during this period. If the human the primary love bond between mother and infant, which is infant were as developmentally precocious as nonhuman a function of the long human dependency period, which is mammals, its head would be too large to pass through the in turn the result of evolutionary pressures selecting for birth canal. To accommodate natural selection for increasing intelligence. Two other evolutionary processes—the human human brain size, evolution settled on the strategy of human female's loss of estrus, and the species' gradual development infants being born at earlier and earlier stages of development. of upright bipedalism—probably also contributed. Females Human infants are so developmentally incomplete that have a large investment in parenthood. Males contribute a scientists posit a dual human gestation period: uterogestation few pelvic thrusts, after which they can be on their way. Nature (within the womb) and exterogestation (postnatal), the latter had to devise a system by which males could be persuaded period lasting about ten months.3 to remain with females after copulation to provide food and The importance of this observation in the present context protection for them and their offspring. Let us be aware that is that such a developmental lag requires that the helpless it was the male that nature had to capture in love. Strong infant have someone who will unconditionally administer to evolutionary pressures had already awakened general feelings its needs. The selfless and unconditional care and regard for of attachment in the female by virtue of her motherhood role. another human being is called "love." It is during this period These same nascent feelings were also present in the male of maximum dependency that the infant's brain is quite literally by virtue of his early attachment to his mother. He now had being "wired" (the process of synaptogenesis) by its experi- to transfer these same feelings to other females, and sex was ences.4 Whether or not the neuronal pathways to the pleasure the vehicle by which this was accomplished. centers are sufficiently strong to enable the organism to love We know that most female members of nonhuman (as opposed to simply copulating) as an adult depends to mammalian species are only sexually receptive during estrus, a great extent on this early experience.5 Science has uncovered and are of interest to males only at that time. There was hormonal and neuronal substrates that cement mother/ infant certainly a time in the history of our species when our female love. For instance, estradiol lowers the threshold for the firing ancestors also went through estrus. Some hominid females of nerve fibers in the medial preoptic area of the female brain, must have enjoyed longer periods of sexual receptivity than an area associated with increased nurturing behavior in others. Males would have naturally been more solicitous of females. The male preoptic is insensitive to estradiol.6 It has such females, providing them with extra food and protection been shown that progesterone and estradiol administered (it is often noted that other primate males are far more attentive artificially to virgin rats will evoke maternal behavior, and and generous to females when they are in estrus). Females that oxytocin, released in response to suckling, "intensifies" enjoying long periods of sexual receptivity would be more maternal behavior.? There is an abundance of literature on likely to survive, as would their offspring. Over time, natural the role of female hormones in evoking loving maternal selection would spread the genes for longer receptivity behavior that cannot be addressed here.8 throughout the population, eventually leading to the A strong propensity to become emotionally attached to disappearance of human estrus altogether. the mother and to other caregivers who provide food, Assuming that natural selection for upright bipedalism was protection, and a secure base from which to explore their taking place coterminously with the gradual loss of estrus, environment has obvious survival value for the young of the sight would have largely replaced smell as the impetus to mate. species. As a child gets older, we may adequately account Upright hominids, with genitals now moved more toward the for his or her attachment behavior as a function of his or front, led to the uniquely human practice of frontal intercourse. her history of operant reinforcement (well-loved children are Frontal intercourse involves far more skin contact than the strongly attached, neglected and maltreated children hardly old method of seizing the female from behind and staring at all). But something a lot more basic than a cognitive off into space. Because of the intimate connection between appreciation of rewards and punishments must provide the the skin and the brain, formed as they are in utero by the foundation for attachment. A biological system of internal same layer of tissue, humans find tactile stimulation most rewards and punishments had to evolve. pleasing. Sexual intercourse began more and more to recall

Summer 1991 21 The excited hypothalamus instructs the pituitary gland to "An emotional attachment between men and release a peptide called "adrenocorticotropin releasing women that is qualitatively different from the hormone" (ACTH). ACTH is then transported through the bloodstream to receptors on the adrenal gland, which then frenetic mating of lower species had to evolve, releases a stress-related substance called "corticosterone." This not to simply attract them to one another, substance increases the metabolism of glucose, which results but also to keep them in the classic symptoms of love—flushed skin, sweating, heavy attached to one another breathing, genital lubrication, and a pounding heart. sufficiently long to raise the vulnerable fruits When this intensely exciting state strikes us we become of their passion. Human love in its ideal form different people. Our perceptions are drastically altered, the is attraction loved one becomes the center of our universe, the whole world plus attachment." seems to be a better place, we smile at strangers, we search for superlatives to describe the beloved. Sheer euphoria the pleasures lovers once found in their mother's arms. The threatens to turn us into giggling school children, while at sucking of the lover's breasts, the warmth of skin contact, the same time making us feel more attractive, optimistic, and eye gazing and nose nuzzling, and the feeling that all is right competent. We feel boundless energy, and we feel less need with the world (the endorphins in action), evokes deep for food, sleep, and for our usual pleasurable diversions. unconsciousness memories of the mother/ infant bond. Frontal Having sex with someone we do not love does not have this intercourse mimicked and capitalized on the primary mother/ euphoric eftect. Nature has emotionally enriched the repro- infant bond, and thus elevated the sexual drive above simple ductive impulses of humankind with love, and in doing so genital pleasure. she has immeasurably increased our enjoyment of both. Frontal intercourse involves more of the human senses than If this all sounds very much like a drug-induced high, that's the impersonality of belly/ buttocks coupling. The evolution because it is. Stimulant drugs such as cocaine and ampheta- of intelligence and language enabled lovers to "know the mine have much the same effect as love's natural high. Whether individual" by translating their physical and visual pleasures we fall in love or take a stimulant drug, the upshot is increased into words. He or she is no longer simply a set of genitals limbic system activity in the form of increased neurotransmitter that look and smell like every other set, but a unique individual activity and neuroreceptor sensitivity. Nature has chemically who captures and holds the imagination. The imagination wired us to feel good when we do something that helps to allowed our ancestors, as it allows us, to replay previous sexual achieve her goals: Opiates keep us safely attached as youngsters encounters with their lovers, to anticipate future ones, and and stimulants light us up when we experience attraction to to come to value sexual intercourse as the ultimate celebration our lovers as adults. of love. Certainly, sex can be enjoyed without emotional There are no known neuroreceptors to exogenous stimu- elaboration, but who would deny that sex accompanied by lants such as amphetamines. The primary action of love is infinitely more pleasurable than the grunting urgency amphetamine is to prompt the release of the excitatory of the casual hump? catecholamine neurotransmitters such as dopamine and norepinephrine and block their reuptake at synaptic terminals. The Chemistry of Attraction Evidence suggests that the stimulant that mediates our experience of romantic love is a naturally occurring Just as there is a chemistry of attachment, there is a chemistry amphetaminelike (and also mildly hallucinogenic) substance of attraction. When we meet someone with whom we are called "phenylethylamine" (PEA).'° Since amphetamine is the to fall in love, his or her unique characteristics have an ana- prototype drug of PEA, it is not at all surprising that certain bolic effect on what scientists unromantically call our people are at risk of becoming "love junkies." In fact, love "hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis." It may be his intellect, addiction has been characterized as the most common form power, athletic prowess, accent, or any number of other things of addiction known." Love addicts flit from person to person, that sets her axis in motion. For the male, more prone to falling in love with love (or more correctly perhaps, with PEA) visual stimuli, it may be her smile, the silkiness of her skin, rather than with the person. Their love object simply functions or the delightful way her buttocks undulate as she walks. as a PEA releasing mechanism. No matter what the particulars might be that lead us to fall Love junkies are promiscuous because they quickly develop in love, when it happens it happens with a bang (often literally a tolerance for PEA. It happens to all lovers sooner or later; as well as figuratively these days), arousing us to a kind of it just happens to love addicts sooner. Just as drug addicts biological revolution. develop a tolerance for exogenous chemicals, lovers develop Our intellectual appreciation of the loved one, combined a tolerance for endogenous chemicals released in response with information relayed from our senses of sight, sound, to the stimuli presented by the beloved. When addicts find and touch, is processed in the limbic system, the brain's that the same amount of their drug no longer has the same emotional center. The pleasure centers of the limbic system effect on their feeling states, they take larger doses, take a process the flood of information and send it on to the hypo- short respite so that the brain becomes unhabituated, or switch thalamus, the part of the limbic system that, among other to another substance. Love addicts cannot increase the amount things, synthesizes hormones and activates sexual behavior. of stimuli from their current lover, so they switch to another.

22 FREE INQUIRY Short separations from our lovers have the same effect: We see echoes of this evolutionary process today, even Absence does make the heart grow fonder. Meeting an old when reproduction is not an issue. Despite the "sexual flame or reunion with a spouse rekindles the passions of revolution" and the easy availability of birth control, women attraction because separation lowers the brain's threshold for are still more sexually discerning than men. As for men, they PEA-induced excitement. still tend to fall in love with women who have insisted on Herein lies the importance of choosing our lovers wisely delaying consummation, and to quickly abandon women who so that we like them and will continue to do so after the surrender too soon. The waiting period enhances the pleasure euphoria wears off. PEA tolerance does not spell the end for both parties if sexual consummation occurs. Having of love; for most of us it spells only a diminution of intense decided that the male is a serious prospect for a long-term passion. Such passion can be rekindled to levels approaching liaison, the female feels wanted and perhaps even loved. The the original with some imaginative lovemaking in a variety male has also had an opportunity to discover the uniqueness of creative settings. Many people find the quiet security of of his partner, and feels honored that she has granted his companionate love (attachment) more emotionally satisfying access to a part of her that she does not grant lightly. When than the mad gonadal helter-skelter of the attraction phase an emotional affinity has crept into the relationship, as lovers just as, with maturity and familiarity, they come to prefer make love they are literally making (i.e., "creating") love. the harmonious beauty of Beethoven over the crotch-raw Male/ female love bonds, then, are to a large extent cacophony of Bon Jovi. governed by female reproductive behavior, which is governed by female regard for the survival of her offspring. Mother/ The Female Link Between Sex and Love infant and male/female bonds are biological; the infant/father bond is a purely human cultural concept. If the human male The link between sex (attraction) and love (attraction + was to contribute something to the survival of the species attachment) is woman. There's a lot of truth in the aphorism other than stud service, the species had to become sufficiently that women give sex to get love and men give love to get intelligent to recognize and grasp the abstract concept of sex. There is abundant evidence that women are more deeply relationship. With the ability to grasp such a concept came embedded in the emotional life than are men. A study by the integration of the two biological bonds with the cultural Grace Balazs and myself found that love was about 2.8 times fatherhood bond. The fusion of these basic bonds became more important in statistically accounting for variance in self- a template for the evolution of ever more complex human esteem among women than among men.12 Tarvis and Sadd's relationships and bonds—kinship, family, tribe, and on up study of 100,000 American women found that the most to the formation of society itself.14 The pivotal figure in the important aspect of sexual activity for women was emotional extension of basic biological bonds to cultural bonds is woman, and "other" oriented rather than physical and "me" oriented. for she is the only figure common to both biological bonds. When asked what they enjoyed most about sex, most answered Such a pivotal figure might be expected to possess some "the feeling of closeness with my partner," followed by special biological features. McGuinness suggests that the lesser "satisfying my partner." "Orgasm" (a "me" response) was a degree of brain lateralization among women allow them greater distant third.13 Men tended to view sex as an end in itself, verbal access to their emotions than men.15 Another neural the product of which is orgasm, while women tended to view mechanism that may be involved in female emotionality is it as a process by which emotional closeness is achieved. the prefrontal cortex. According to MacLean, the prefrontal The reason that women tend to live the emotional life more area evolved in close relationship to the part of the limbic fully than males probably has its origin in the different system involved in maternal care.16 Through its connection reproductive strategies of the sexes. Females periodically shed with the limbic system it helps us to empathize, to gain insight one or more of a finite number of ova; males continually into the felt life of others, and to understand it as if it were produce fresh sperm. As with any other commodity, rareness our own. It is the mechanism that leavens our rationality determines value. If a woman is to push her genes into the with feeling, and that guides our emotions through thought. future, she must guard her precious gametes by being very Chauchard calls the prefrontal brain "the brain of the heart, discriminating about which male will be allowed to fertilize the organ of love."17 them. On the other hand, supplied with cheap and plentiful Given the close relationship between the prefrontal cortex sperm, the male's optimal reproductive strategy is to try to and those areas of the limbic system involved in maternal fertilize as many females as possible. Sexual activity per se care, it is reasonable to assume that the emotional messages is important to the reproductive success of males, and he has arriving from the limbic system will retain more of their power no reason to be discriminating because he has sperm to spare. after cortical integration in women than they will in men. The female strategy is best served by monogamy with a male In fact, it has been shown experimentally that women enjoy with whom she has built a relationship. She must take time a greater capability than men to integrate pleasurable to evaluate his ability to provide a secure nest for her and experiences into the neocortex.18 This capability may well be her child, and for an emotional bond to evolve between her a function of the female brain's lesser degree of laterality. and her mate. Women who engaged in malelike sexual activity Pearsall believes so, and sees the tendency of males to be would find plentiful partners, but none would likely remain generally more self-oriented to be a function, at least in part, to provide food and protection for a child of doubtful of their left-brain tendency. He views the "wholebrain" paternity. tendency of females as producing beings more "other" and

Summer 1991 23 "us" oriented, and he also claims that female orientation to capitalized on this bond and on the sex drive to develop male/ the world is more in tune with the principles of healthy living.19 female love bonds. That scientists have discovered some of The implication is that woman's greater capacity for love the chemical potions that nature uses to draw us together within the limbic system, and its associated endocrinal should not diminish the wonder of love one iota. Even a processes, is augmented and reinforced within her rational definitive understanding of the biology of love would leave brain, and is thus more capable of wide diffusion. us far from exhausting the richness of meaning contained in the sublime verb "to love." As far as we know, we are Conclusion the only creatures in the universe who can grasp the meaning and joy of love: that love is what we give as well as what There was certainly a time in our evolutionary history when we get, and that it is the creative medium by which we and love, the active concern for the well-being of another, did our lovers become more than we ever thought possible. not exist. The mating of male and female genitalia was all that was necessary for species survival when our distant Notes ancestors slithered around in the primordial mud. Proto- humans became increasingly intelligent as environments L Schopenhauer, cited in Anthony Walsh, Human Nature and Love (Lanham, Md.: UPA, 1981), p. 141. became more complicated, and the selection for human 2. S. Mellen, The Evolution of Love (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, intelligence necessitated the selection for human love. The first 1981), p. 141. human love bond was between mother and infant, and nature (Continued on p. 59)

Should Sex Have a Different Meaning for Humanists? family planning is desirable, and that children should be wanted and loved. Vern and Bonnie Bullough Sexual morality should come from a sense of caring and respect for others, umanists often have been reluc- years from now will want or accept. not from some long-ago hostility to tant to deal with sexual issues, So far we have been challenging sex. We need to recognize that either officially or unofficially. A traditional Christian (and to a lesser physical pleasure has moral value, group of humanists, including our- extent Jewish) attitudes on human and that all of us at all ages are sexual selves, prepared and signed a New Bill sexuality without examining the bases beings. The only limits that should of Rights and Sexual Responsibilities of these ideas and showing the false be imposed on sexual activities should in 1976; but most humanists have not science and logic upon which they are be done in terms of age and consent come to terms with the meaning of founded. and harmfulness to others. sexuality in today's world. The Uni- Examining the historical sources of Individuals differ from one an- tarians created a sex-education pro- today's attitudes about sex will show other in their needs and desires, and ject for their church schools, and have that what we need is a new basis for we should recognize this as a fact of ordained homosexual clergy. Many of sexual ethics. Sexuality should have life. The asceticism of the Stoics is the more traditional religions have a different meaning to humanists than attractive to many, but only when it done much more than humanists. it does to traditional Christians. In is not imposed but freely chosen. Sex What should the humanist posi- fact, when one examines the myths is too important to be based on the tion on sex be? What should we tell and pseudoscience that form the basis science and pseudoscience of two students of sex and sexuality? Should for the Christian position, it becomes thousand years ago. Modern science there be a new sexual ethic? How difficult to see how even Christians and technologies allow us to give it much attention should humanists can continue to accept it. a far different meaning than it once give to sexuality? What kind of limits We hold that the boundaries of had and unfortunately still has among should we put on sexual expression? human sexuality need to be expanded large numbers of people. • These and similar questions are and that humanism both officially important ones to ask, although we and unofficially should play a leading Vern Bullough is dean of natural and do not pretend to have the definitive role in doing so. We hold that there social sciences at the State University answers. All humanists must tackle should be equity between the sexes, of New York College at Buffalo. these issues, but the results might that repressive taboos should be Bonnie Bullough is dean of nursing not be what humanists twenty replaced by more objective views, that at SUNYat Buffalo.

24 FREE INQUIRY Love and Mate Selection in the 1990s

Elizabeth Rice Allgeier and Michael W. Wiederman

ould you marry someone who had all the qualities rated by samples of college students in 1939, 1956, and 1967. you desired in a mate if you were not in love with In that three-decade period, the qualities most valued by Whim or her? During other points in history and respondents were remarkably consistent. Both men and in cultures other than our own, love has played either a small women assigned the most importance to the qualities or nonexistent role in the selection of a marriage partner. Dependable Character and Emotional Stability. Also, the other qualities that we value in selecting a mate Although many researchers have been interested in the area are not necessarily the same ones most valued by our ancestors, of mate selection, they do not all share the same theoretical nor the ones valued most by people in other cultures. perspective. Sociobiologists rely on the principles of evolution In contemporary industrialized societies, however, love is and natural selection to explain humans' mate selection seen as the primary basis for marriage. What qualities would preferences (Buss 1989; Symons 1979). As physical attrac- you seek in a mate? Presumably people have wondered about tiveness may be an indication of health and reproductive this question ever since humans began forming lasting bonds, fitness, they hypothesize that males who highly valued factors but researchers have only begun empirical investigation of related to a potential mate's physical attractiveness were more this issue in the past half-century. likely to be successful in passing their genes to future genera- Fifty years ago, Rubin Hill (1945) developed the following tions than were males who placed less value on the physical list of eighteen characteristics to conduct a study of the qualities attractiveness of a potential mate. In contrast, they predict that were most valued in a mate: that females have been selected to place more importance on factors that relate to their potential partners' ability to Dependable Character Good Health be good providers, and thus contribute to the well-being of Mutual Attraction Similar Political Background the offspring. During the period in which humans were Education/ Intelligence Ambition/ Industriousness physically evolving, those children who were fathered by a Similar Educational Background Pleasing Disposition male who could provide food and protection were probably Desire for Home/Children Sexual Chastity more likely to live long enough to reproduce. Thus, those Favorable Social Status Good Financial Prospect females who valued males who could provide resources would Emotional Stability Sociability be more successful in passing along their genes than females Refinement/ Neatness Good Cook/ Housekeeper who did not value those qualities in a mate. Evolutionary Similar Religious Background Good Looks theory asserts that these tendencies for males and females to value different qualities in a potential mate have been passed Before reading further you may want to consider how on to contemporary humans. important each of these characteristics would be to you if David Buss (1989) set out to test these hypotheses using you were seeking a marriage partner by rating each on a Hill's list of eighteen characteristics. He organized a study scale from 1 (not at all important) to 7 (extremely important). involving the collection of data from more than ten thousand The importance of these qualities in a potential mate was respondents, from thirty-three societies around the world. The quality of physical attractiveness is similar to the item Good Elizabeth Rice Allgeier is professor of psychology at Bowling Looks in Hill's list, and the ability to provide resources Green State University, and researches many aspects of human corresponds to such listed characteristics as Good Financial sexuality and social interaction. She has just completed the Prospect and Ambition/Industriousness. In the study third edition of the human sexuality text, Sexual Interactions, conducted by Buss, the evolutionary hypotheses were with her husband Richard Allgeier. She is editor-elect of The supported. Significant gender differences on these three items Journal of Sex Research. were found in almost all the cultures surveyed. That is, men Michael W Wiederman is a graduate student in clinical placed significantly more emphasis on physical attractiveness psychology at Bowling Green State University where his in a potential mate than did women, whereas women valued research interests include love, mate selection, and premarital financial prospects and ambition much more highly in a mate sexuality. than did men. These same differences have also emerged in the studies surveying college students over the past fifty years.

Summer 1991 25 more she would be economically dependent on her mate, and "Very few young people today would consider thus the less she would require love in a marriage partner. That is, a woman who does not expect to earn much money marrying a person with whom they were not may not be able to afford turning away a man who is a in love, regardless of the qualities that person good provider simply because she is not in love with him. possessed. However, although about 90 Similarly, we hypothesized that the more a woman expected to earn, the more economically independent she expected to percent of students surveyed would not marry be, and the more she could afford to require love in her without love, only about half agreed that the marriage. disappearance of love is sufficient reason for divorce." ow important is love as a basis for marriage today? In Hour study, 87 percent of the men and 91 percent of the women said that they would not marry someone unless they You may have noticed that the list of eighteen characteristics were in love with that person, regardless of whether that person lacks an explicit reference to love. It seems, however, that had all the other qualities that they desired in a mate. Was love has become an important requirement for marriage in expected annual income after graduation from college related the United States for both men and women. Such hasn't always to women's responses to the "Love" question? The answer been the case. In the mid-1960s, Kephart (1967) asked a is yes, but to our surprise the results of our study were in thousand college students "If a man or woman had all the the opposite direction from those we hypothesized. That is, other qualities you desired, would you marry this person if the more the women in our sample expected to earn after you were not in love with him or her?" Two-thirds of the college, the less they required love. Those women who men said "No," whereas only a quarter of the women said indicated that they expected to earn the most money after that they would not. Simpson, Campbell, and Berscheid (1986) graduation were the ones most likely to consider marrying asked the same question of large samples of college students a man with whom they were not in love, provided he had in 1976 and 1984. By 1976 students' ratings of the importance all the other qualities they desired in a mate. For the men of love had changed dramatically from the ratings given in in our study, there was no relationship between how much the mid-1960s. At that time, 86 percent of the men and 80 money they expected to earn and their responses to the "Love" percent of the women said that they would not marry someone question. if they were not in love with them. Over the period of a In addition to the "Love" question, Simpson and his decade, a greater number of both men and women rated love colleagues had also included two questions that had to do as a prerequisite for marriage, but the relative increase was with the disappearance of love in marriage. We included the considerably larger for women. That is, from the mid-1960s same questions in our survey. Specifically, we asked students to the mid-1970s, the number of women who said that they to indicate the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with would not marry a man with whom they were not in love the statement, "If love has completely disappeared from a more than tripled. By 1984, the percentages of men and women marriage, I think it is probably best for the couple to make responding "No" to the question were equal at about 85 a clean break and start new lives." About half of the thousand percent. We were interested in exploring possible reasons for students agreed with the statement, about a third disagreed, the profound jump from the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s in and the rest indicated that they were neutral. Respondents the number of women who said that they required love for also indicated the extent of their agreement or disagreement marriage. with the statement, "In my opinion, the disappearance of love Simpson and his colleagues, who conducted the love studies, is not a sufficient reason for ending a marriage, and should used a sociological explanation for their findings. Specifically, not be viewed as such." About half of the students disagreed, they speculated that, as women became more economically about a third agreed, and the rest said that they were neutral independent, there was a decrease in the likelihood of a woman on the issue. These results were very similar to those obtained settling for a man who was a good provider but with whom by Simpson and his colleagues. It seems that most she was not in love. Such an explanation sounded reasonable contemporary young men and women are very reluctant to to us, so we tested this hypothesis by surveying a thousand marry someone with whom they are not in love, but are less undergraduate students at Bowling Green State University sure that the disappearance of love in marriage is a sufficient regarding their values concerning the importance of love in reason for dissolving the marital contract. choosing a mate, and the relative weight they placed on the How do today's youth compare to their counterparts of eighteen qualities listed by Hill. Besides asking the question the past fifty years in the relative emphasis they place on about love cited above, we also asked the students to indicate each of the eighteen listed desirable characteristics in a how much annual income they expected to earn three to four potential mate? In our sample surveyed in 1990, men and years after graduating from college. In this way, we crudely women were alike in the three characteristics rated most measured how economically independent the women in our important, but Mutual Attraction supplanted all other sample expected themselves to be after college graduation. qualities in ranked importance. The top three qualities, in Based on the explanation given by Simpson and his colleagues, order, were Mutual Attraction, Dependable Character, and we hypothesized that the less a woman expected to earn, the Emotional Stability. The least important, for both men and

26 FREE INQUIRY women, was Similar Political Background, and that generally with Kephart's findings than with our own. On the other hand, characterized the earlier studies as well. Other qualities that if the changes we have seen in the emphasis of certain qualities were rated as relatively unimportant included Similar Religious in a mate and the increased value of love as a basis for marriage Background (seventeenth for men, sixteenth for women); Good have permeated the culture, we may find contemporary adults Cook/ Housekeeper (seventeenth for women, fifteenth for across the age-span responding in the same way as our 1990 men); and Favorable Social Status (fourteenth for women, sample of college students. thirteenth for men). When compared to past ratings of the Regardless of what we find in our community sample, our eighteen characteristics, some differences over time are results with the college students did not support Simpson et apparent. In the past, similarity in religious background was al.'s (1986) speculation that, in selecting a marital partner, valued more highly in a potential mate, especially by women, love has become more important in women's choices as a and cooking and housekeeping were much more highly valued function of their increased independence from men for by men in decades past than they are now. Also, both men financial support. Why do women who expect to earn more and women now place greater emphasis on the sociability money place less emphasis on love as a requirement for and physical attractiveness in a potential mate than did their marriage? What do you think the answer is? We encourage counterparts of the past fifty years. What about the gender you to test your hypothesis, and relay your ideas to us. differences reported by Buss? In our sample of college students, Eventually, we may be able to explain this puzzling link the findings were consistent with past research; that is, the between a woman's expected income and her requirements largest gender differences were apparent on the items dealing for marriage. with physical attractiveness, financial prospects, and ambition. Men placed more emphasis on the former quality, whereas References women emphasized the latter two. Buss, D. M. 1989. Sex differences in human mate preference. Evolutionary We also explored relationships between expected income hypothesis tested in 37 cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12: and the value placed on the qualities of a potential mate. 1-49. There were associations, at least for women, between how Hill, R. 1945. Campus Values in Mate Selection. Journal of Home Economics, 37:554-558. much money the respondents expected to earn after college Hudson, J. W., and L. F., Henze. 1969. Campus values in mate selection: and how they rated certain characteristics in a potential A replication. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 31:772-775. husband. As stated earlier, one might think that the less a Kephart, W. M. 1967. Some correlates of romantic love. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 29:470-474. woman expects to earn herself, the more she would value Simpson, J. A., B. Campbell, and E. Berscheid. 1986. The association the financial prospects of a mate, but such was not the case. between romantic love and marriage: Kephart (1967) twice revisited. Actually the reverse was true in our study. That is, it was Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 12:363-372. Symons, D. 1979. The Evolution of Human Sexuality. New York: Oxford the women who expected to earn the most after college who University Press. • placed the most value on financial prospects. There was not a relationship between how much men expected to earn and how they rated any of the characteristics in a potential mate. FOSTER HUMANIST GROWTH In summary, it seems that very few young people today would consider marrying a person with whom they were not FOR YEARS TO COME in love, regardless of the qualities that person possessed. However, although about 90 percent of students surveyed provide for would not marry without love, only about half agreed that FREE INQUIRY in your will the disappearance of love is sufficient reason for divorce. Men and women do agree on the three most important charac- Please remember FREE INQUIRY (CODESH, Inc.) when plan- teristics in a potential mate, but there are clear gender ning your estate. Your bequest will help to maintain the differences as to the relative emphasis placed on certain other vitality of humanism in a society often hostile toward it. qualities. Specifically, men value physical attractiveness more We would be happy to work with you and your attorney than do women, whereas women place more emphasis on in the development of a will or estate plan that meets your the financial prospects and ambitiousness and industriousness wishes. A variety of arrangements are possible, including in a potential marriage partner. gifts of a fixed amount or a percentage of your estate; living trusts or gift annuities, which provide you with lifetime ould our findings be true of North Americans in general, income; or a contingent bequest that provides for FREE Wor are they limited to today's college students? We are INQUIRY only if your primary beneficiaries do not survive currently in the process of exploring that question by surveying you. the general public and asking adults, of all ages, the same For more information, contact Paul Kurtz, Editor of FREE questions we posed to the student sample. Perhaps we will INQUIRY. All inquiries will be held in the strictest confidence. find that people answer these questions differently depending P.O. Box 5 • Central Park Station on the generation to which they belong. For example, someone Buffalo, New York 14215-0005 born in 1942 is of the same generation as those students Kephart surveyed in the mid-1960s, and we may find their Or call 716-636-7571. 6/91 attitudes regarding love and marriage to be more consistent

Summer 1991 27 The Creationist Revival The following articles describe some of the ideas and tactics for dissemination being used by creationists today. First, Scott Brande recounts the creationist campaign in his state to have a new public school text adopted—and how it might be a harbinger of things to come across the nation. Next, Victor Bernard shows how creationists are adopting the trappings of science to gain new converts. Finally, Arthur Strahler gives a detailed critique of a new "theory" of creationism. Pandas Attack Science Education

Scott Brande

n especially fierce and sophisticated campaign was In many states, textbook review is extensive, and provides recently waged in Alabama by the Foundation for for input by both educators and the public. In Alabama, a Thought and Ethics (FTE) for official sanction of publisher requesting textbook approval submits titles early its new secondary school science text, Of Pandas and People in the year to the Department of Education, and then sends (hereafter Pandas).' The "fundagelical" (defined by Delos copies during the summer to libraries throughout the state McKown as an ecumenical aggregation of politically for public review. In September, books are first reviewed by conservative, biblically literalistic, anti-intellectual fundamen- the State Textbook Committee, comprised of fourteen teachers talists, evangelicals, and other religious right-wingers)2 anti- from kindergarten through university and nine lay appointees, evolution campaign has thus moved from state legislatures according to a variety of criteria, including academic quality, and courtrooms to state boards of education and local school product quality, conformity with the state Course of Study, districts. This shift in strategy may have resulted from previous and suitability for the diversity of needs throughout the various failures by fundagelicals to legislate biblically based "science" schools. The Committee then recommends a list of titles for ("creation science') into the public school science classroom, adoption to the state Board of Education (which is headed which culminated with the 1987 rejection by the U.S. Supreme by the governor and whose members are elected from various Court of Louisiana's act that specified "equal time" in the districts). The approval process ends, usually in December, science classroom for "creation science" if evolution were with the Board's vote on the Textbook Committee's recom- taught.3 mended titles. The Board may accept all or part of the Com- In the United States, state approval is critical to a publisher's mittee's recommendations. Titles adopted by the state Board participation in the lucrative public school textbook market, of Education are placed on a list for available purchase by but books that do not receive approval are not necessarily public schools. banned from use in public schools. In Alabama, for example, The list does not mandate that a particular book must an unapproved book may be used provided copies are be used in a school, but if a school chooses to use state funds purchased without state funds, as in the case of a wealthy to purchase a text, that title must be on the list. A text may school system that chooses to use a college level text for an be selected for use in a school in a variety of ways, including, advanced placement course. As a practical matter, however, but not limited to, selection by a principal, a committee of books without state approval do not achieve widespread use. teachers, or teachers and parents. Because many states review books for a given subject only In preparation for the State Textbook Committee public once every several years, approval becomes even more hearing in September 1989, I reviewed books received by the imperative for a textbook publisher. In Alabama, all subjects University of Alabama at Birmingham library, one of twenty- are reviewed on a six-year cycle. A publisher's failure to obtain two throughout the state with copies of science texts submitted state approval of a text for sale to Alabama's public schools for approval. As biology and earth science books are the precludes market participation for over a half a decade. primary focus points of attack by fundagelicals, I limited my review to appropriate sections of these books. I found few Scott Brande teaches geology at the University of Alabama books with poor treatments of evolution, and in no case did at Birmingham and is a co-author of Principles of Stratigraphic I find any "creation science." I did find it odd that a few Analysis. titles were missing from our collection. At the hearing I provided brief, positive reviews, and

28 FREE INQUIRY suggested that most of the books be recommended by the adoption of "supplementary materials that present intelligent Committee to the Board of Education. Following me was design as the major alternative to evolution." The Board, Joan Kendall, Education Director of Alabama's Eagle Forum, Governor Guy Hunt, and Dr. Wayne Teague (state who startled me by announcing strong support for a new Superintendent of Education) later received letters from the text that I had not seen. She characterized Of Pandas and Alabama Baptist State Convention, which passed a resolution People as exemplary because it provided an alternative to in November addressing science textbooks. In part it called modern evolutionary theory that was based on "intelligent upon the Board of Education to "adopt supplementary design." material which presents the evidence for intelligent design. "9 I couldn't believe I'd missed such a blatantly anti- These descriptions could be applied to no book under review evolutionary text. A librarian confirmed that it had never other than Of Pandas and People. In an oblique reference been received. In a survey of the other libraries in the state to potential voting power, the letter from the Alabama Baptists that were to have complete sets of books on display, I stated that the resolution reflected the views of 1,931 discovered that none had received Pandas. Haughton messengers representing 3,084 churches with a combined Publishing Company of Dallas, Texas, had submitted the title membership of 1,040,002. to the Department of Education early in 1989, and the book A motion was made that Pandas be approved as a was to be available for public review by July 10. And now, supplementary text, but another Board member questioned at the sole public hearing by the State Textbook Committee, whether the Board had the legal authority to place on the the only individuals with access to the book were members approved list a text that had come to it without recommen- of the Committee and, apparently, Eagle Forum. dation from the State Textbook Committee. During the In letters to the Department of Education, the State ensuing discussion, a majority of the Board were persuaded Textbook Committee, and the Birmingham News, I suggested that they lacked this authority. Consequently, the Board sent that Pandas should be eliminated from evaluation by the the controversial text back down to State Textbook Committee Textbook Committee, as the publisher failed to follow explicit for another public hearing and review, which was unprece- textbook review guidelines established by the State Depart- dented in the decade that I have been watching textbook ment of Education. (When Tom Lindley of the Birmingham adoptions in Alabama. News alerted a representative of Haughton Publishing about At the second State Textbook Committee public hearing, the missing book, the company sent by Federal Express copies FTE again prepared to argue for Pandas' recommendation that arrived at the various libraries the day before the State for adoption. But when it was his turn to speak, Hare Textbook Committee's scheduled vote on October 1.) The announced that Haughton Publishing had instructed him to controversy surrounding Pandas was widely reported in withdraw Pandas from Committee consideration. He cited various newspapers throughout the state.4-6 Members of the lack of due process in the various proceedings and State Textbook Committee were polarized into a majority characterized opponents of Pandas as intolerant. Pandas' who felt that Pandas "is strictly a religious book" and a strongest supporter on the Committee, Mr. Norris Anderson minority who felt that it conformed to state requirements for (who is affiliated with Cornerstone Ministries), moved to science texts.? After the Committee's secret vote, Pandas was accept the withdrawal and immediately end the public hearing. not included on the Committee's list of recommended titles His motion failed, and another to continue the hearing passed. that was forwarded to the Board of Education. Hare and Pandas' supporters stormed out of the auditorium, Although Haughton Publishing produces and distributes closely followed by the media, while opponents of Pandas Pandas, I did not learn until the December public hearing continued their presentations. of the state Board of Education the identity of an additional But perhaps the most bizarre turn of events took place proponent of the book—FTE. After Pandas' defeat by the during the Committee's open meeting following the public State Textbook Committee, the FTE had prepared an appeal hearing. Although a motion had been made to vote on Pandas, for approval directly from the Board. The appeal was Anderson declared that he had been instructed by the organized by Francis Hare, Jr., a Birmingham attorney publisher's attorneys to announce that any Committee member employed as Haughton's legal representative. Curiously, Hare who voted against Pandas would be sued for individual and is also listed on FTE letterhead as a member of its Board corporate damages by Haughton Publishing. The rationale of Reference, suggesting a relationship between FTE and was that, as Pandas had been withdrawn, the Committee no Haughton Publishing. Mr. Hare's presentation included two longer had jurisdiction over the text. The threat of personal scientists who supported various aspects of Pandas: Dr. Robert liability created an uproar among the majority of Committee Kaita, a fusion physicist from Princeton University, and Dr. members who opposed Pandas, and the threat had its intended Fred Sigworth, a molecular biochemist from Yale University.8 effect. The Committee passed a motion simply recognizing Other groups conducted a coordinated and extensive Pandas' withdrawal, and the Pandas Alabama campaign was campaign for Pandas' adoption. For example, Jim Dewberry, effectively over. a Birmingham businessman identified as president of a group called Citizens for Integrity in Science Education (CISE), ndas is an unusual "science" text because it deviates in presented to the Board of Education an anti-evolutionary Peveral respects from common characteristics of biology petition with more than 11,800 signatures. Although the books used in public high school biology classrooms. Biology petition did not mention Pandas by name, it called for the texts offer a variety of discussions of modern evolutionary

Summer 1991 29 theory, from relatively descriptive and brief treatments to intelligence: "Life itself owes its origin to a master intellect."17 extensive, quantitative ones. None, however, contrasts In one letter to a potential publisher dated January 30, evolutionary theory with any non-evolutionary alternative. 1987,18 Jon Buell, president of FTE, stated that, in a recent And none discusses "intelligent design" as an alternative to poll, "almost half of the nation's biology teachers include some evolution. creation in their view of biological origins." Buell implied that For many traditional science texts, the single copyright his manuscript, originally entitled Biology and Origins, would is normally held either by the author(s) or publisher. In Pandas, appeal to this particular segment of the public school market. the copyright page lists two works (each with its own ISBN He declared that because his manuscript was written as a number): the main text and an appendix. The copyright of supplement, rather than a full text, the "book qualifies for Pandas' main text is held by neither of the authors (Percival the new Texas Science Supplement list ... without undergoing Davis and Dean H. Kenyon) nor the publisher, but by a the textbook review process so famous for basal text third party, FTE. The copyright of the appendix is held by adoptions."19 This is not true in Alabama, where all texts its author, Charles B. Thaxton. Perhaps the assignment of submitted are evaluated. copyright to a third party is not curious, but the relationship In other early correspondence from the FTE to potential of the FTE with Pandas is. The authors of Pandas, Davis, publishers it indicated that the text would be immune "to Kenyon, and Thaxton, are listed on December 1989 FTE the major criticism of creationism, that the supernatural lies letterhead as members of the Council of Academic and outside of science."20 The solution was to sidestep the issue Educational Advisors, and Thaxton is identified as Director by declaring that "science is silent to whether ... [a creative] of Curriculum. Among mainstream modern biology texts, I intelligence is within or beyond the material universe."21 This know of none with such relationships to a religious approach is, of course, incorrect: Science specifically excludes organization. any notion of the supernatural as a causal explanation for That the FTE represents religious concerns is revealed in material phenomena, as many scientific, religious, and an investigative piece by John Thomas.1 ) The FTE is described educational organizations have affirmed.22 by its president, Jon Buell (who worked with Campus Crusade In a letter dated March 198823 to friends of the FTE, Buell for Christ), as a "Christian think-tank."11 Thomas discovered announced an agreement with a publisher for Biology and in its articles of incorporation a statement that one of its Origins, and appealed for donations to the ministry. He activities would be to produce a book "showing the scientific described the text as one that is "designed to give students evidence for creation."12 a broader understanding and reliable scientific rationale for The authors of Pandas have previously published books creation." In December 1988, Buell again appealed for that advocate the creationist position. FTE's first work, in donations, announcing the change in title to Of Pandas and 1984, was The Mystery of Life's Origin, coauthored by People and describing the work as "a landmark book" that Thaxton, which argues for the plausibility of a Special Creation "represents a viable means of breaking the monopoly of that "involves the supernatural."13 Kenyon authored the philosophical naturalism in high school biology textbooks."24 foreword. Davis is also no stranger to religion-based After my first reading of Pandas in September 1989, I publications. He co-authored A Case for Creation (under the contacted the National Association of Biology Teachers name P. William Davis), a book that Thomas describes as (NABT). I had been informed that the NABT was faced with a "standard creationist work with frequent religious an application by Haughton Publishing to exhibit Pandas references. "14 at the upcoming annual convention. Recognizing Pandas' It is curious that Kenyon co-authored a previous text, creationist underpinnings, I argued that NABT should deny Biochemical Predestination,15 the views of which directly the publisher an opportunity to promote a book that violates contradict those in Pandas. In Biochemical Predestination, many NABT's goals: "Science deals with material things Kenyon and Steinman agree with the central tenets of the . . . data which can best be described as para-scientific Haldane-Oparin hypothesis: (creationism ... etc.) cannot be condoned as science within 1. The origin of life on earth was preceded by abiogenic [public] classrooms."25 NABT decided to allow the exhibit molecular evolution; of Pandas, and as I suspected, this permission was to be 2. The origin of life on earth (and potentially on other trumpeted in future correspondence from the FTE: "In planets) was constrained to "known physical and chemical October we ... exhibited the book [Pandas] at the annual phenomena"; and meeting of the National Association of Biology Teachers. 3. "Life should occur quite naturally throughout the ... The NABT rigorously excludes any book that falls short universe and should arise under natural conditions whenever of their statement of scientific integrity."26 those conditions are suitable for the emergence of life."I6 In contrast to this view of a natural and spontaneous origin lthough the battle for state approval of Pandas in to life (dependent on no forces other than physico-chemical, AAlabama was heated, a quiet one took place in Idaho. the appropriate supply of materials, and the proper physico- There the title was submitted, but no representatives of the chemical environment), Pandas adds one ingredient to the FTE or Haughton Publishing made any appearances or mix—a creative intelligence guiding the assembly of pre-biotic appeals to either the State Textbook Committee or the Board molecules into the first living organism. In other words, Pandas of Education. As the Committee rejected the book by a vote rejects spontaneous generation for an intervention by of 10-1, it failed to come before the state Board.

30 FREE INQUIRY With defeats in Idaho and Alabama, the FTE may have 3. Stephen Jay Gould, "The verdict on creationism," The New York decided that more effective strategy should concentrate Times Magazine, July 19(1987):32. 4. Tom Lindley, "Dispute over science textbooks continues," The promotion of Pandas at the local level. Thomas27 reported Birmingham News, September 13, 1989; "Proposed texts not available for that a May 1990 FTE letter states "[Wie are finding that inspection, 0ctober 3; "Committee won't consider controversial biology the best approach to the local school system is through the text," 0ctober 3; Science textbook controversy continues, December 27; "Politics upstage science in state textbook hearing," January 9, 1990. biology teacher.... They are comfortable in making a decision 5. Nancy Bereckis, "Anti-evolutionists pin hope on new book," The to introduce a supplemental text with the review and approval Birmingham News/Birmingham Post Herald, January 6, 1990. of the school curriculum committee." In effect, FTE is planning 6. Steve Visser, "Biochemist at UA, Fellow Scientists Clash 0ver Evolution," The Birmingham News, January 7, 1990. to circumvent state-wide, formal review, a plan that can only 7. Lindley, 0ctober 3, 1989, op. cit. be effective in those states that do not require it for 8. Tom Lindley and Steve Visser, "School Book Mired in Science- supplemental science texts. Religion Mud," The Birmingham News, December 15, 1989. 9. Letter from A. Earl Potts, Executive Secretary-Treasurer, Alabama Every science educator and parent ought to be aware of Baptist State Convention, January 4, 1990. this book because of its potential to mislead and misinform 10. John A. Thomas, The Foundation for Thought and Ethics, NCSE the student of biology and earth science. In one of the many Reports 10(4)1990: pp. 18-19. 11. Thomas, 1990, op. cit., p. 18. recent reviews of Pandas, Gerald Skoog characterized its 12. Thomas, 1990, op. cit., p. 18. agenda: "Clearly Pandas is being used as a vehicle to advance 13. Charles B. Thaxton, Walter L. Bradley, and Roger L. 0lsen, The sectarian tenets. This book has no potential to improve science Mystery of Life's Origin: Reassessing Current Theories, Philosophical Library, Inc. (copyright held by the Foundation for Thought and Ethics). education and student understanding of the natural world."28 14. Thomas, 1990, op. cit., p. 19. Those readers interested in following and opposing the 15. Dean H. Kenyon and Gary Steinman, Biochemical Predestination migration of Pandas across the United States should contact (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969). 16. Kenyon and Steinman, op. cit., pp. 268, 269. the National Center for Science Education29 and volunteer 17. Davis, et al., 1989. op. cit., p. 58. their services with your state coordinator of the Committees 18. Letter from Jon Buell to Arthur C. Bartlett, Vice President and of Correspondence. Publisher, Jones & Bartlett Publishers, Inc., Boston, January 30, 1987. 19. Ibid. 20. Ibid. Acknowledgments 21. Ibid. 22. Betty McCollister (ed.) Voices for Evolution. (Berkeley: The National For their careful review and support of this work, I thank Delos Center for Science Education, Inc., 1989). McKown and Barbara Brande. 23. Letter from Jon Buell, to Friends of the Foundation [for Thought Eugenie Scott of the National Center and Ethics], March 1988. for Science Education provided prompt access to information helpful 24. Letter from Jon Buell, to Friends of the Foundation [for Thought in the Alabama campaign against Pandas. and Ethics], December 1988. 25. McCollister, op. cit., p. 122. 26. Letter from Jon Buell, to Friends of the Foundation [for Thought Notes and Ethics], December 1989. 27. Thomas, 1990, op. cit., p. 19. 1. Percival Davis, Dean H. Kenyon, and Charles B. Thaxton, Of Pandas 28. Gerald Skoog. "A View from the Past," Bookwatch Reviews and People (Dallas: Haughton Publishing Co., 1989). 2(11)1989: pp. 1-2. 2. Delos B. McKown, "Are American Education Reforms Doomed? 29. The National Center for Science Education, Inc., P.O. Box 9477, FREE INQUIRY 5(1)1984-1985: pp. 11-15. Berkeley, CA 94709. • Then A Miracle Occurs Victor Bernard

n 1967 I was astounded to hear on the evening news the creation-evolution controversy. In 1990, when I heard that that the Supreme Court would review the case of a there was to be an international conference on creationism Tennessee high school teacher convicted of violating the in Pittsburgh, where I live, I decided to attend and see what Butler Act by teaching the theory of evolution. How could creationism and creationists are like firsthand. a law growing out of the religious beliefs of the Dark Ages The Second International Conference on Creationism still exist in the last half of the twentieth century? Hadn't (ICC) was held in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, from July 29 the Scopes Trial settled this question once and for all? to August 4, at Duquesne University, and was sponsored by Obviously not, but why? The report sparked my interest in the Pittsburgh-based Creation Science Fellowship (CSF). The purpose of the conference, as stated in CSF's promotional Victor Bernard is an electrical engineer whose interest in science literature, was to educate the public about the scientific merits dates from his membership in the Science Center of St. of Creationism, focusing on "... its viability as an historic Petersburg while growing up in Florida. He is currently the and scientific model of origins," and to promote "... the president of Pittsburgh Secular Humanists. disciplined development of the creation model of origins in every field of endeavor." The conference, clearly modeled after

Summer 1991 31

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Fall 1985, Vol. 5, no. 4 - Two Forms of Humanistic Psychology, A. Ellis; Research Project, G. Larue; Biblical Criticism and Its Discontents, Grünbaum on Freud, F. Sulloway; Philosophy of Science and Psycho- Hoffmann; Boswell Confronts Hume: An Encounter with the Great Infidel, M. Ruse; The Death Knell of Psychoanalysis, H. J. Eysenck; J. Frieman; Humanism and Politics, J. Simpson, L. Briskman; Humanism analysis, R. Taylor. Looking Backward, L. Nisbet; New Testament Scholarship and Christian and the Politics of Nostalgia, P. Kurtz; Abortion and Morality, Belief, V. Harvey; The Winter Solstice and the 0rigins of Christmas, $5.00 L. Carter. $5.00 Summer 1982 Vol. 2, no. 3 - Special Issue: A Symposium on Science, Summer 1985, Vol. 5, no. 3 - Finding Common Ground Between Believers the Bible, and Darwin. The Bible Re-examined, R. Alley, G. Larue, J. Priest, P. Appleman, W. Mayer, and Unbelievers, P. Kurtz; Render Unto Jesus the Things That Are Jesus', R. Helms; Darwin, Evolution, and Creationism, Ethics and Religion, R. Alley; Jesus in Time and Space, G. Larue; Interview with Sidney Hook C. Cazeau, H. J. Birx, G. Hardin, S. Tax, A. Flew; Science and Religion, on China, Marxism, and Human Freedom; Evangelical Agnosticism, J. Fletcher, R. Taylor, K. Nielsen, P. Beattie; W. H. Young; To Refuse to Be a God, K. Arisian; The Legacy of Voltaire M. Novak, J. Blau. $5.00 (Part 2), P. Edwards. $5.00 Spring 1982, Vol. 2, no. 2 - A Call for the Critical Examination of the on Science and the Bible; Spring 1985, Vol. 5, no. 2 - Update on the Shroud of Turin, J. Nickell; Bible and Religion; Interview with Isaac Asimov R. Francoeur; An Interview with E. 0. Wilson, The Continuing Monkey War, L. Sprague de Camp; The Erosion of Evolu- The Vatican's View of Sex, L. J. Saver; Parapsychology: The "Spiritual" Science, J. Alcock; Science, tion, A. Flew; The Religion of Secular Humanism: A Judicial Myth, The Nativity Legends, Religion and the Paranormal, J. Beloft The Legacy of Voltaire (Part I), Pfeffer; Humanism as an American Heritage, N. Gier; P. Edwards; The 0rigins of Christianity, R. J. Hoffmann. $5.00 R. Helms; Norman Podhoretz's Neo-Puritanism, L. Nisbet. $5.00 The Importance of Critical Discussion, Winter 1984/85, Vol. 5, no. 1 - Are American Educational Reforms Winter 1981/82, Vol. 2, no. 1 - Humanism: The Conscience Doomed? D. McKown; The Apocalypticism of the Jehovah's Witnesses, K. Popper; Freedom and Civilization, E. Nagel; N. N. M. Ayubi; Humanism L. Randle; The Watchtower, L. Lage; Sentiment, Guilt, and Reason in of Humanity, K. Kolenda; Secularism in Islam, the Management of Wild Herds, G. Hardin; Animal Rights Re-evaluated, in the 1980s, P. Beanie; The Effect of Education on Religious Faith, J. Simpson; Elmina Slenker: Infidel and Atheist, E. Jervey; Humanism Is B. Beckwith. $5.00 E. Morgan; Secular a Religion, A. Bahm; Humanism Is a Philosophy, T. Vernon; Humanism: Fall 1981, Vol. 1, no. 4 - The Thunder of Doom, A. 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Kohl; Protection for Children, R. Swan; Child Abuse and Neglect in Ultrafunda- T. Szasz; The Blasphemy Laws, G. Stein; mentalist Cults and Sects, L. Streiker; The Foundations of Religious Liberty Does God Exist? K. Nielsen; Prophets of the Procrustean Collective, Natural Aristocracy, and Democracy, C. Henry, P. Kurtz, E. Fortin, L. Nisbet, J. Fletcher, A. Flew; The Madrid Conference, S. Fenichell; R. Taylor; Biblical Views of Sex: Blessing or Handicap? J. J. W. Baker; L. Nisbet. $5.00 Moral Absolutes and Foreign Policy, N. Capaldi; The Vatican Ambassador, Winter 1980/81, Vol. 1, no. 1 - Secular Humanist Declaration; Democratic P. Beattie; E. Doerr, A Naturalistic Basis for Morality, J. Kekes; Humanist Self- Humanism, S. Hook; Humanism: Secular or Religious? Ryan; The Moral Portraits, M. I. Specter, F. Matson, R. Kostelanetz. $5.00 Free Thought, G. Stein; The Fundamentalist Right, W. H. J. Birx; Moral Winter 1983/84, Vol. 4, no. 1 - Interview with B. F. Skinner; Was George Majority, S. Gordon; The Creation/ Evolution Controversy, A. Flew; Population Control vs. Freedom in China, Education, R. Hall; Morality Without Religion, M. Kohl, J. Fletcher; 0rwell a Humanist? M. Mihajlov. V. and B. Bullough; Academic Freedom at Liberty Baptist College, Freedom Is Frightening, R. Fairfield; The Road to Freedom, L. Ridenhour; Joseph Smith and the Book of Mormon, G. Smith; $5.00 mainstream scientific conferences, was divided into three 2. Avoid false dualism. Arguments against evolution are tracks: technical, general, and public evening sessions. The not arguments for creationism. The best way to promote technical track consisted of a symposium presenting thirty Creationism is to advance a coherent theory of creation that refereed papers on various aspects of the creation model, with fully answers all the empirical data. time for limited rebuttal and the speaker's response. The 3. Avoid using value judgments to evaluate the truth. general track was aimed at the general public to provide entry Judgments about truth should not be dependent on what we or intermediate level presentations of the scientific evidence perceive to be the consequences of that truth. Evaluate creation for creationism, emphasizing the educational and legal aspects and evolutionary theories only on the basis of evidence and of creationism. The evening sessions consisted of talks given let the consequences fall where they may. by well-known televangelists like the Reverend D. James 4. Apply the principle of humility. In dealing with a subject Kennedy and the Reverend David Mainse and creationists outside your field of expertise, either be absolutely sure that such as Henry Morris and Duane Gish. These talks were free what you are saying is correct or remain silent. and open to the public. 5. Apply the principle of charity. Assume that your I attended the conference as the official press representative opponent is a sensible, fair-minded person. Always argue for FREE INQUIRY, making no secret of either my affiliation against the strongest case that can be made against your or my total skepticism about creationism. In spite of this I position. Always try to see your opponent's position in its was treated with courtesy and good humor by CSF members best light, if for no other reason than to avoid being made and other creationists attending the conference. I must confess to look silly because you misunderstood or misstated the that I was expecting to meet with much more open hostility argument. and intolerance than I found. 6. Avoid strawman arguments. Don't change your A few creationists have realized that, if creationism is ever opponent's words to make the argument easier to attack. Use to be taken seriously by the traditional scientific community, no false or outdated quotations. Do not deliberately creationists must begin to eliminate the worst pseudoscientific misinterpret your opponent. excesses of the past and convert their belief system into a 7. Avoid the ad hominem fallacy. You cannot attack an coherent model that honestly addresses the empirical evidence. idea by attacking the person holding that idea. Mainstream scientists would welcome the development of a 8. Avoid conspiracy theories. Although there is a coherent creation model since they can judge how well a model prejudicial attitude toward creationism, it is not a result of fits the data only if they have a model to work with. a massive conspiracy or of an inability to hear creationists' This attempt to improve the image of creationism was arguments. It is wrong to assume that all people who reject exemplified by a group of creationists who exhibit the creationism and who don't think it is a science are being sneaky intellectual integrity that is mandatory if there is to be and deceitful. meaningful dialogue between mainstream scientific and 9. Avoid ad hoc miracles. Calling in miracles ad hoc to creationist communities. This group included Dr. Gregg solve any theoretical problem when there was, going in, no Wilkerson, a field geologist for the California Bureau of Land reason to believe that God would invoke miracles seems Management; Dr. Kurt Wise, a Harvard-trained paleontol- intellectually dishonest because when a natural explanation ogist; John Mark Reynolds, a Ph.D. candidate in ancient is given the whole apologetic is destroyed. Avoid the "God philosophy and the philosophy of religion at the University of the Gaps." of Rochester; and Walter ReMine, an electrical engineer with 10. Avoid chronological snobbery. Just because an idea B.S. and M.S. degrees from the University of Michigan. is old does not mean that is invalid. The best presentation that I attended was given at the 11. Knowledge does not preclude God. A completely last session in the general track on the last day of the natural explanation of the universe does not preclude the conference. The paper by John Mark Reynolds, was titled existence of God. "Creationism and the Armies of the Night: A Response to These points might seem elementary, and they have been Dr. Isaac Asimov," and was a critique of an article written made before by scientists defending evolutionary theory, but by Asimov criticizing creationism. Reynolds went far beyond to have them made by a creationist and then applied to the this narrow topic, and in a quite unexpected direction. His creationist movement is unprecedented in my limited talk was a primer on how to carry on an intellectually honest experience. and reasonable debate. Structuring his talk around a series Reynolds had one more surprise. He concluded by saying of warnings against various common logical fallacies used that the arguments against Asimov's article did not imply in debates, Reynolds, a young-earth creationist, attempted to that creationism should be taught in high school science classes. show what has been wrong with the creationism-evolution Labeling it a personal opinion, Reynolds said that modern debate. He advised: creationism (which is only twenty years old) is not developed 1. Avoid "silver bullet" arguments. Macrotheories (like the enough to be introduced in opposition to evolutionary theory theories of science and religion) are not susceptible to disproof (which is over 150 years old). Rather, creationists should work by a single argument. In defense of evolution, Reynolds said, harder until they develop a coherent model, logically "Any theory that has been around for 150 years and has incompatible with evolution, but which answers the data, and outstanding intelligent people working on it, is unlikely to worry about the rest later. He concluded by saying that he be susceptible to one magical silver bullet." would support teaching creationism in a separate class on

34 FREE INQUIRY comparative philosophy, which should study not only Christianity and creationism but also Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, Pantheism, humanism, and logic.

n attending the technical sessions, I discovered that the Iscientists who believe in creationism can actually do science, but it is science as depicted in the Sidney Harris cartoon that gave this article its title. It is ordinary, everyday science up to a point and "then a miracle occurs." It is science kept on a very short, religious leash.

A technical paper that illustrated this point admirably was

"A Three Dimensional Simulation of the Global Tectonic ine az

Changes during Noah's Flood" by Dr. John R. Baumgardner.

mag

t t is

Baumgardner works in the Numerical Fluid Dynamics Group t

of the Theoretical Division at Los Alamos National ien Sc

Laboratory. His paper described a finite element, three- n dimensional, spherical hydrodynamic computer program that ica

he developed for high-power supercomputers and used it to Amer —

simulate global plate tectonic motion. The paper was based is Harr on a previous paper Baumgardner presented to the American

Geophysical Union (AGU). Sidney Sidney At the beginning of his paper, Baumgardner stated that one of the most important needs in creation science today

"1 think ym should be more explicit here in step two." by 1977 is finding a mechanism for Noah's flood. The mechanism he 0 proposed was the sudden subduction of all of the ocean floor, exposing the underlying magma, between the Precambrian zones. At the close of his talk, Dr. Baumgardner said that and Cambrian eras. The effects of this subduction included: he was modifying his model to include frictional heating effects. a temporary global rise in sea level from 1,200 to 1,800 meters CSF gave this paper an award as the best technical paper as the warmer, lighter magma replaced the cold, denser ocean presented at the conference. During the question and answer crust; the conversion of huge volumes of water to pressurized session that followed, in an example of the new dedication steam as the magma filled the gaps between the diverging to technical accuracy, Wise rose to offer some objections to ocean plates, producing intense global rain (one meter per Baumgardner's paper. Wise pointed out that Pangaea did not hour for forty days and nights); violent tidal wave activity; exist at the beginning of the Cambrian era, but instead a flow pattern induced in the mantle that pulled apart the belonged to the Permian era (a jump of more than 280 million supercontinent, Pangaea; the disappearance of all pre-Flood years). Therefore, if the Flood occurred at the Precambrian- oceanic crust; the formation and cooling of all present-day Cambrian boundary, Pangaea could not be pre-Flood. Wise oceanic crust; and the formation of all of today's mountain stated that the Cambrian distribution of land mass consisted ranges. of a series of island continents spaced along the equator. He Then, as if this were not spectacular enough, two more based this on paleomagnetic and fossil evidence. Baumgardner "miracles" occurred. To start the subduction, Baumgardner disputed the accuracy of the late Paleozoic date for Pangaea, assumed that the crust around the non-Tethyan margin of saying that the reconstruction was not well constrained and Pangaea became 500° C colder to a depth of 400 km. Then, that the fossil evidence could indicate that during the pre- to fit the necessary motion into the time scale of Noah's Flood, Flood era the Atlantic Ocean opened and close in a geological Dr. Baumgardner reduced the viscosity of the magma nine wink. orders of magnitude (i.e., he divided the viscosity constant by a billion). When Baumgardner got to this point, he said s I listened to the technical papers, I wondered if it was that he did not mention this change in magma viscosity in Apossible for these new creationists to accomplish the goals his paper to the AGU. they had set themselves: to build a creation model capable To be perfectly fair, he did propose a method to reduce of challenging the theory of evolution in explaining the data the viscosity of the magma. He stated that frictional heating and to gain scientific respectability. I concluded there were at the boundary of the subducting plate and the magma might two reasons they probably could not. reduce the magma viscosity. He even showed the results of First, they are just too late. This battle was fought and a computer model demonstrating this. However, the model lost by the creationists over one hundred years ago. When showed a flat crustal slab falling straight down. I am not Darwin published The Origin of Species, he faced a community aware of any observations that document this behavior in of skeptical scientific creationists. He convinced them of the subducting tectonic plates. In addition, Dr. Baumgardner did soundness of his hypotheses on the basis of his data. Most not address why this reduction of magma viscosity due to of the data is still valid, and it has been added to in ways frictional heating is not observed today in the major subduction that Darwin could never have imagined. This conservation

Summer 1991 35 of scientific data accounts for the conservatism of science. rise of the great civilizations of the ancient world. An average This growing body of old and new data adds intellectual weight world population of only a little over 4,000 is much too small and stability to the scientific theories. Because they must to account for these civilizations. In Egypt alone the explain both the old and the new scientific data, new theories construction of the pyramids and temple complex at Giza tend to include the older theory that they replace, as a limiting required many times Jorgensen's entire hypothetical world case. Niels Bohr referred to this tendency as the Correspond- population. Clearly, this argument is fatally flawed. What is ence Principle. By this principle any new theory replacing more troubling is that this analysis of the argument is not current evolutionary theories will most likely be an expanded original and has been published many times. theory of evolution. The principle, and the mass of empirical This was not the only discredited argument used by data from which it springs, will remain a major stumbling Jorgensen. He claimed that the order of fossils in the fossil block for creationism. record was a result of "hydraulic" sorting. He showed pictures The second problem facing creationism was evident in the of the Paluxy River dinosaur tracks to prove that humans conference's general session. No matter how diligently and dinosaurs lived at the same time, completely ignoring Wilkerson, Wise, and Reynolds work to upgrade the level the work of Ronnie Hastings' and Glen Kuban2 which of creation science, I fear that their work will be swamped systematically refuted these claims. Jorgensen claimed that in an unending stream of nonsense and fallacy. Theirs is not a picture of the Apollo lunar landing module's foot on the an intellectual tide that will raise all boats. One paper that moon's surface showing only a thin layer of lunar dust argues demonstrated the business as usual side of the ICC conference for a young universe, ignoring the main refutations of this was "A Creation Model Presentation to the Public Schools" argument.3'4 Finally, in what might be the most insulting presented by Greg S. Jorgensen, a Canadian professional strawman argument ever raised against scientists, Jorgensen engineer who owns a consulting firm dealing with industrial claimed that to test a theory one must drive it to its limits computer control systems. Jorgensen claimed that one of his and that evolutionary theory, at the limits, says "Hydrogen goals was to promote critical thinking. He started his talk is a colorless, odorless gas and it turns into people." The by quoting Proverbs 3:19-20: only thing that can be said in Jorgensen's defense is that this argument is not original with him. The Lord by wisdom hath founded the earth; Jorgensen goes into the classroom and, with his technical by understanding hath he established the heavens. credentials, presents himself as an expert in science. But the By his knowledge the depths are broken up, arguments he uses to support creationism are false and have and the clouds drop down the dew. been publicly, and repeatedly, shown to be so. I talked with Jorgensen earlier and I believe he is unaware of the false He claimed that the passage showed that God is a scientist nature of his arguments. But whether or not he is aware of and that therefore, he could not distinguish his science from the refutations of his arguments is unimportant. He should his religion. His presentation consisted of showing computer- know. In going into the public school classroom he has generated slides that he uses in his public school lectures and accepted a moral responsibility to be scrupulously honest and describing the narrative that accompanies each slide. He present only the most technically accurate arguments in favor stressed that he does not use the word Evolution in his lecture of his position. At the very least, professional engineering or say that "Evolution is wrong." Instead he presents ethics demand nothing less. creationism as being intuitively obvious—the only way things are. reationism is a grass-roots movement. Many of the talks In one slide Jorgensen tried to prove that the current given at the ICC conference stressed the need for work population of five billion people means that the earth is young. at the personal, church, and local government levels. If The slide showed a chart of world population listed alongside Wilkerson, Wise, Reynolds, and others like them were to a date and a generation number. Starting at 4000 B.C.E. with succeed, creationism would, like mainstream science, require eight people (Noah and his family) at generation zero, specialized knowledge, long training, and highly technical Jorgensen claimed that the present population should be papers in strictly refereed journals. Most people now active approaching eight billion people (assuming a doubling time in the creationist movement would be as isolated from it as of 200 years). Because the population is much less than this they are from modern science. If this occurred, they would figure, Jorgensen claims that the earth cannot be as old as either leave the movement or, more likely, choose between scientists claim. the creationism of the specialist and the creationism of the A little critical thinking applied to this chart would have masses. shown Jorgensen that his argument was false. At one end, But this choice will never need to be made. The specialists the chart indicated that the population in 1800 (generation in the movement will be tolerated because then the rest of 29) was four billion. This level was not reached until the 1970s. the creationists can say, "See! We have scientists, too." But If the population model were valid, it should accurately predict the specialists will not advance creationism. The First the data points we know. International Conference on Creationism, held in 1986, was At the other end, the chart showed the world population devoted specifically to resolving the question of the age of rising from 250 in 3000 B.C.E. (generation 5) to 8,000 in 2000 the earth. Yet at the 1990 ICC conference, Wilkerson, an old- B.C.E. (generation 10). Yet during this time the world saw the earth creationist, debated the age of the earth with Dr. Steven

36 FREE INQUIRY A. Austin, a young-earth creationist with the Institute for If evolutionists are correct, then when we die we will rot. Creation Research. The arguments were the same as four years If creationists are correct, we can choose to become children of God and live forever. If you give both theories equal odds, before and the gulf between them just as wide. which choice would you prefer? Those who call for a higher standard of intellectual rigor within the creationist community will have lip service paid to their call because everyone, after all, is in favor of honesty Notes and truth. But the intellectually suspect practices of the past will continue because they are cheap, easy to use, and very I. Ronnie J. Hastings, 1985, "Tracking Those Incredible Creationists," Creation/Evolution, vol. 5, no. I, pp. 5-15. successful. 2. Glen J. Kuban, 1986, "The Taylor Site 'man tracks,' " Origins Creationism will not become a science, but will remain Research, vol. 9, no. I, pp. I, 7-9. what it has always been—a religion. No more poignant proof 3. Frank T. Awbrey, 1983, "Space Dust, the Moon's Surface, and the Age of the Cosmos, Creation/Evolution, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 21-29. of this can be found than the words with which Greg Jorgensen 4. Steven N. Shore, 1984, "Footprints in the Dust: The Lunar Surface ends his public school lectures: and Creationism," Creation/Evolution, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 32-35. •

The Creationist Theory of Abrupt Appearances: A Critique

Arthur N. Strahler

two-volume work by lawyer Wendell R. Bird, titled theory of creation (C). The letters E, D, and C are used The Origin of Species Revisited: The Theories of hereafter as code symbols for the three theories. Evolution and Abrupt Appearance, appeared in The complete definition of theory D reads as follows: "The September 1989, following long publication delays. Each of theory of abrupt appearances is defined as scientific its two volumes runs to about 550 pages; each deals with interpretations of scientific data postulating origin through a different set of topics. Volume 1, subtitled "Science," carries discontinuous abrupt appearance in complex form" (B-1, 18). most of the text relevant to Bird's theory of abrupt You may ask: What kinds of objects make alleged "abrupt appearances. Volume 2 deals with philosophy of science and appearances"? Examples: a species or genus of an organism; religion, history, education, and constitutional issues. a continent or ocean; a planet, star, or galaxy; the entire Seasoned creationist-watchers will find little or nothing new universe. The last six words of Bird's definition are crucial in Bird's work. Instead, they will be inundated with to our analysis, especially "discontinuous" and "in complex redundancies and quotations. Most of the latter are brief, form." He leaves two interpretations open to us: (1) no prior and nearly all are from the publications of scientists described existence, that is, appearance ex nihilo; and (2) prior existence as not being proponents of "either the theory of abrupt in a noncomplex (simple) state. appearance or the theory of creation" (B-1, 1).1 Bird intends Theories E and D are characterized as constituting a no endorsement of either theory by these citations. "noncreationist" class (B-1, 7). Theory C is described as "a This article is limited to an attempt to analyze certain key scientific theory of creation" and requires or assumes belief problems Bird's theory presents. I shall not cover the in a creator (B-1, 7). In a footnote Bird uses the expression arguments for or against naturalistic evolution or for or against "either the theory of abrupt appearances or the theory of recent divine creation (creation "science). These have been creation" (B-1, 1). This disclaimer that D is not C and C dealt with at great length in several recent books and numerous is not D is important to him. Bird goes to special pains to journal articles (see for instance Strahler 1987). make clear that D "... does not necessitate reference to a Bird distinguishes three theories for comparison and creator or ad hoc explanation based on acts of a creator analysis (B-1, 1):The theory of evolution (E); the theory of ..." (B-1, 25). abrupt appearances, or discontinuitist theory (D); and the The theory of abrupt appearances (D) is vulnerable in four categories of analysis, discussed below. Arthur N. Strahler is professor emeritus of geology in the Graduate Faculty of Pure Science at Columbia University. I. Existential Nature of the Theory of Abrupt He has authored or co-authored many research papers and Appearances—Illusion or Reality? textbooks, including Science and Earth History: The Evolution/ Creation Controversy, for which he received the he theory of abrupt appearances, or discontinuities (D), first Morris D. Forkosch Book Award in 1988. Tcan have either of two existential interpretations: The first, obviously intended by Bird, is that the "abrupt

Summer 1991 37 appearance" of a particular entity (thing) is a real phenomenon theory (D) vis-à-vis the evolution theory (E) lies in that which in nature, existing completely independently of its being known precedes the appearance, that is, in the antecedent condition or inferred by humans from historical records as presently or state prior to the discontinuity. The condition or state that available and documented. follows the discontinuity is common to both theories and is I propose as an alternate interpretation that the alleged not in dispute. "abrupt appearance in complex form" is a fiction arising from We search Bird's volumes in vain for an unequivocal the intrinsic nature of the historical record, which is simply description of the antecedent condition or state. In effect, then, an incomplete set of observations of what was actually a con- there is no meaningful statement of Bird's theory. We shall tinuum. Thus, prior nonexistence is not the reality but only need to construct that statement ourselves as best we can an illusion created by seeming absence in one time period in a logical fashion. of what humans have observed to be present and documented at a subsequent time. Put another way, the history book as II. Consequences of a Purely Empirical Theory of written was complete and accurate, but now many pages are Abrupt Appearances missing. The distinction between the above two interpretations can ow abrupt is "abrupt"? One of Bird's formal definitions be illustrated by a time-lapse camera fixed in place and taking Hof his theory reads as follows (B-1, 25): "First, `abrupt exposures at intervals of, say, one hour. The camera is focused appearance' is properly defined as scientific data and scientific on a patch of clear sky. At the same time, a video camera interpretations that indicate discontinuous abrupt appearances continuously records the same scene. Now, within a few but not supernatural causes." In another context, specifically minutes after a time-lapse exposure has been taken, a tiny that of the seemingly abrupt appearance of taxa (orders, classes, phyla) as described by evolutionary scientists, Bird allows for two different meanings of "abrupt" (B-1, 52). For "If you wish to claim that God created all geologists, he notes, "abrupt" may refer to deposition of these galaxies, stars, and species, all well and enclosing strata occurring over spans of tens of thousands good, because he can do that sort of thing of years. Obviously, then, the geologists' meaning requires a continuum rather than a discontinuity, and is thus ruled with one hand tied behind his back. But the out as a postulate of theory D. discontinuitists ask us to believe they just Bird makes clear that theory D implies that abrupt happened abruptly with no creative or appearance is instantaneous appearance, and we will adopt that meaning. His work contains no further refinement of causative agent whatsoever. Are you prepared the definition of "abrupt" or "instantaneous" that is to swallow that?" quantitative in the mathematical sense. So we are left with accepted dictionary definitions, and from them must make a more precise formulation, using principles of mathematical speck of cloud appears in the frame of blue sky. It grows logic. We refer first to Webster's Ninth New Collegiate steadily in size and continously changes in outline, and at Dictionary (1985). the end of the hour has become a dense, lofty cumulonimbus "Abrupt" (adj.) is from the latin abruptus, "to break off." cloud. Later, the two records are viewed by several persons, The idea of termination is clear, and this is unfortunate because none of whom saw the original event. As the time-lapse film we wish to imply beginning rather than ending. The various runs, the initially blank frame abruptly presents the huge cloud. definitions allow some choice of context but little precision. "Look at that!" a viewer exclaims, "The huge cloud appeared The Webster definitions of "discontinuity" and "discon- instantly from nowhere!" "Just wait!" cautions the video tinuous" are mathematically precise and can be used effectively. camera operator, starting to play the video tape. "You'll see For the former term, a noun, we read "2: gap (a break in the cloud continuously grow and evolve from a mere speck." continuity). 3a: the property of being not mathematically Only an irrational person would claim that every sudden continuous. b: an instance of being not mathematically appearance of an object leads to the logical conclusion that continuous; esp: a value of an independent variable at which the object never preexisted. a function is not continuous." This information is what we The logical defect in Bird's theory of abrupt appearances need to treat Bird's theory as if it were genuinely scientific is that while observation can safely lead to the conclusion in content. that an object exists in a particular state when first observed, Bird's theory D tells us that matter appears instantaneously the implication that it did not exist that way in the prior in a complex state, either ex nihilo or from a primitive non- time cannot be inferred. It is not possible to demonstrate complex prior state. It is important at this point to establish inductively the empirical existence of nothing. Moreover, the rather precisely the meaning we shall assign to the term matter phrase "existence of nothing" (existence of nonexistence) is and its intended relationship to energy. Two frames of a self-contradiction. reference need to be included: (1) classical (Newtonian) The problem does not lie in establishing the existence of mechanics; (2) relativistic mechanics. Classical mechanics what has appeared, for that can be observed by evolutionists, applies quite satisfactorily to the range of distances and discontinuitists, and creationists alike. The uniqueness of Bird's velocities encountered in the physics and chemistry of our

38 FREE INQUIRY planet and solar system. In the symbolism of dimensional transition from one class to the next in unbroken succession analysis used in classical mechanics, the components of can be relatively slow or relatively rapid, but is always finite. mechanics are manipulated as products of time, length, and Figure 1 suggests this finite period of transition in contrast mass. All three dimensions appear in the definitions of energy, to the instantaneous case. momentum, and related terms, such as force, stress, work, A brief statement of a widely held modern theory of origin and power. In relativistic mechanics, where rest mass varies of the universe is useful at this point. Cosmologists who with velocity, mass and energy become interchangeable. Physi- support the Big Bang theory define a point called the cosmic cist Kenneth R. Atkins describes this relationship as follows: singularity, when all matter was contained in a single point "Mass and energy can be considered to be different manifesta- (Kaufmann, 1985, p. 522). The density of that matter was tions of the same physical quantity. A quantity of energy infinite, and space and time did not exist as separate entities. E ... can always be considered to have a mass E/ c2. Conversely, Moreover, space and time did not obey the laws of physics. the mass m of a material object can be considered to be the Cosmologist Joseph Silk clearly identifies the cosmic equivalent to an amount of energy equal to mc2" (Atkins, singularity with "the initial instant of time" in reference to et al., 1978, p. 107). the Big Bang theory (1980, p. 22, pp. 61-62). For the case The above definition of matter is relevant in our analyses of an open universe, there is only one singularity. That "singu- of the conflicting theories E and D, because they are applied larity" implies "zero-time" (to) is self-evident by the designa- on dimensional scales ranging from the subatomic, atomic, tion of the times of later events with respect to that instant. microscopic, and small scales of planetary physical/ chemical This definition of "singularity" is important in enabling us processes to the vast scale of the entire universe. Thermo- to arrive at a precise description of Bird's theory of abrupt dynamics and entropy change are correspondingly applied over appearances. this same enormous scale range. Whether or not a store of matter existed prior to the We refer next to the principles of the calculus of classes singularity is a question capable only of being speculated upon that define explicitly the nature of operations and relations in any scientific sense. If the answer is no, the singularity of classes. We will treat the competing theories—evolution will correspond with our ti, separating the null class from (E) and abrupt appearances (D)—as statements about real all real classes; if "yes," no tl is required and no null class classes of matter. Members within a particular class are need be included in the universe of discourse. Neither characterized as having or lacking specified states or alternative affects the theory of evolution (E), broadly defined configurations of matter in a common reference framework as an unbroken, lawful continuum of changing configurations of time and space. (Examples of classes: all galaxies, all of matter, because its initial point would in either case first volcanoes, all individuals of one species or of one genus.) be defined at Planck time, occurring approximately 10-34 Thus, the class "galaxies" contains the set, or collection, of second after the singularity. After Planck time a radiation- all individual galaxies. dominated universe was in place with a set of laws to govern We use the following definitions and relations relating to all relationships and changes (Kaufmann 1985, p. 524). The classes: A class is a group of individuals each having certain theory of evolution does not depend on any specified condition common properties by reason of which they are said to be members of the class. (Examples cited above.) Classes are designated by letters a, b, c, and so on. For our purposes we will be discussing real classes—those having members in Discontinuity an empirical sense. A null class (or zero class), logically Class b possible, is without any members in the empirical sense; it Nothing (or) Complex state is designated by zero. The universe of discourse (domain of Non-complex state discourse) consists of classes whose relationships we have chosen to discuss. Class a time For both of our competing theories, one class (a) precedes ti in time (t) another class (b). Only theory D requires that the Theory D following initial postulate be applied throughout all of the Origination period — — — — —1 history of our universe: At some point in time, ti, the class a is instantaneously replaced by class b. Under theory D, I Class b there are innumerable ti points at which a prior class, a, has (continuity) been followed by a distinctly different class, b. (Note that for the ex nihilo assumption, class a is a null class.) The number Class a of such discontinuities is without limit. Under theory E (evolution), there can be introduced only a single ti, which Theory E would be the cosmic singularity described below, but no pre- evolutionary state or history is required to be specified. All of evolution following the singularity is a continuum in which one class evolves into another class without a mathematically instantaneous discontinuity. The elapsed time between FIGURE 1.

Summer 1991 39 class a is real, but non-complex, of a totally different kind "What we have uncovered is a preposterous, than the complex class b, there can be no application of any law (relationship) to the instantaneous change from a to b, monstrous concoction, offered by Bird as a because Bird's law lies only in the time domain of class a, serious empirical theory of the universe we whereas laws of science lie only in the time domain of class observe today. Every logical deduction his b. In any case, the real class b cannot be functionally related to any prior state of matter, nor can it be functionally related theory spawns leads us farther away from to 11, because the duration of that time is an infinitesimal what empirical science fords a lawful and approaching zero. Moreover, Bird states that an abrupt reasonable (if incomplete) model of the evolu- appearance has no dependence at all on any particular time frame, i.e., upon relative or real time (B-1, 27). Because no tion of the universe through a continuum of natural law can be formulated without expression of a physical, chemical, and biological changes, functional relationship involving time, and Bird's "law" can constantly reforming and restructuring its have no such dependent relationship on time, his "law" is not possible of existence. Small wonder, then, that he does r, initial store of matter. not attempt to state it. Confirmation that Bird accepts the requirement of antecedent to Planck time. instantaneous appearance is found in his later statements in In Volume 2, Bird throws some possible light on the nature Volume 2, introducing his "law of abrupt appearances." Here he states that "natural law of abrupt appearances would involve of an abrupt appearance. He presents us with a most initial singularities" (B-2, 96). Why is it necessary under the remarkable concept, namely, "a natural law of the abrupt theory of abrupt appearances that "abrupt" be defined as appearances" that applies only in those "singular events" or "instantaneous" in the sense that the duration of the event "initial singularities" (B-2, 95). He describes his law thus: be an infinitesimal element of time approaching zero as a limit? The reason is that, if any finite period of time were Second, although a natural law of abrupt appearances would involve a natural law different from those visibly operating required for the complete appearance of an object, the today, the same is necessarily true of each phase of evolution. origination (construction process) of the object would be That is, if natural laws govern the key points of evolution, spread over that time span through a range of degrees of they must be natural laws different from those operating today completeness that would run from zero to unity. Consider, in the cases of cosmic evolution (the origin of matter and for example, the "abrupt" appearance of the first member energy contrary to the second law of thermodynamics and of the extinct species the big bang through or preceded by different natural laws), Archaeopteryx lithographica (the earliest of biochemical evolution (the origin of life contrary to the known fossil bird). Let us postulate that a formative period laws of biogenesis and statistical probability), and of biological of, say, one year qualifies as being "abrupt." Early in the macroevolution (the origin of higher categories of organisms year this creature's appearance began with the tip of a single contrary to the capacity of natural selection and other claw, followed by several claws and a foot, and within a week mechanisms and contrary to the laws of genetics and statistical or so, by a whole leg. Near the close of the year the head probabilities). (B-2, p. 96) and beak were added, and finally on the last day, the feathers. Obviously, for most of the entire period this "thing" would The sad thing about all this is that Bird fails to state his be an incomplete, nonfunctional organism. That first leg would "natural law of abrupt appearances." He does not state it have decomposed long before it could receive blood because it cannot exist; because it is not logically possible. circulation. An all-powerful Creator could easily avoid such The natural laws scientists have formulated since the dawn difficulties by supernatural means, but he is unavailable as of modern science deal with the functional relations an agent under the restrictions imposed on the theory. (relationships) observed to exist between two or more different Next, we must consider a corollary under theory D: No classes of information within the universe of spacetime and change of state or configuration of matter is possible after matter. In its functional statement, one variable changes in each t1. In other words, total stasis of class b follows any response to changes in related variables; i.e., y = f (x, z, t1. Change is logically excluded on grounds that change is ...). Examples: Law of Gravitation: relation between force exclusively reserved for the alternate theory of evolution (E), and mass; between force and distance; Laws of Motion: and theories and E and D are mutually exclusive, being subject relations between mass and velocity or acceleration; First Law to the law of the excluded middle (B-2, 169). Therefore, change of Thermodynamics: Energy in one form transformed into has no role in nature under D. energy in another form; Second Law of Thermodynamics: There appears now another possible corollary: If, for D, Relation of entropy (unavailable form of energy) to heat added no change of state or configuration of matter is possible after and to temperature. an abrupt appearance, then that configuration endures forever Now, an abrupt appearance gives rise to a single real class into time. If so, and if each abrupt appearance is the formation (b), containing the complete entity that instantaneously of something from nothing (ex nihilo), then each abrupt appears. If the antecedent class (a) is a null class there is appearance adds to the universal store of matter, in violation no real antecedent condition to which b can be related. If of the first law of thermodynamics. If no change is possible

40 FREE INQUIRY after the abrupt appearance, no energy can be transformed hand tied behind his back. But the discontinuitists ask us from an available form into an unavailable form, so that no to believe they just happened abruptly with no creative or increase in system entropy is possible. Thus the second law causative agent whatsoever. Are you prepared to swallow that? of thermodynamics is inapplicable. It follows then that no There is, of course, a path of partial redemption for the change of entropy is possible except by repeated abrupt discontinuitists, but it lies in a painful and messy compromise appearances of new matter, and these would always decrease with the theory of evolution. To deny that evolutionary change total system entropy. Creationists, those who espouse the is occurring in the universe today is unthinkable. Change of theory of creation (C), depend on a universal and non- configurations and states of matter is an inescapable reversible increase in entropy as part of their religious dogma, characteristic of the real world. Open systems and subsystems so they would not be happy with the theory of abrupt of mass and energy are seen everywhere in continual flux. appearances that invokes ex nihilo origination. A hurricane can be observed to form, intensify, weaken, and Another interesting logical product of the theory of abrupt dissolve. We can document the demise of a comet as it appearances (D) is that the successor principle, essential to vaporizes and disperses in close proximity to the sun. All the theory of evolution (E), as well as to all empirical science stars are observed to fit into a life history of initial formation through modern mathematics and mathematical logic (Russell from gas clouds, followed by orderly changes in temperature 1920, p. 20-28), has no place or meaning within D. This and density, often leading to an explosive end in a supernova conclusion is clearly implied by Bird, who states that (D) that returns much of its substance to the gaseous state and "... does not require any particular time frame for the universe diffused dust. A supernova is nothing if not change, and even or life" (B-1, 27). We can conclude from his statement that though its optical presentation may come to us a million years D allows for any time-order of specific appearance events, after the event, it reveals a mode of change that, though which could range from purely random occurrences to a single relatively sudden and rapid in relation to the star's total life instant of appearance of everything in the universe. span, is continuous in time; its antecedent and consequent In the random case, Homo sapiens could have appeared states are well established. before the first atoms of hydrogen and helium in the primeval The classic example of compromise already made by the universe. That thought alone should point to the absurdity discontinuitists is their recognition of microevolution in living of freeing D from any time frame. The alternate possibility organisms. Genetic change is obvious through its expression of simultaneous appearance of everything in the universe in the genetically stable phenotypic varieties produced by would have the advantage of possibly (but not necessarily) artificial selection in the breeding of domesticated plants and providing H. sapiens with a sustaining environment. animals. "Yes," the discontinuitist says, "we do slip in a little Simultaneous creation is nicely exemplified in Philip Gosse's bit of evolution, but it merely follows upon an abrupt Omphalos, but that version requires a Creator and is off- appearance (of the species) that is incapable of explanation limits to us here. (It's very difficult to keep the Creator out by the evolutionary mechanism." of the theory of abrupt appearances, but a discontinuitist mustn't yield to that temptation, else all be lost.) III. Fitness of the Theory What we have uncovered is a preposterous, monstrous concoction, offered by Bird as a serious empirical theory of e turn now to evaluate the fitness of Bird's theory of the universe we observe today. Every logical deduction his Wabrupt appearances. Is it deserving of recognition as theory spawns leads us farther away from what empirical an empirical scientific statement? Is it worthy of being science finds a lawful and reasonable (if incomplete) model designated a scientific theory or hypothesis? Is it testable and of the evolution of the universe through a continuum of thereby falsifiable? If so, does it rate high in fecundity? physical, chemical, and biological changes, constantly Bird asserts that the theory of abrupt appearance (D) meets reforming and restructuring its initial store of matter. most of the various definitions of science (as he has previously The total requirement of numbers of abrupt appearances summarized them) as well as does the theory of evolution during the history of the universe is staggering. Each galaxy (E). Important is his assertion that "It involves empirical data and each star in the universe requires its own separate abrupt and scientific interpretation" (B-2, 81). There is no question appearance. Using data from Kaufmann (1985, p. 473, 554), that theory D as stated deals with empirical data. That which we can calculate that there are at least one million (106) galaxies appears abruptly is clearly identical in description with the with 100 billion (1011) stars in a typical galaxy. Multiplying, same observable entities with which the theory of evolution we get a total of 1017 stars in the universe—every one requiring deals. When Bird includes "scientific interpretation," we must an abrupt appearance. Turning to all biotic taxa, from species blow the whistle and flash the red lights. up through phyla, we can use data of Raup and Stanley (1971, First, the meaning of "interpretation" must be clarified. p. 11) assembled from various sources. Estimates of the number From Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary we find of fossil species since life began range from 50 million to the word to mean "to give the reason for or cause" and "to 4 billion. Without even adding the progressively smaller show the logical development or relationships of." Both are numbers of each higher taxon, that's a tremendous number acceptable explicit definitions. of abrupt appearances of new species! If you wish to claim For a statement to qualify as being scientific does not require that God created all these galaxies, stars, and species, all well interpretation or explanation. Bird (B-2, 25) aptly cites Quinn and good, because he can do that sort of thing with one (1984) in making the distinction between existence and expla-

Summer 1991 41 nation, where "explanation" includes the application of natural a broad class of cases." For this theory, there is only one laws. It can be genuinely scientific simply to demonstrate the problem-solving strategy—the singularity of an abrupt existence of a phenomenon, which at the time cannot be appearance. It can perhaps be broadened to provide that explained in terms of causes and natural laws. Laudan (1984) everything in the universe has originated and continues to is quoted by Bird as supporting this position. Bird adds Quinn's originate from nothing in a nonstop singularity, sweeping further claim that some scientific phenomena can have no through time and always locked precisely on the present. The explanation in terms of law. Accepting these points, we can theory of abrupt appearances can score A+ on this one, just grant that the theory of abrupt appearances, as stated, can as does Gosse's Omphalos version of instant creation by a be accepted as a scientific statement. But is it also explanatory? supernatural creator, complete with evidence of a prior state Definitely not. that never existed. Both are sheathed in impenetrable armor Bird makes a desperate attempt to introduce explanation covered by a leakproof teflon epidermis. (3) Fecundity, that into his theory: "Discontinuitist scientists suggest that abrupt "grows out of incompleteness when a theory opens up new appearances and systematic gaps are explained most naturally and profitable lines of investigations." The theory of abrupt and logically by discontinuity or unrelatedness of the natural appearances flunks that one dismally; it opens up nothing groups of plants and animals" (B-1, 50). That's merely a new whatsoever. repetition of the statement of the theory or hypothesis itself; i.e., it's tautological. He offers no explanation at all—no IV. The Probability Argument process is referred to and no description given of how a species is assembled or from what materials. he Argument from Probability, often closely linked with A scientific theory (hypothesis) that describes a complex Tthe argument from design, is considered by creationists state or system of matter must be judged seriously deficient to be one of their strongest arguments, even though they often and perhaps impotent if it lacks a lawful explanation in terms suffer self-inflicted wounds when they try to use it. Bird is of both the origin and the processes of change that are involved no exception in this respect, as we shall see, running into in its operation. The purported scientific theory of abrupt logical difficulties as he applies the argument to his theory appearances is simply devoid of these requisites; it is instead of abrupt appearances, or discontinuities (D) vis-à-vis the entirely an existential assertion. theory of evolution (E). As to testability and falsifiability, Bird claims that the theory Bird's claim is basically that the vast information content of abrupt appearances qualifies for both (B-2, 81). For of complex molecules and of complex structures of any kind testability, Bird gives a long list of supposedly testable claims in the physical/ chemical and biological makeup of the universe (B-2, 104-106). On examination, these claims are of what is provides affirmative evidence favoring D, while at the same observed after the instant of appearance. They are not tests time providing strong evidence against E (B-1, 76). The referent deduced from the theory, which is the postulate of the structure might be, for example, a single-celled organism, the singularity itself and the nonexistence or noncomplexity that neuronal system of the human brain, the DNA content of preceded it. The existence of the referent entities and their a chromosome, or the entire universe itself. Information properties after their appearance is not an essential or unique content as a measure of complexity is a comparatively new part of the theory. quantitative concept accompanying the age of computers. It Is there a testable deduction (prediction) arising from the refers to the number of stored information units—bytes, they essence of the theory of abruptness, that relates to what existed are called—needed in correct sequence to describe something prior to the instant of singularity? What is there to predict fully. One byte stores the memory of one character, either or deduce? We might try to phrase a possible test in these a letter or a number. Repetitions (redundancies) of the same words: If the theory is correct, no prior existence of the entity byte sequence generally do not increase information content. or phenomenon will be found. This ploy fails, because as For a complex naturally occurring object (i.e., not an artifact) we stated earlier, the existence of nothing cannot be such as the human eye or brain, for which the ordered demonstrated by observation within range of the finite. informational sequence runs into the billions of bytes, -it is Searching and not finding would need to be carried to the most tempting to conclude that because the probability is limit of infinity of space and time before it became a valid so extremely small, an external agent must be responsible test. The theory itself contains no causal explanation, so there and that it is a Supernatural Intelligence, otherwise known are not causes to test. The theory simply cannot be tested as a Creator, alias God. or falsified. The discontinuitists, under their alleged strictly empirical How does the theory of abrupt appearances stand up in theory (D), claim that the extremely small probability of an application of the three positive characteristics of successful abrupt appearance by chance alone is strong evidence in favor science, as described by science philosopher Philip Kitcher of their theory. At the same time, however, they claim that (1982, p. 48)? They are as follows: (1) Independent testability, no supernatural intelligence or creator is required or even

"... achieved when it is possible to test auxiliary hypotheses admissible, leaving the discontinuitists without any causative independently of the particular cases for which they are explanation whatsoever. Randomness or nonrandomness is introduced." Obviously, from what has been concluded above, always descriptive of some real or hypothetical process in such testing is not possible. (2) Unification, ".... the result action. Discontinuitists simply deny the existence of process. of applying a small family of problem-solving strategies to Process, which must by definition involve change, requires

42 FREE INQUIRY sole alternatives, under the law of the excluded middle." "Bird and others who attempt to sell the strict (B-2, 169). He rejects the contention of numerous evolutionists that C vs. E is the only choice, preferring instead discontinuitist position must feel at least a the alternative D vs. E, because (D) "is based on affirmative vague, disturbing awareness that their lines of scientific evidence" (B-2, 171). Expression of his assertions of evidence favoring their theory preference notwithstanding, Bird has perhaps inadvertently made a logical connection between C and D, which is that are invalid. Perhaps that is why the word D is included within C. What D lacks that C possesses is creation begins to appear in quotations the alleged causative agent of a supernatural creator. All of stressing the extremely low probability of an Bird's lengthy arguments for abrupt appearance (D) apply equally well or badly to creation (C). So, in effect, he has abrupt appearance." promoted creation (C) with the same best efforts he has made on behalf of the touted "nonreligious" (secular) theory of time to proceed, whereas the discontinuity infinitesimal of abrupt appearances (D). We then can infer the possibility an abrupt appearance approaches zero. Thus, the disconti- that his theory of abrupt appearance is contrived for nuitists leave themselves in a position of being unable to apply expendiency, namely the necessity of keeping religion out of either of the two logically opposed alternatives: (a) random the legal argument for teaching "creation" science in the science or (b) nonrandom. Probability estimates are thus not logically classroom. This contrivance amounts to a denial of a connected in any way with their so-called theory, and by the supernatural creator. same token cannot strengthen or weaken their theory. For Attorney Wendell R. Bird, J.D., is engaged in private the same reason, neither can these probability estimates be practice as head of a law firm in Atlanta, Georgia. A graduate used to compare the strengths of the theory of abrupt of the Yale Law School, he published in the Yale Law Journal appearances (D) and the theory of evolution (E). a paper arguing "... that exclusive public school instruction In glaring contrast is the other pair of theories in in the general theory of evolution ... abridges free exercise competition—naturalistic evolution (E) vs. supernatural crea- of religion" (1978, p. 518). His preferred solution: to tion (C). For both of these, the question of randomness versus "neutralize" that situation by teaching both evolution and nonrandomness is a legitimate consideration, because both "scientific creationism" (p. 570). The paper received widespread include process (cause) in the explanation of the phenomenon attention. Bird then drafted a model school-board resolution that is observed. For causation by a supernatural Creator designed to allow teaching of "scientific creationism" as an claimed to be omnipotent and omniscient, total nonrandom- alternative explanation to the standard science model of ness can be assumed, unless the Creator did a little coin- biological evolution. It was published by the Institute for tossing to resolve difficult choices. In evolution, whether Creation Research (Bird 1979). Bird served as general legal physical or biological, both modes are used. The nonrandom counsel to the ICR from 1980 to 1982. In 1987, as special mode is seen in fundamental, lawful deterministic explanation, counsel for the State of Louisiana, he argued before the U.S. but with a substantial element of randomness superimposed Supreme Court for Edwards v. Aguillard, a major test of as an error function. the 1981 Louisiana law authorizing the teaching of "creation science" in schools of that state. The Inevitable Connection Note ow comes the awful disclosure. Bird and others who 1. Reads "Bird, 1987-89, vol. I, p. I." (B-2 codes for Nattempt to sell the strict discontinuitist position must vol. 2). feel at least a vague, disturbing awareness that their assertions References of evidence favoring their theory are invalid. Perhaps that is why in Chapter 2, on biological theory of abrupt appear- Atkins, Kenneth R., John R. Holum, and Arthur N. Strahler. 1978. Essentials of Physical Science. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ances, starting on page 80, the word creation begins to appear Bird, Wendell R. 1978. Freedom of Religion and Science Instruction in in quotations stressing the extremely low probability of an Public Schools, Yale Law Journal, vol. 87, no. 3, 515-570. abrupt appearance. . 1979. Resolution for Balanced Presentation of Evolution and Scientific Creationism. ICR Impact Series, No. 71. The establishment of a logical connection between the . 1989. The Origin of Species Revisited: The Theories of Evolution theories of creation (C) and abrupt appearances (D) is made and of Abrupt Appearance. New York: Philosophical Library, Vol. I; in Chapter 11, where Bird presents the view "acknowledged Vol. II. Cohen, Morris R. and Ernest Nagel. 1934. An Introduction to Logic and by many evolutionist scientists and philosophers" that "the Scientific Method. New York: Harcourt, Brace, & Co. sole alternative scientific explanations of the origin of the Kaufmann, William J. 1985. New York: W. H. Freeman & Co. universe, life, and plants and animals are the theories of abrupt Kitcher, Philip. 1982. Abusing Science: The Case Against Creationism. appearance or creation and the theory of evolution" (B-2, Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press. Russell, Bertrand. 1920. Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy. New 166). Using our letter code for these three theories this York: Simon and Schuster. statement reads: "Either D or C vs. E." The two pairs of Silk, Joseph. 1980. The Big Bang: The Creation and Evolution of the Universe. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman & Co. alternatives present here can be separated into D vs. E and Strahler, Arthur N. 1987. Science and Earth History—The Evolution! C vs. E. Bird correctly describes these two pairs as "logical Creation Controversy. Buffalo, New York: Prometheus Books. •

Summer 1991 43 facilitate dialogue among the differing The Re-Enlightenment traditions, FREE INQUIRY is sponsoring a new organization, the Society for n 1793 Antoine Nicolas de Con- that was dominant in this country in the Humanist Philosophy, which will hold orcet wrote his Sketch for a early part of the century but long its first conference on August 23 to 24 IdHistorical Picture of the Progress of considered passé by its critics. Chief at Brock University on the theme the Human Mind, perhaps the most among these reconcilers has been "Challenges to Humanism. " It will look comprehensive and inspiring work of the Richard Rorty, a professor of humani- at various criticisms made about the Enlightenment. In it he catalogued his ties at the University of Virginia and Enlightenment Project, and the manner hopes for the future: an end to human author of several influential books. (See in which pragmatism seeks to address ignorance and religious intolerance; the John Novak's review on p. 53.) How, and rectify the flaws in this Project. As annihilation of inequality of rights he asks, can one defend the values of Rorty, in his recent book Contingency, between the sexes; unrestricted com- the Enlightenment without committing Irony and Solidarity, says of philos- merce among nations; perpetual peace oneself to the deification of Reason? ophers like Dewey: "Their pragmatism and goodwill; and the application of How can one defend the values of is antithetical to Enlightenment rational- scientific principles to solving all prob- Romanticism without falling prey to ism, although it was itself made possible lems that beset humankind. If only the irrationalism? These questions, which (in good dialectical fashion) only by that light of pure reason was allowed to shine are being hotly debated today in the rationalism. It can serve as the vocab- forth, and humans were set free to use analytic and Continental camps, Rorty ulary of a mature (de-scientized, de- their natural capabilities to the fullest asserts were addressed long ago by such philosophized) Enlightenment liberal- extent, the progress of the human race pragmatists as Charles Peirce, William ism." In other words, it can help us would know no limits. Condorcet's James, John Dewey, and George Her- achieve the goals of Condorcet without boundless optimism, shared by most of bert Mead. Reason, in their view, is not making a fetish of reason or envisioning his fellow Enlightenment thinkers, itself a gift from God or an infallible source a society without stress or strain. knew no limits. of knowledge, but an instrumental force In the following article, the noted But in the following year, Condorcet that guides our lives and helps us adapt American philosopher Thelma Lavine died, a victim of the terror that followed to our environments. We live in a world examines the re-awakening of interest in the French Revolution he had helped to of change and uncertainty. Science and pragmatism and its application to launch. The optimism of the Enlighten- technological benefits are crucial to Modernity. While taking Rorty to task ment received a rude awakening, which providing a better life for all, but every for advocating the demise of academic spawned the countermovement of advancement brings with it new prob- philosophy, she shares with him a desire Romanticism: an avowal of intuition lems that need to be dealt with. Dewey to end the Enlightenment! Romantic over interpretation, emotion over rea- in particular called for a healing of the dichotomy. A revitalized pragmatism son, and specificity over universalism. dualistic wounds engendered by sepa- may be the philosophy that can do this. The Enlightenment Project has con- rating reason and emotions, an artificial tinued under different guises: the analytic dichotomy that often impedes the —Tim Madigan tradition in philosophy, the positivist growth of knowledge. The pragmatists movement in sociology, and the behav- were neither optimists like Condorcet, The Inaugural Meeting of the iorist school in cognitive science, among who felt that the perfection of humanity Society for Humanist Philosophy others. Romanticism, too, has con- was inevitable, nor pessimists like Arthur tinued—in the deconstructionist move- Schopenhauer, who felt that the more "Challenges to Humanism" ment in literature, the hermeneutic knowledge we have of the world we live An examination of the relationship school in theology, and the Continental in, the more disgusted and disaffected between humanism, Marxism, Pragma- tradition in philosophy, among other we'll become. Rather, they were melior- tism, Heideggerian Ontology, and Post- areas. Debates between exponents of the ists, defending reason for its ability to modernism. Is the Enlightenment Project still viable? Speakers include differing schools of thought have often figure out new ways to meet present Paul Kurtz, Rob Tielman, John Novak, been rancorous and downright uncivil. challenges and the emotions for their Konstantin Kolenda, Sarah Slavin, Some have even gone so far as to claim ability to make us feel at home in the David Goicoechea, James Lawler, that the two are speaking different lan- imperfect, changing societies we inhabit. H. James Birx, Xianglong Zhang, Tim guages, and never the twain shall meet. All of this is of pertinence to secular Madigan, and Thomas Clark. August But in recent years there has been a humanism, a movement that traces itself 23 to 24, 1991, Brock University, St. movement to bring the two schools in part from the Enlightenment Project, Catharines, Ontario. For details, con- closer together, or at least to initiate but that also maintains a healthy tact Tim Madigan, FREE INQUIRY, dialogue between their adherents, skepticism towards all utopian visionar- P.O. Box 5, Central Park Station, through a re-examination of American ies. As a way to help clarify some of Buffalo, NY 14215-0005 or call pragmatism, a philosophical movement the current intellectual debates, and to 716-636-7571. 44 FREE INQUIRY The Case for a New American Pragmatism

Thelma Z. Lavine

merican philosophers are in a period of sobriety, of in philosophy.... Indeed, the pragmatic thinkers were ahead reflection upon the present situation of philosophy, of their times... . If we pay close attention to the characteristic themes and challenges of the `postmodern' discourses, we will Ain America, in the West, in the changing East. We see how they were anticipated by the pragmatists. are in the process of gaining some intellectual distance from the destructive bombshell dropped upon American philosophy Bernstein proceeds to list "five interrelated substantive by Viennese logical positivism before World War II and some themes that enable us to characterize the pragmatic ethos": intellectual distance also from the triumphal sweep of analytic anti-foundationalism, fallibilism, the social character of the philosophy across the universities of America after World War self and of community, contingency, and pluralism. It is II. We are achieving as well some degree of thoughtful difficult to avoid seeing that the best unqualified compliment perspective upon the counter-tradition of phenomenology, that Bernstein can pay the pragmatists is that they anticipated hermeneutics, critical theory, structuralism, and deconstruc- developments in analytic philosophy. With the exception of tion which came to this country with the refugees from Nazism the social self and critical community theme, the list is a and began to be known here in the 1960s. commendation of pragmatists for being so far "ahead of their Our reflective distance from both these traditions is in large times" as to match very closely some of the important part a function of our growing perception of their vulner- contributions of the analysts. But as Peggy Lee's poignant abilities and their deficiencies, yet also of our acknowledgment song of disillusionment asks, "Is that all there is?" No clearer of their perseverance. The recent bitter debates between testimony to the continued tenacious vitality of analytic contemptuous analysts and defensive pluralists in the Amer- philosophy is needed than that Bernstein, the author of Beyond ican Philosophical Association (APA), which were in many Objectivism and Relativism and the empathic interpreter of respects a mirror-image of the intellectual conflict between phenomenologist Gadamer, should present as paradigmatic so-called Anglo-American philosophy and Continental Richard Rorty's narrative of his graduate school initiation philosophy, have become less rancorous in response to the (shared by Bernstein) into analytic philosophy; or that persistent, ongoing self-criticism and mutual criticism of those Bernstein should use an analytic "we" in relation to "outsiders," traditions. In this partial clearing in which the situation in or make reference to emigré philosophers who reshaped American philosophy is being reassessed, there has occurred philosophy with positivism, but not to emigré philosophers a revival of interest in classical American pragmatism and who reshaped philosophy with the opposing tradition of an attempt to rescue its philosophic substance from its long phenomenology; or claim that "Philosophy has been submergence beneath the avalanche of analytic philosophy. decentered, there is no single paradigm ... that dominates A cogent example of the current attempt to reassess phi- philosophy" while still giving analytic coloration to the themes losophy in America, together with an attempt to revive interest he imputes to pragmatism and to the entire address. in American pragmatism, appears in the presidential address From a somewhat similar standpoint A. J. Ayer's of Richard Bernstein to the Eastern Division of the APA Philosophy in the Twentieth Century saw this century through at its annual convention in 1988 in Washington, D.C. Richard the lens of the progression from logical positivism to analytic Bernstein is pre-eminent on both counts: He is a foremost philosophy. One would never know from Ayer's book that interpreter of current Continental philosophic issues as they there are, in the stormy history of twentieth century relate to Anglo-American concerns, and is a distinguished philosophy, two great lines of modern philosophy: the Anglo- contributor to the critical literature of American pragmatism. American line from Hume to Russell, logical positivism, and Bernstein undertakes to connect the two issues, American analytic philosophy and the Continental line from Kant to pragmatism and the present situation in American philosophy: Hegel, Nietzsche, Heidegger, and Gadamer. Although Bern- I want to draw upon this [pragmatic] tradition because it stein, unlike Ayer, is responsive to both traditions, nevertheless enables us to gain a critical perspective on our present situation he looks at philosophy in America through an analytic lens and sees pragmatism as giving way to logical positivism and Thelma Z. Lavine is the Clarence J. Robinson Professor of analytic philosophy, leaving a legacy of anticipations of the Philosophy and American Culture at George Mason analysts, but bequeathing also a non-analytic call to com- University. munity and mutual respect, which Bernstein hopes will heal the wound inflicted by the earlier analytic arrogance. (Bernstein

Summer 1991 45 does not refer to the near-mortal wounding of pragmatism.) confluence of two diametrically opposed cognitive styles, each What is at issue here is Bernstein's (characteristically subverting, demystifying, and delegitimatizing the other's analytic) failure to identify analytic philosophy as belonging conception of human nature, truth, morality, and politics and to one of the two great philosophic traditions of the twentieth the appropriate methodology for knowing them. Thus the century, and as deploying its claims against a counter-tradition, heritage of Modernity is the mutual destructiveness of its both situated in the wider frame of modern culture. But the component mentalities. Here is what has been identified as formalist methods of logical positivism and the informal the "great divide" in philosophy. On the one side of the divide methods of ordinary language philosophy, both of which are the Enlightenment pursuers of rationally grounded Bernstein cites as shaping the character of analytic philosophy, objective, absolute, universal, and realistic truth and the are clearly recognizable as falling within a tradition, the tra- analytic philosophers who are their twentieth century descen- dition of the Enlightenment, which arose in the seventeenth dants, deploying Enlightenment-style empirical, epistemolog- century as the first phase of the complex, pluralistic cognitive ical, logical, and linguistic arguments to attack the and cultural framework of Modernity that stretches into our Enlightenment intuitions of objective, absolute, universal, and time. realistic truth and a rational foundation for knowledge. On the other side of the divide are the counter-intuitions nlightenment Modernity may be encapsulated as begin- of the Romantic displacers of reason by subjectivity, group ning with the scientific breakthrough of Newton, unifying consciousness and its projections, personal and collective will, the laws of terrestrial and celestial mechanics, and the political as these are constitutive of history and culture. Their twentieth- breakthrough of Locke, grounding politics upon self-evident century descendants among the phenomenologists, hermeneut- natural rights and equality, and upon representative icists, textualists, and deconstructionists are monologic democracy. Both breakthroughs are founded on reason and interpretivists, asserting the interpretive historical conceptual share the claim to offer truths that are universal, absolute, structures and the social webs of meaning that mediate all realistic, and objective. Enlightenment Modernity claimed the areas of everyday life, science, and philosophy—thus under- primacy of reason in all significant domains, with substantive mining Enlightenment views old and new, the old Enlighten- reason yielding true intuitions concerning human nature and ment ahistorical, unmediated rational foundations for society, and scientific instrumental reason yielding scientific knowledge and the new ahistorical unmediated analytic laws of nature and technology; together, they yield a natural empiricism of forms of life and their language games, ordinary law of rational progress. language philosophy, and speech-acts. But by the end of the eighteenth century only instrumental reason survived skeptical challenges to the intuitions of have attempted to situate the great divide in current Enlightenment Modernity. A new phase, Romantic Moder- philosophy historically, cognitively, and culturally as the nity, arose in cultural protest against the disenchanted, conflict of Enlightenment and Romantic frameworks within despiritualized, increasingly mechanized world of Enlighten- Modernity as they remain operative at the end of the twentieth ment, waging the Wars of Liberation from Napoleon, the century. The divide has permeated the intellectual and scientific symbol of Enlightenment domination. Romantic Modernity culture from various perspectives: the analytic and the arose as a cognitive framework linked to Enlightenment Continental traditions; positivism as opposed by the inter- Modernity as its antithesis. The intuitions of Romanticism pretive turn; Foucault's rejection of the "blackmail of the crystallized into a counter-framework of opposing concep- Enlightenment"; within the methodology of the social sciences tualizations: in opposition to Enlightenment primacy of as Dallmyer's "two seedlings of Modernity, science and reason, the primacy of spirit; in opposition to the scientific interpretive understanding"; the theme of revolution in the focus on fact and externality, the inward path of subjectivity; social sciences: against the dominance of positivism in soci- in opposition to scientific reason in its pursuit of objective ology, Alfred Schutz's phenomenology; against Skinnerian and valid knowledge, the truths of history, culture, the arts behaviorism, the rise of cognitive psychology; against Freud's and the dialectic of personal and collective will; in opposition drive theory, the self-psychology of Kohut; against mainstream to the natural rights and political autonomy of the economics, the rise of Austrian subjectivist economics; and Enlightenment individual, a politics of collectivism of the left against mainstream physical sciences, Kuhn's historicizing or right; in opposition to Enlightenment-style rational paradigm theory of physics, and the current debates concerning liberation from falsity, Romantic liberation from the scientific realism; Ricoeur's two language view of Freud; and hegemony of the Enlightenment mentality in its abstract, various two language views of Marx; and Daniel Bell's Cultural ahistorical, dehumanized universalism, absolutism, objecti- Contradictions of Capitalism. vism, and realism, and from the resulting bureaucratized world How have philosophers coped with this widely acknowl- of government, industry, politics, and education. In Romantic edged divide? Three principal coping strategies may be dis- Modernity we discover the counter-tradition to the cerned: the monologic purists; the mediators; the synthesizers. Enlightenment. Monologic purists are those who pursue a single philo- Modernity is, then, cognitively pluralistic. The structure sophical style or methodology to the exclusion of elements of Modernity may be seen to be a pluralistic framework, a from other styles or methodologies that would supply its framework that exists in the form of counter-frameworks philosophic deficiencies. Most notable here are the exclusion- which are constitutive of it. Modernity is the conflict and ary styles of analytic philosophy and logical positivism and

46 FREE INQUIRY linguistics. From the Romantic side there now also appear Lost on the Romantic side are creative, totalizing, world- instances of a monologic interpretivist methodology (Kuhn, historical visions of Novalis and Blake as these were culturally Schutz, Geertz) which is expressed in Charles Taylor's tri- inherited by Hegel, Marx, and Dewey, all with moral and umphalist call for a "hermeneutic unity of science," displacing religious subtextual significance; lost are philosophic explora- the late, unlamented positivist unity of science movement. tions of the dynamics of subjectivity; the structures of con- Yet one of the more hopeful signs of our growing philosophical sciousness as mediating experience and knowledge; cultural maturity is that the hermeneutic of suspicion is increasingly configurations and styles, the interplay of personal and collec- directed at the exclusionary tactics and philosophic distortions tive will and of charisma and bureaucracy; the development of monologic purity. of self-consciousness on the part of slaves and masters; and Mediators are those who attempt to discern in the conflict racial, ethnic, economic, religious, and gender-based social of frameworks the developing lines of change and the signs subgroups. All these philosophic achievements have been of convergence. Notable in performing this philosophic service delegitimated. are Richard Bernstein (with some ambivalence); Paul Ricoeur; We are left philosophically without the possibility of Hilary Putnam; Richard Rorty; and, with singular compre- support for the foundation or coherence for our knowledge; hensiveness and analyticity, Joseph Margolis. The mediators, or for a naturalistic or pragmatic comprehensive overview most of whom are analytic descendants of empiricist of the sciences, their methodologies, and their current projects; Enlightenment modernity, have in various ways agreed upon or for a legitimation of the classical liberalism of individualism significant signs of convergence and of such a magnitude as and democracy; or for the philosophic aspects of historical to point to a revolution now taking place in philosophy. But change and the critique and diagnosis of our time (Ernest this convergence comes at a cost. Richard Rorty (a serious Gellner notes that only the philosophies of early pragmatism analytic philosopher who converted to the Romantic gospel) and Marxism discuss historical change at all, in a time of stands forth from the others in holding to a developing vast European historical and political upheavals); or the convergence upon the demise of philosophy, at least in the conception of philosophy as critique of culture (as Dewey extinction of its foundational and critical role. (Rorty echoes argued) rather than as analytic self-criticism or as the local here Derrida's remark that he wishes to see philosophy on knowledge of contemporary Romantics. We are all left in the stage but no longer center-stage.) the position of Rorty, who would like to support Harold The more moderate mediators agree on some or all of Bloom's liberalism against the bitter pessimism of Foucault a set of convergences between the frameworks. The developing and would like to know what powerful words to say to the convergence is toward: opposition to foundationalism, essen- secret police when they come—but has no capability within tialism, positivism, and naturalism; opposition also to all his foundationless philosophy. We live then with what Hegel claims to an unmediated apprehension of truth, metaphysical, called the Unhappy Consciousness, a sense of lost and un- scientific, moral, and political; and to all forms of historical reachable truths and values. There are however signs of hope: or structural totalizing, including the historical cognitive 1. Vulnerabilities on each side are now more openly structures of Modernity presented in this article. Thus recognized: on the Enlightenment analytic side, vulnerability convergence is centered upon negativity, upon rejection of not only to its well-known reduction of philosophy to logical previously or currently held intuitions and conceptualizations. and empiricist self-criticism, as has long been noted, but also The cost of convergence upon negations is that both sides to its ahistoricality and its failure to acknowledge the mediation of the divide are emptied out of the intuitions and conceptual of conceptual structures. These analytic vulnerabilities are now structures that historically, culturally, morally, and politically perceived as capable of being overcome and their deficiencies have defined them. In apparent evidence of the correctness being supplied by the other side. On the Romantic side, the of the mediators' discernment of a negative convergence well-known vulnerability is to the charge of deficiency in Enlightenment analytic philosophy appears to have retreated methodological rigor and reality-testing; these vulnerabilities to self-criticism, empiricist and logical (i.e. to Wittgenstein's are now seen as capable of being overcome and their deadly prescription for philosophy); and Romantic pluralist deficiencies being supplied by the other side. philosophies appear to have retreated to concrete particu- 2. A hopeful outcome of the acknowledgment of deficien- larism, to history of various ideas, to local cultural descrip- cies on each side is the growing rejection of monologic ap- tivism (i.e. to Clifford Geertz's "local knowledge"). proaches that remain untouched by their own vulnerabilities. The mediator's convergence of the two frameworks in 3. Another hopeful outcome of the mutual acknowledg- negativity is a convergence in loss. Lost to the Enlightenment ment of deficiencies points toward withdrawing from the frame are its great achievements of substantive and instru- mediator's convergence upon negativity. In place of the zero- mental reason: the self-evidence and unalienability of universal sum game of the mediators, once the theoretical incorporation individual rights as the rational ground of political democracy; of historicality and mediating cognitive structures is conceded, the comprehensive engagement of philosophy with the the binding of all positions, including the analytic, to historical sciences, in methods, validation, and foundations; the sense conceptualization follows. The totalizing rejection by the of historical progress in democratization, in the sciences, and mediators of all forms of foundationalism, essentialism, in the human betterment resulting from scientific technologies. naturalism, and positivism now begins to give way to an Lost unmistakably are Enlightenment intuitions of objective, increasingly informed comprehension of time frames and the absolute, realistic, and universal knowledge. moral and political dimensions of cognitive structures that

Summer 1991 47 moral and political dimensions of cognitive structures that problematic context of changing material, historical, are tied to them. ideational, and social conditions, the engendering of The third coping strategy is undertaken by the synthesizers. conceptual structures which provide resolution, and the Synthesizers of the conflicting frameworks of Modernity are scrutiny of consequences. those who have generated an integrating social vision and What characterizes American pragmatism is not the have sought to construct a substantive social theory by selected analyst's ahistorical themes of fallibilism, contingency, and elements derived from and satisfying the intuitions and plurality, but its incorporation of Enlightenment explanation concerns of both frameworks of Modernity. These include, and Continental understanding. Is the first and proudest claim notably, Marx, Weber, Mannheim, Freud, and Dewey. These of pragmatism that it anticipated the anti-foundationalism of great thinkers of the past failed, admittedly, to achieve the analysts? To the contrary: Granted, there is no a priori— integration according to the scrutiny of contemporary logical, except for the pragmatic a priori of the frameworks of epistemological, and methodological philosophical criticism. historical culture. Now that the analysts are beginning to Yet their integrating contributions to social philosophy, social concede the need for theoretical incorporation of historicality theory, and the social sciences have in large part defined these and mediating cognitive structures, the binding of all positions, fields for the contemporary intellectual culture. Each is an including the analytic, to historical conceptualization follows. exemplar of the creative possibilities within the cognitive The structures of Modernity form such a historical con- structures of Modernity. ceptualization and their substantive contents constitute a In our time Habermas has been engaged in the project pragmatic a priori. American pragmatism's proudest claim of such an unstylish social theory, bringing Enlightenment is to be the philosophic interpreter of Modernity. It is the and Romantic modes of thought "under one roof," as he says. one philosophy of the twentieth century that undertakes— His (Western Marxist) vision is of a rationally grounded social nonreductively and nonmonologically—to interpret and philosophy that would stand as a philosophical and moral integrate the historical framework of Modernity in its bulwark against social pathologies such as that of the Nazi Enlightenment and Romantic modes. past and against intellectual distortions of the present. Yet Far from having significance as an anticipation of analytic his theory rests precariously on a naturalized transcendental philosophy, pragmatism presents an interpretation of foundationalism. Modernity that situates analytic philosophy itself within the development of one of the structures of Modernity, Enlighten- ut in the present situation of philosophy, the synthesizers ment Modernity. And pragmatism displaces the analytic con- Bof the conflicting frameworks of Modernity have been vergence upon rejection of previously or currently held truths the American pragmatists. Classical American philosophy and values with the methodological requirement that all truths came into being as an intellectual and moral response to a and values be subject to analysis and critique in terms of crisis brought on by the effects of Enlightenment moderni- their contexts and consequences within the ongoing prob- zation upon American life. The response of philosophy was lematic situations of the culture. to assimilate the newly available philosophic views of Moreover, external to the arguments of philosophers, vast European Romantic Modernity as an antithetical way of changes are taking place in the scientific and political worlds, perceiving the problems of Modernity; and to integrate the outside of the intellectual purview of the analysts. In the two cultural styles, Enlightenment and Romantic Modernity, scientific world, largely ignored by both sides of the divide, into a philosophy for an America whose national, legal, and vast changes are taking place in theoretical physics, micro- cultural identity was in Enlightenment truth. Each of the biology, and medical technology, and vast global, ecological classical American philosophers worked through the conflict and environmental problems now confront scientific tech- and the integration in his own way. Insofar as it is possible nology. In the political world, there is the widespread eruption to identify American philosophy, it is to perceive the of political revolution for freedom and against communist characteristic form of American philosophy in the attempt totalitarianism, with geopolitical implications. These scientific to integrate the Enlightenment and Romantic modes of and political changes, which carry global significance for thought. What is characteristic of American pragmatism is scientific truth and political freedom, cannot leave contem- its incorporativeness, its attempt to hold together the porary philosophers untouched. The revitalization of philo- Enlightenment universality of human rights, science, and sophic synthesizing may be anticipated, with a newly informed technology and the Romantic expressiveness of personal and scientific and historical vision, integrating the cognitive, moral, group life. Each of the classical American philosophers was and political concerns of both evolving frameworks of attempting to provide an enriching reconciliation of these Modernity. One can only imagine how Dewey would respond cognitive structures of the modern world, which would to the unified field theory in physics or the current European constitute a unifying public philosophy for America. eruption of democracy against communist totalitarianism. American thought was thrown into interpretivism from the The task of any social philosophy may be said to be to beginning, having to reconstruct religious beliefs and the reappropriate, interpret, and evaluate the intellectual and components of the British Enlightenment within the new cultural structures of its time and place. It is time to see problematic situation of America. The pragmatist mode of American pragmatism as the reappropriation, interpretation, interpretation (most explicit in Dewey) was the result: a and critique of the opposing cognitive structures of the contextual strategy of interpretation, which embraces the historical culture and the long horizon of Modernity.

48 FREE INQUIRY Freedom of Thought and Religion in Bangladesh

A. B. M. Mafizul Islam Patwari

angladesh was part of the province of Bengal during was propounded by fundamentalist Muslims leaders, the gross the British rule of India (1757-1947) and a separate impact of which was that the British Indian sub-continent Bprovince during Pakistani rule (1947-1971). It emerged was divided into two states—one secular state called India as an independent state in 1971. Many Indian people, and another Muslim state called Pakistan, in which present particularly the educated of Bengal, were influenced by British Bangladesh was a province in theory but a colony of the liberal ideas and philosophy and became committed to freedom Pakistani rulers in practice. of thought and religion. From 1947 to 1971 the people of Bangladesh were subject Raja Ram Mohon Roy (1772-1833), a great social reformer, to cultural torture. Freedom of thought, expression, and thinker, philanthropist, and writer, was the main architect religion were curtailed in the name of Islam. The colonial of this "Bengal Renaissance." In 1828, he founded Brahma rulers, with a view to promoting Pakistani culture (so-called Samaj, a school of liberal philosophy and religion that Islamic culture), had tried to introduce Urdu as the state propounded freedom of thought and religion and criticized language in lieu of Bengali, the mother tongue of the people the dogmatic views of Hindu society. In 1850, some years of Bangladesh. Against this conspiracy a movement was after his death, the Freedom of Religion Act was passed. launched, and on February 21, 1952, some students were killed Other architects of liberal thought were Pandit Ishwar by the Pakistani rulers. Bengali as the state language was Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-1891) and Nobel laureate poet ultimately established. The language movement was the first Rabindra Nath Tagore (1861-1941), whose grandfather was successful secular movement for freedom of thought and one of the associates of Raja Ram Mohon Roy. One expression. illustration from his Gitanjali (Song Offerings) will make the Islamic ideology and sentiment was given special status point clear. He wrote: in 1956, when a constitution was adopted that turned Pakistan into an Islamic state. Some Islamic principles were introduced, Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high; and the Institute of Islamic Ideology was formed. The so- Where knowledge is free; called Islamic constitution of 1956 was abrogated in 1958 by Where the world has not been broken up into fragments by martial law, which continued up to 1962. The 1962 narrow domestic walls; Constitution of Pakistan, "enacted" by its framer, President Where tireless striving stretches its arms towards perfection; Ayub Khan, contained all those Islamic provisions that were Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way into the dreary desert sand of dead habit; found in the Constitution of 1956. Where the mind is led forward by thee into ever widening During the sixties government some fundamentalist Muslim thought and action; intellectuals characterized poet Rabindra Nath Tagore as a Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my Hindu poet, and they again tried to force Islamic culture among country awake. the people of Bangladesh. People of the region were politically and economically oppressed by the Pakistani colonial rulers. Only at the early part of this century did liberal thought They revolted and as a consequence Bangladesh emerged as and unbiased and nondogmatic religious views grow among an independent state in 1971. a few educated Muslims. Among them was the poet Kazi Bangladesh emerged as a secular state because, in the Nazrul Islam (1899-1976). In Bangladesh, at the latter part liberation movement, almost all its people—Muslims, Hindus, of the 1920s, a liberal school of thought was founded, the Buddhists, and Christians—participated. In the original Muslim Sanitya Samaj (Muslim Literary Society), the Constitution of 1972, "secularism" was proclaimed as one of principal teaching of which was the freedom of thought and the fundamental principles of state policy (Preamble and religion. But during the mid-1930s the "two nations" theory Article 8). The national anthem, "Amar Sonar Bangla Ami Tomay Bhalo basi" ("O' Golden Bengal, I love thee") written A. B. M. Mafizul Islam Patwari is associate professor in the by Tagore, extols secularism. The Constitution laid down that Department of Law at the University of Dhaka and president the principle of secularism would be realized by the elimination of the Humanist and Ethical Association of Bangladesh. of communalism in all its forms: the granting by the state of political status in favor of any religion; the abuse of religion

Summer 1991 49 for political purposes; and discrimination against or prose- solidate, preserve, and strengthen fraternal relations with all cution of persons practicing a particular religion (Article 12). Muslim countries based on Islamic solidarity (Article 25). Besides these non justiciable principles, some justiciable These changes in the Constitution eroded its basic principles fundamental rights inter alia relating to freedom of thought and, in consequence, a fundamentalist Islamic movement has and religion were guaranteed. The Constitution clearly risen in Bangladesh. Some communal political parties such proclaims that all citizens are equal before the law and are as the Muslim League and Jamaat-E-Islami have begun to entitled to equal protection (Article 22). The state shall not move for an Islamic state. discriminate against any citizen on grounds of religion, race, The present government, with a view to earning popularity, caste, sex, or place of birth. No citizen shall, on grounds has introduced the idea of a state religion in the Constitution. of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth be subjected The Eighth Amendment proclaims that "the State religion to any disability, liability, restriction, or condition with regard of the Republic is Islam, but other religions may be practiced to access to any place of public entertainment or resort, or in peace and harmony in the Republic." admission to any educational institution (Article 28). In this way, secular values, which had been nurtured by The original constitution, along with all the democratic freethinkers, have been frustrated, and so-called Islamic values freedoms, ensured freedom of thought and conscience. It again have been given preference and prominence. Islamic declared that, subject to any reasonable restriction imposed fundamentalism has been given preference by the state policy- by law in the interests of the security of the state, friendly makers, who really do not represent the people but who are relations with foreign states, public order, decency, or morality, the self-declared leaders of the nation. This sort of one-sided or in relation to contempt of court, defamation or incitement dogmatic policy and view has destroyed the harmonious to an offense, the right of every citizen to freedom of speech cooperation among the people of Bangladesh, the majority and expression is guaranteed (Article 39). The Constitution of whom are Muslims, but include large numbers of Hindus, guarantees freedom of religion. According to the provisions Buddhists, and Christians. Although most of the Muslims of Article 41, subject to law, public order, and morality, every of Bangladesh are religious, they are liberal enough to respect citizen has the right to profess, practice, or propagate any the sentiments of other communities. religion; every religious community or denomination has the Only secularism at the national level can bring peace and right to establish, maintain, and manage its religious harmony among the peoples of Bangladesh, and freedoms institutions. No person attending any educational institution of thought, expression, conscience, and religion are the shall be required to receive religious instruction, or to take preconditions. Fortunately, there are many people inside and part in or attend any religious ceremony or worship, if that outside the government who uphold this view, and they have instruction, ceremony, or worship relates to a religion other been working against the fundamentalist movement in than his own. Bangladesh. • These were the main provisions relating to freedom of thought, expression, and religion as guaranteed in the original constitution. They were to be enforced by the Supreme Court if any violation was made by any person or authority, including Please Help the government. Secularism, which is deep-rooted in the hearts of the people, was given for the first time a constitutionally Bangladesh guaranteed status. CODESH has founded the Secular hese guarantees were taken away by the Fourth Amend- Humanist Aid and Relief Effort (SHARE), Tment of the Constitution which, in consequence, paved the way for autocracy and martial law rule, ultimately restoring to aid victims of natural disasters. All the Islamic state. Sheikh Mujibur Rahm, (1920-1975) then money raised will be expended through president, was assassinated on August 15, 1975, and the army secular organizations. If you would like took power. After the changeover, the secular nature of the state and the constitution was changed by the Fifth Amend- to help the victims of the recent devas- ment. tation in Bangladesh, please make a con- At the beginning of the Constitution, above the Preamble, tribution to SHARE. The donations will the phrase "Bismillah-AR-Rahman-AR-Rahim" (In the name be sent to the Humanist and Ethical of Allah, the beneficent, the merciful) has been inserted. Both the Preamble and Article 8 were amended to eliminate Association of Bangladesh, headed by Dr. secularism as a fundamental principle of state policy. After A. B. M. Mafizul Islam Patwari, and used the amendment, the principle of absolute trust and faith in to support relief efforts there. Make your the Almighty Allah, nationalism, democracy, and socialism, meaning economic and social justice, now would be the checks or money orders out to SHARE/ fundamental principles of state policy. The all-important CODESH, P.O. Box 5, Central Park Article 12 relating to secularism was stricken. Another Station, Buffalo, NY 14215-0005. 6/91 important change said that the state shall endeavor to con-

50 FREE INQUIRY are dead—period. Late in his life Thomas Edison was asked, "Mr. Edison, what happens to you when you die?" Viewpoint Edison thought a minute and replied: "When a man is dead he is dead!" It would be difficult for theologians to Unequivocal Humanism maintain gainful employment with Edison's observation as their text but it speaks volumes to humanists. Once we accept the absolute reality of our Roger E. Greeley mortality, that there is no cosmic Santa Claus keeping a list and checking it twice, ince 1957, I have devoted many anytime. He had no interest in balanced it is clear that we ought to live one world 10 hours to resurrecting the wit and presentation. People who embrace an at a time. Our focus must be the manage- wisdom of Robert Green Ingersoll, ideological commitment do not balance, ment of life here and now. In cooperation pioneer humanist and America's great- they carry a torch. No humanist to date with nature, we are the sole custodians est orator. His humor and his humanity has, in the interest of a balanced presen- of planet Earth. Clerics often pestered set him apart from many a philosopher; tation, offered up "The Case FOR the Ingersoll about immortality, and asked his style made his message available to Holocaust" or "American Slavery if, now that he was over sixty, was he millions. While philosophers often use Reconsidered." Of more current con- in fact not going to join a church? To an oak tree of expression to present an cern, how about, "Thermonuclear War: this Ingersoll responded, "I will invest acorn of thought, Ingersoll expressed an A Positive Response to the Population in no corporation that does not pay oak tree of thought in an acorn of Bomb"! dividends until after you are dead!" expression. Some of his sentences equal Humanism, to be true to the best of chapters in philosophical texts. its past, useful in the present, and to lead oday, humanism is challenged as I have tried to make my humanism in the future, must be a radical departure Tnever before because the very nature as human as was Ingersoll's in the from historic religion and theology. of the grave challenges confronting the nineteenth century. He had no fear of After all, theology is reserved for use by species require bold and radical being both human and humorous. the unreal to pursue the irrelevant to approaches if we are to survive another two or three centuries. I refer specifically Today, what passes for humanist ora- achieve the impossible. Humanists are to all of the issues of demography. Fifty tory is but a checklist, the product of in an altogether different line of endeavor. Humanists are not vague, mushy years ago Sir Julian Huxley observed, an intellectual autopsy on the corpse of ecumenists. No, we are bold pathfinders "Population is the problem of our age." religion. Even more regrettable are those out to break new ground and provoke Since 1940, the population problem has humanists who still believe that if you a revolution in thought. It will not do, worsened, and humanity has done are rational you cannot be emotional. therefore, for humanists to construct almost nothing to control the quality of Ingersoll demonstrated that insight and their movement on the religious model. its numbers. Very few nations, for emotion, intellect and humor are not After dismantling religion and discard- example, have embarked on sane and antithetical but complementary. He ing all of the untenable tenets, some successful programs of euthanasia. If we never developed a systematic philos- humanists have tried to create a parare- put sensible prenatal genetic screening ophy. Instead, he did what he could to ligion from the leftover parts. The result and testing into effect, the Special lift the heavy burden of superstition from is a smudged carbon-copy of an irrele- Olympics would collapse due to the lack the backs of those cowered by the vant original. We need to see ourselves of participants. Abortion is much more cruelties of Calvinism. He stumped for as bold, honest gadflies. We must not than a woman's individual right: It is the rights of women, of blacks, Jews, waste our limited energies seeking to join an absolute necessity until universal and children. He was a passionate advo- up with the traditional "do-gooders" who conception control is effectively in place. cate of reason, science, and education. confuse their humanitarianism with We do not need unwanted babies who A secularist, he insisted on the absolute hard-headed humanism. represent nothing but irresponsible separation of church and state. We Surely, you have been asked, "What sexuality that seeks to prove one's would do well to follow his example. truly distinguishes humanism from manhood or womanhood through con- Ingersoll would unburden his heart religion?" I believe we separate ourselves ception. Perhaps nations should create and mind on any topic without equiv- by a very basic premise. We declare that nationwide sperm banks into which each ocation to anyone, anyplace, and at human beings are born, live, and die in male would make two desposits and then a natural universe. Ingersoll observed undergo a vasectomy. This is a thor- Robert Greeley, a former Unitarian that, "Immortality comes from no oughly effective, nonchemical procedure minister, is Honorary Chairman of the religion but nearly every religion comes that requires no thought to make it work. Robert Ingersoll Memorial Committee. from the desire for immortality." Hu- It also puts conception control with the manists admit that when you die you man, who, as I understand these things,

Summer 1991 51 is rarely the victim of rape. Some might characterize these re- Humanists must promote avant garde "Humanism's hope is that hu- marks as nothing but a litany of regret ideas whether they are popular or not. man beings will finally grow up from a despairing secularist. No, I do not Euthanasia, sterilization, positive eugen- despair. I plan to enjoy whatever measure ics, the fetal spare-parts bank, abortion, and accept the reality of their of life I have left. Humanists should not and genetic engineering are in our best mortality and, nevertheless, live copy the orthodox in actually believing interest. Humanists must champion their creative and decent lives." we will effect immediate worldwide acceptance while simultaneously insist- change for the better. It is enough to be ing on appropriate safeguards to pre- has humanity's immediate response been on the right track, to do your best and clude any politicizing or genocidal appli- favorable to its benefactors? live without bringing injury or misery to cations. To suggest, however, that possi- Today, it is both sensible and popular others while enjoying yourself. A life is ble abuses exist and that therefore no to show concern for the multiple prob- well-lived if it reduces pain and suffering, investigation, let alone application, can lems of pollution. Rarely do we hear, if it adds to the enlightenment of take place is utterly ludicrous. There has however, of the connection between humanity and to the sum of human joy. been no major medical advance that did uncontrolled human reproduction and Humanists must avoid the trap of over- not encounter failures before it was fully mushrooming pollution. Yet, ask your- intellectuali7ing, which turns rationality understood and could be applied safely self: When was the last time you saw a into a kind of mental weight-lifting event. and effectively. dog wearing a disposable diaper, a racoon When humanists say they want to Given the fact of our existence and with a six pack, a cat shaving with a "discover the meaning of life" they are its temporal nature, our first concern disposable razor, a rat flooring a behaving like theologians. To "discover" should be How we live rather than Why Corvette? When did you last see an air- something assumes that it exists some- we live. How shall we use the cosmic conditioned rabbit hutch? Is the demand where. It is for each of us to create micro-millisecond that is the span of the for nuclear energy from sparrows seeking meaning in the course of living our lives individual human life? If we think we warmer winter quarters? The free econ- after recognizing the reality of our can manage the affairs of Earth without omy system urges growth and increased mortality. The naturalistic universe is considering the quantity and quality of consumerism as the solution to periodic absolutely indifferent to our plight. In an our own numbers, we are doomed to economic slumps. What outright in- indifferent universe, meaning and pur- failure. If we do not achieve demogra- sanity this is! We recognize that a life- pose are human considerations and phic stability we will join the lemmings boat can hold just so many passengers values that we should create in our own in a self-destructive race into oblivion. before it will capsize. We fail to see lives. We live on a very minor planet. We will not be rescued from our demo- ourselves as passengers on lifeboat-Earth. In a proportional equation, Earth is to graphic plight by a deus ex machina. It If we go down, there are no other vessels the universe as a single atom is to Earth— is for humanists to promote an intellec- to come to our rescue. This is both though that is exaggerating the size of tual climate that will lead to the sobering and frightening, especially when the atom. In this vast universe we are achievement of demographic sanity and the problem increases at a much greater the concern of no one but ourselves. We stability. This will not be a popular rate than has humanity's awareness of are alone together—all alone but not very message, eagerly received, but how often the peril. together! To live well, we must think, feel, serve, enjoy, share, and communicate. If Sturdy holders to protect your FREE INQUIRY Humanists go overboard with reason we Holders are available in either red, blue, green, or black vinyl with gold ornamentation diminish compassion, feeling, sharing, and convenient slots for labels on the front and the back. Each holder fits four years and loving, and as a movement we will of FREE INQUIRY and the Secular Humanist Bulletin. fail. If we are obsessed with reason, we $8.95 each, plus $1.85 for postage and handling will appear to offer the cold, bloodless, Please send me holders in red blue green black heartless approach to living that some ❑ Charge my ❑ Visa oMasterCard O Check or money order enclosed insist is all that humanism represents. Card # Exp Humanism's hope lies not in a new philosophical twist by which humanity can Signature escape reality. No, humanism's hope is Name that human beings will finally grow up and accept the reality of their mortality Street and, nevertheless, live creative and decent City State Zip lives. Humanists do not seek to deny death but to embrace life fully, usefully, Daytime phone and grow until the final harvest. Infinite- Mail to: FREE INQUIRY, Box 5, Central Park Station, Buffalo NY 14215-0005 simal though we and our planet may be,

Or call toll-free 1-800-458-1366. 6191 humans have perceived and created the good, the true, and the beautiful. •

52 FREE INQUIRY we use language to construct plans for moving through life more knowingly and effectively. Thus, cognition is about Books coping, not copying. What ought I to do? Quite simply, Reading Rorty "If there is no Essential Human Nature, each person faces the task of self- creation." This involves weaving a coherent web of beliefs and desires so John M. Novak we can justify ourselves to ourselves and also take into account the well-being of Rorty's Humanistic Pragmatism: Phi- The two books reviewed here provide others. However, the realms of private losophy Democratized, by Konstantin a perspective on the non-foundational perfection and social morality are Kolenda (Tampa: University of South recreation vehicle he is prescribing. distinct. In order for people to choose Florida, 1990) xv and 138 pp., $22.95, Rorty's Humanistic Pragmatism: Phi- their own life plans and live together, cloth. losophy Democratized by Konstantin these realms should not seek to subsume Kolenda is a thoughtful introduction each other. Much individual and group Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity, by that puts Rorty in perspective, showing misery has occurred through such Richard Rorty (New York: Cambridge, some philosophical and political impli- misguided minglings. 1989) xvi and 201 pp., $10.95, paper. cations. In a sense he compares the What may I hope? If cognition is Rortyian vehicle with more traditional about coping, and if in conduct we can ichard Rorty has been at the center dwellings it is trying to supersede. distinguish between the private and Rof controversy in philosophy for Rorty's book, on the other hand, vividly public, hope aims at the construction the past ten years. Possessing the pro- continues the comparison and presents of forms of life organized around vocative prowess to evoke enthusiasm some interesting places his vehicle can principles and practices of unforced and disbelief from many of his earnest take us if we choose to recreate using agreement that help us to fight cruelty readers, he is a clearly interesting contingency, irony, and solidarity to and live a rich and varied personal life. This "... hope is nourished when fresh thinker. In spite of his lucidity, I know guide our travels. Kolenda's book deserves our atten- options are perceived, when conflicts are of at least one philosophy department solved by mutual accommodation, and that invited him to speak to them to tion first. Introducing Rorty's thoughts is no when dangers are transformed into find out if he really meant what they easy task. He is a philosopher (small opportunities." This hope is essential to thought he was saying. To their further "p") of edification, not of systems. creatively coping with life. Thus the disbelief, they found out they were right Rather than trying to argue within tradi- Rortyian recreation vehicle, portrayed about their interpretation of his work. tional philosophical ways, he seeks to by Kolenda, is always on the road, seeks He meant what he said; and what he change the conversation so that the divided highways, and hopes to con- continues to say can be startling to those whole business of constructing philoso- struct new trails if the opportunity calls who believe humans are responsible to phical systems is called into question. for it. some nonhuman power. Interestingly, So how do you present him systemat- Kolenda has done a fine job of this startled group can include not only ically? Kolenda captures the seriousness arranging, critiquing, and extending theists but also nontheists of a variety and playfulness of Rorty's project. Rorty. His book is worth reading before of persuasions. Creatively using Kant's three questions and after one has read Rorty. Let's now Reading Rorty can hit home like a (What can I know? What ought I to turn to Rorty's own extension of his own philosophical tornado that not only do? What may I hope?) Kolenda pre- thoughts. takes away your house but also its sents the cumulative effects of Rorty's Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity is foundation. Taking him seriously can thoughts. Let's look at each of these not for the philosophically weak of rearrange your philosophical dwelling. questions in turn. heart. It can jolt even the heartiest of You can't go home again. You can't even What can I know? Well, that depends thinkers out of their metaphysical build another foundation. All you have on what one thinks life is about. To slumber. Written for liberals with a left, perhaps, is a recreation vehicle and Rorty, life is not about finding what is sense of irony who seek to know, act, a head full of memories and dreams. really true, having beliefs that corre- and hope in a postmetaphysical culture spond to what is ultimately there. There that is historicist and nominalist John Novak is professor of education is no plan of God, Nature, Self, or through and through, this book con- at Brock University in St. Catharines, Rationality for us to find. In fact, we tinues Rorty's assault on foundationalist Ontario, Canada, and editor of Insights, do not find these things because we do and metaphysical perspectives. In the newsletter of the John Dewey not have "immaculate perceptions." All addition, it extends his vision for a Society. our knowledge is mediated by language. humane liberal society through an Reality does not speak to us. Rather, emphatic use of literature. This deserves

Summer 1991 53 some elaboration. the person constantly looking for a concrete to become a part of our Beginning with the notion that time better idea because socialization did not ethical thinking and actual practice, and chance, not some essential human quite take hold. Contrasting the ironist and to move others from a "they" to nature, are central to individual and to the metaphysician, someone who a "we." collective existence, Rorty explores the thinks there can be an ultimate vocab- Rorty says much more and takes contingency of language, selfhood, and ulary, the two groups ask different many side trips on his journey through community. Traditional philosophic questions. Metaphysicians ask, "What contingency, irony, and solidarity. problems are more dissolved than solved is Truth?" Ironists ask, "What's the Obviously anyone who seeks to decon- and contact is made with some key ideas alternative?" It is this latter group that struct metaphysics and epistemology of some recent thinkers such as Nelson understands the value of a continual will not be without critics. Rorty's critics Goodman, Hillary Putnam, Donald redescription of experience in and for include not only traditional philoso- Davidson, Jurgen Habermas, and John a pluralistic and humane society. It is phers and political theorists but also Rawls, and some figures from the past ironists who can turn to literature rather liberals and pragmatists, anti- such as Freud, Wittgenstein, and than Habermas's universalistic philos- Deweyians and Deweyians. Anyone Dewey, to name only a few. Using ophy of intersubjective communication who can get the attention of so many seminal thinkers to redescribe a utopian as a means of deepening concern for groups must be hitting the foundations liberal culture that would be "poetized" others. of many different homes. rather than "scientized" or "rational- Solidarity, the last of Rorty's con- Reading Rorty is necessary for those ized," Rorty does not seek "to replace cepts, deals with the desire and effort who want to understand new types of religion with a philosophical account of to become aware of and overcome the cognitive dwellings and fascinating a healing and unifying power which will cruelty people inflict through social and literary excursions. The trip he offers do the work once done by God." Rather, individual practices. Turning to litera- has edifying possibilities but is not he desires to construct a form of social ture to illuminate cruelty, the writings for those who seek "the green, green life in which claims of universal validity of Nabokov and Orwell are presented grass of home" or fear "Road Warriors." are no longer plausible; he desires a to show the depth and complexity of It is for those who do not feel quite society that gives democracy priority cruelty. Rorty's liberalism depends on settled and value the search for alter- over philosophy. a "loathing for cruelty—a sense that it native ways; it is for those who desire The literal and figurative center of is the worst thing we can do." This a recreation vehicle and an open Rorty's book is his sketch of the ironist, loathing for cruelty needs to be made agenda. •

myself, but, by and large, I found it self- destructive and full of ennui. Unfortu- The Philosophy of `Flow' nately, for many of my contemporaries, the lifestyle they "fell into" was the psychological equivalent of the Marianas Timothy William Grogan Trench. It is my opinion that my friends would have been better served by a little Flow: The Psychology of Optimal this problem is not nearly so intractable more conscious direction (as, for exam- Experience, by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi as the philosophical problems that are ple, is supplied by Csikszentmihalyi's (New York: Harper and Row, 1990) xii permanent fixtures of theism (such as book) and a little less blind conformism. + 303 pp., $19.95, cloth. the problem of evil). There have been What is "flow"? Basically, it is a several good books from an overall newfangled expression for an activity ne of the purported horrors at- humanistic perspective on this subject that brings with it the most prized of tendant to loss of faith in the Judeo- including Ellis and Becker (1982), de human commodities: happiness. The Christian God is the loss of the "meaning Bono (1977), Russell (1930), and Kurtz term flow, is, I suppose, as good as any of life." It is almost taken as a truism (1985). Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi's book other to describe this experience, which that the meaning of life is bound up in Flow: The Psychology of Optimal has been called by many names. Perhaps religious faith and those without such Experience is an excellent addition to the truth is a bit like soap: It needs faith must pass their lives in despair and this list and one that every person repackaging for each generation (re- desperation. Fortunately, for humanists, concerned with living the most fulfilling member, "love" was once called "char- atheists, and various other dissenters, life possible (Who isn't?) should read. ity"). It is something I experience when As a person formerly of deep religious I write book reviews or poetry. Flow is Timothy William Grogan is a graduate faith, I was unsatisfied with what I saw associated with the focusing of attention student in clinical psychology at Cleve- as the self-indulgent and shallow lifestyle outside the self and getting feedback that land University and vice president of the of many of my peers who were not one is accomplishing something worth- real-estate firm, T W. Grogan Company. overtly religious. After I left the church, while. A priori, this description rules out I lived this "Yuppie" lifestyle for a time intoxication of the brain as leading to

54 FREE INQUIRY a state of flow—something my Yuppie by that we mean a supreme goal built more "user friendly." The result is, in friends would do well to take note of. into the fabric of nature and human my opinion, to make it less so. It may The concept of happiness is discussed experience, a goal that is valid for be just an intensely personal idiosyn- every individual. (p. 215) in detail in the first part of the book, crasy, but I happen to like footnotes. followed by an explication of the concept Apart from this debatable defect and an Csikszentmihalyi's assumption that faith of flow and its manifestations in various offhand reference to that elusive shaman is not a credible option for educated human activities. Much of the research Don Juan, I have no other specific people may be true in his intellectual that Csikszentmihalyi relies on for his criticisms. salons at the University of Chicago. The descriptions of flow come from the In an era of New Age mysticism and general findings of most polls (taken science of experimental social psychol- crystal power, when so many have given outside the U of C) show that, at least ogy, where Csikszentmihalyi is a leading up control of their lives to the stars, to for most of the professional classes in expert. The book contains much psy- some guru, or the latest wares of the this country, belief in a benevolent God chology, but as might be expected, it also street pharmacologist, it is refreshing to still is the majority view, even among has a decided philosophical emphasis. see a forthright statement on the poten- people who Csikszentmihalyi and The book is peppered with references to tial of human beings to order their myself would agree ought to know Bertrand Russell, Democritus, J. S. Mill, experiences toward a maximization of better. Although these persons do not Plato, and Marcus Aurelius, all cited enjoyment without recourse to what I practice, by and large, their childhood favorably on the subject of happiness. call "outside solutions." That the power faith, for these educated semi-Judeo- The philosophical stance taken by exists within ourselves to order con- Christians God functions as deus ex Csikszentmihalyi throughout is tho- sciousness and thus attain the best that machina to give meaning to life in spite roughly humanistic. There is not even life has to offer is something that needs of their overall alienation from most a hint that traditional religions have restatement with each new generation. traditional forms of religious belief and anything to offer to most well-educated In this book we have a merging of practice. persons: philosophical verities and scientific From a psychological perspective, it evidence—perfect for the 1990s. I shall argue that the primary reason is exciting to see a convergence between it is so difficult to achieve happiness what philosophy has said about human References centers on the fact that, contrary to happiness and what social psychological the myths mankind has developed to research has discovered empirically. For De Bono, E. 1977. The Happiness Purpose. reassure itself, the universe was not New years psychotherapists like Albert Ellis York: Penguin Books. created to answer our needs. (p. 7) Ellis, A., and I. Becker. 1982. A Guide to Personal have said that the discovery by the Happiness. Hollywood: Wilshire Book The universe is not hostile, nor yet individual of a "vital absorbing interest" Company. is it friendly. It is simply indifferent. is the via regia to personal happiness. Kurtz, P. 1985. Exuberance. Buffalo: Prometheus (p• 9) Books. One weakness of Flow is the attempt Russell, B. 1930. The Conquest of Happiness. It is true that life has no meaning, if by Csikszentmihalyi to make the book New York: Liveright Publishing Company. •

ought values to be categorized? He sets The Road Too Traveled forth an audacious six-element taxonomy of values and asserts that all human Tom Flynn value systems ultimately proceed from authority, deductive logic, sense expe- A Question of Values: Six Ways We ity without giving up our Christian rience, emotion, intuition, or science. Make the Personal Choices that Shape beliefs after all. Since all subsequent discussion will Our Lives, by Hunter Lewis (New York: Peck's road could scarcely stay empty supposedly build on this taxonomy, I Harper and Row, 1990) xi + 282 pp., for long. Commentator Hunter Lewis expected a greater effort to lay concep- indexed, cloth, $17.95. has loosed a cast of thousands upon it. tual foundations and counter objections. Lewis has concocted a bubbly, read- Instead, Lewis rushes to demonstrate Scott Peck's "road less tray- able, but surprisingly empty book. But how his system works. Eager for an M • eled" is getting crowded. A Question of Values powerfully illus- exemplar whose value system is based Almost everyone knows Peck's book, trates how the new "mainstream accom- on emotion, he chooses Obi-Wan The Road Less Traveled, became the modationist" writers hope to restore Kenobi, the Alec Guinness character most durable nonfiction best-seller in Christianity to public life under cover from Star Wars ("Trust your feelings, recent memory. Contemporary Ameri- of confusion. Luke'). Then he spells the character's cans awash in value conflicts welcomed Lewis begins by making quick work name wrong in three places. Peck's seductive underlying message: We of a question that has plagued philos- Clearly, popular appeal and expos- can enjoy the benefits of secular modern- ophers since time immemorial: How itory momentum, rather than rigor, are

Summer 1991 55 Lewis's main concerns. Philosophically emotive unconscious, and beneath that The pastiche of credible and dubious inclined readers are left twitching by the a level of unconscious rational cognition science is revealing. So is the fact that roadside, trying to recall the license stronger than the waking intellect. for Lewis "science" begins and ends with number of the truck that struck them With the eclecticism of a wide-eyed psychology. Why do we encounter no and gasping, "Hold on!" New Ager, Lewis invokes Indian mys- economists, whose work surely has But Hunter Lewis will not hold on. ticism, Taoist disciplines, breathing values implications? Why no political By page 20 he is done presenting the exercises, and transcendental meditation scientists, organizational theorists, or taxonomy of human values. He spends on equal terms. (That sound you heard students of conflict resolution? Why no the next six maddeningly uneven chap- was Lewis and the religious right parting theoretical physicists? ters analyzing—strike that, toying ways.) Like a Zen koan, the ending of with—his value systems one by one. this section cannot be described, it can aving attempted, however un- Much can be said about value systems only be quoted: Hevenly, to construct The Answer based on authority. Lewis says little of Will [intuition] take us all the way to to Everything, Lewis attacks the issue it, since he builds his entire discussion ultimate truth, albeit an inexpressible of values in public schools. In the of authoritarian values on a brief and anti-intellectual truth, or are these process, he becomes a more interesting comparison of conservative Catholicism extremes of intuitive training just so read. There follows a well-constructed, and Protestant fundamentalism in much neurotic masochism? The great often witty presentation of the neo- mystic masters all agree—no one can contemporary American life. (Catholi- provide you with the answer; there is conservative program for public educa- cism wins hands down.) As pro-Catholic no substitute for self-effort; to find out tion. Since this is obviously what Lewis polemic, it's not bad. As a complete what awaits you at the end of this was waiting to say all along, he can be moral treatment of authoritarian values particular rainbow—whether dross or forgiven if he seldom bothers to tie his it is laughably incomplete. gold, vacuity or complete enlighten- ruminations to his sextuple taxonomy ment about the world, yourself, and of values. In the next section, Lewis accuses the riddle of human values—you must people who build their values around follow the path yourself. Lewis yearns to make the classroom logic of making deduction their religion. safe for Christianity again. He considers The only witnesses for the prosecution Ommmmmmmmm.... Oh, sorry! it obvious that public schools have been are Spinoza and Mortimer Adler, both In place of the pure concepts that have "teaching values inimical to Christian- of whom Lewis refutes sketchily. He gone before, Lewis correctly (if trivially) ity." While he denies that secular tries—and fails—to prove that logic can identifies science as a synthetic approach. humanism constitutes an enemy religion, never be more than a handmaiden to Sense observations of the world give rise he goes on to explain it, patronizingly, authority, sense experience, emotion, to intuitive hypotheses, which are shaped as the unfortunate result of an overem- and the rest. Which is lucky for Lewis: into testable propositions using the skills phasis on science and logic endemic to Had he succeeded, he would have of deductive logic. Then it's back to sense our culture. He makes the usual case that exploded his initial thesis that logic is awareness to observe the results of over-zealous interpretation of the First one of six fundamental, mutually irre- experiments that put one's hypothesis to Amendement has driven religion ducible approaches to values. And that the test. What is missing from Lewis's beneath the public square. was the primary contention of his book! account of science is the role of authority; The main section of the book ends The discussion of value systems based one of the great strengths of the scientific with a plea for the creation of a new on sense experience is muddled by an method is the body of conventions it academic discipline, axiology (the study annoying tendency to name-drop, which provides (peer review, the form of of values). One hopes the first axiologist becomes almost comical as the book scientific reports, and so on) which allow would begin by exploding Lewis's progresses. In place of analysis, we are us to rely on the observations of others tendentious taxonomy. presented with kaleidoscopic micro- in relatively dependable ways. Tagged on near the end, there's a 68- biographies of contemporary writer Of course, no system of human values page epilogue of random reflections on Eudora Welty; sixteenth-century essayist can be scientific in the strict sense. But everything from Social Darwinism and and aesthete Michel de Montaigne; value systems can reflect the spirit of the the Jacobins to agrarianism, "logical prodigal-turned-mystic Thomas Mer- scientific method, drawing on sense subjectivism," and Mandarinism as value ton; writers Lawrence Durrell, Henry experience, logic, intuition, and author- systems. Finally, since no aspiring Miller, and Harold Acton; and unrepent- ity in controlled ways. That said, Lewis consultant-cum-guru can get by without ant profligate Tennessee Williams. The flings the reader into a tour of science, a workbook (preferably, one able to following section on emotions is equally near-science, pseudoscience, and traves- undergird a whole family of costly unsatisfying. ties of science, all accompanied by workshops and seminars), Lewis adds a Lewis is also reluctant to draw hard fevered name-dropping: Freudianism, postscript to explain how A Question conclusions about intuition as a basis for cognitive psychology, psycho-neuro- of Values can double as a workbook if values. What he does not question: immunological medicine, "socio-demo- one creatively reads it out of order. Intuition exists, and it works. Never anthro-enviro-techno model building," mind dualism: Lewis accepts that we sociobiology, and behavioral psychol- aven the growing debate over values have a literal conscious mind, a literal ogy—actually, behaviorism as religion. education—and given the popular 56 FREE INQUIRY hunger to salvage some vestige, however the great value systems will come away probably draw the greatest benefit from distorted, of those comfortable values disappointed. So will educational leaders this amorphous opus may be con- most of us grew up with—it was who may be misled by the book's pro- servative Christian ideologues. Values is inevitable that affable hucksters would motion to expect that Lewis has wrapped just the sort of book they can point to arrive to assure us that even college the dilemma of values education into a (without suggesting that school board graduates can have their cake and eat neat, nonthreatening package. On the members, judges, politicians, or opinion- it too. M. Scott Peck may have been other hand, ordinary individuals may get makers actually read it) as "proof" that the first, most successful apostle of a good deal from the book. For the cosmopolitan intellectuals support their rapprochement between humanistic philosophically unschooled, Lewis's agenda. psychology and that old-time religion. taxonomy offers potentially useful In other words, A Question of Values With A Question of Values Hunter Lewis frameworks for talking and thinking is a profoundly flawed book that may makes a strong bid for second place. about values—so long as one resists the nevertheless have precisely the impact its What public was this book intended temptation to take his model as the last marketers—not the least of whom to serve? Teachers of ethics looking for word. appears to be its author—had calcu- an accessible but rigorous synopsis of Unfortunately, the people who will lated. •

McManners also seems to agree with Disneyland Christianity Swift's sentiments when he said: "We need religion as we need our dinner, wickedness makes Christianity indispen- Tom Franczyk sable and there's an end of it" (p. 277). The entire book treats Christianity as more moral than any other religion, or The Oxford Illustrated History of To say that the OIHC is a sympathe- no religion: an assertion not rationally Christianity, edited by John McManners tically written product of Christian justifiable by history, no matter how (New York: Oxford University Press, thought is a gross understatement. To biased. For the contributors to this book, 1990), 724 pp., cloth, $45.00. begin with, the origins of Christianity however, everything not Christian is are not discussed, and Jesus is treated ith all the talk lately concerning tainted with immorality, while every- as an unambiguous historic personage— thing Christian wears a halo, even if Wthe teaching of religion in the something even the Gospels don't do. public schools, one might expect pres- slightly tarnished. The formation of the canon is not Much is made of the Roman perse- tigious Oxford Press to produce a book explained. And, although pains are that presents a relatively unbiased cution of the early Christians while little taken to shown how Islam borrowed is mentioned of Christian persecution of history of Christianity to be used as a heavily from Christianity, there is no classroom text or as a supplement. The the "pagans" or each other. The Thirty mention of Christianity's amalgamation Years' War and Inquisition are granted Oxford Illustrated History of Christian- from antecedent religions. ity (OIHC) is not such a book. one sentence each while the Saint An overly flattering picture is painted Bartholomew's Day Massacre is not That is not to say that this book is of Constantine, while Theodosius, an badly written. It is cleverly enough mentioned. This book grants Pope emperor as important as Constantine Innocent III the sainthood denied him written to gloss over anything that dis- when speaking of "Christendom," is not credits Christianity while highlighting by the Roman Catholic church, and the even listed in the index. The authors popes of general are treated with kid irrelevancies that make Christianity leave out more of importance than they look good, especially to those who do gloves—the "bad" ones characterized as tell. A more balanced history of Chris- not know better. A clue to this mind- unfortunate aberrations. That is not to tianity was in the British Broadcasting set can be found in the introduction, say that these things should be dwelled Corporation's production of "The written by editor and contributor John upon, but they should at least be Christians," aired on cable television. McManners: explored. Of the many illustrious scholars Even Christianity's long history of contributing to this volume, McManners The modern way of writing history anti-Jewish sentiments and pogroms is (which may be called "scientific" if we is the most sympathetic to the Roman not adequately addressed. (One such remember how science works by Catholic church. He also makes the same reference is a brief parenthetic.) hypotheses, inspired guess, and selec- mistake as Catholics who are ignorant The Christian rape, both figurative tive concentration, as well as by of the Bible and Latin when he states and literal, of the Americas and native amassing and classifying facts, and "that Dives was condemned for not Americans is euphemistically described does not exclude sympathy) is a product, essentially, of the thought of helping Lazarus, not for his luxurious by McManners: "To understand the Western Europe, of Christendom. life-style" (p. 296). The word dives is mentality of the early sixteenth century [p. 4] Latin for rich—it is not a proper name. one has to come to terms with men who

Summer 1991 57 insisted on the preliminary baptism of its writer putting the shoe on the wrong (Fundamentalists may not be too the Indian women they took as their foot, while showing a lack of knowledge pleased to learn that the main text, concubines" (p. 304). He skillfully goes concerning freethought. excluding the index and other supple- on to show how this was ultimately The latter portion of the OIHC talks ments, is 666 pages long.) beneficial to the victims while failing to of the various denominations within Hitler once said that only the victors note that this was a typically Christian Christianity without getting involved in write history. It seems that Christians, mentality and the men he mentions were the conflict between or within sects or even apparently well-educated scholars, considered "good Christians." denominations, and may be useful to are unable to write a history that is not Contributor Owen Chadwick states: those interested in such matters. The steeply slanted in Christianity's favor. "In its early days cremation was strongly book ends with the hopeful prophecy The beautifully bound and adorned promoted by freethinkers who had the that Christianity will again rule in Oxford Illustrated History of Christian- naive feeling that this would destroy the Eastern Europe now that communism ity shows how self-centered and apolo- doctrine of the resurrection" (p. 376). is on the wane, as if the Fatima fable getic Christian historians are, even near This simplistic, sophomoric sentence has will come true. the dawn of the twenty-first century. • Books in Brief

Interpreting Evolution: Darwin and tions between humans and other anim- physiological, economic, and societal Teilhard de Chardin, by H. James Birx als. Rachels could have devoted far more effects drug use has in the United States. (Buffalo: Prometheus Books, 1991). 326 pages to the discussion of subsuming Miller's book is a must for all those who pages. $29.95 cloth. In a fascinating nonhuman animals under our moral think that the goal of a drug-free survey of evolutionary theories through categories. Does morality require that we America is a dangerous illusion. the ages, the author shows how the become vegetarians? Are laboratory manner in which social scientists, experiments on animals necessarily The Transcendental Temptation: A biologists, philosophers, political lead- immoral? It would seem so, from Critique of Religion and the Para- ers, theologians, and others interpret Rachels's perspective, but he does not normal, by Paul Kurtz (Buffalo: Pro- data often colors the way in which the go into the sort of detailed argumenta- metheus Books, 1991). 500 pages. scientific evidence for evolution is tion these volatile questions deserve. $16.95 paper. Kurtz's critically acclaimed presented. Focusing upon the differing look at the bases of religion and worldviews of Darwinian materialism Let There Be Light, by Philip Appleman mystical thought is now available in and Teilhardian mysticism, Birx spells (New York: Harper Perennial, 1991). 82 paperback. In the words of the Journal out the crucial events in each man's life pages. $21.95 cloth, $10.95 paper. The of the American Academy of Religion, that influenced their interpretations. He "Light" in the title is the light of reason, this is "A very important book. . . . gives a strong defense of Darwin's mech- and in this volume of poetry Philip Clearly written and forcefully argued." anistic and materialistic perspective and Appleman gives a devastating critique maintains that a developmental natural- of the harmful influence of Judeo- The Difference Between Truth and ism is the interpretation of evolution best Christian beliefs. A joyful affirmation of Opinion, by Timothy J. Cooney (Buf- supported by scientific reasoning. humanist principles, and a biting polemic falo: Prometheus Books, 1991). 128 against the cruelties and anti-life stance pages. $17.95 cloth. "I will always put Created from Animals: The Moral of dogmatic religions, this volume of `morality' in quotes, because I contend Implications of Darwinism, by James poems should be on the shelf of all that what people call morality is a toxic, Rachels (New York: Oxford University humanist lovers of the arts. linguistic mess." Cooney, in a provoca- Press, 1990). 245 pages. $19.95 cloth. tive, entertaining style, does what he can Darwin gave compelling evidence that The Case for Legalizing Drugs, by to clear up this mess, but like Hercules we humans differ from other animals not Richard Lawrence Miller (New York: in the Augean stable, his task is not an by kind, but by degree. Yet our ethical Praeger Publishers, 1991). 247 pages. easy one. If people would begin to recog- systems have not fully come to grips with $21.95 cloth. An impassioned attempt to nize the difference between what they be- this. Rachels argues for what he calls de-mythologize the current drug scare, lieve to be true and what they know to "Morality without humans being spe- this book claims that the core of the drug be true, the amount of anger in the world cial." However, this book is principally problem is not chemicals but a question could be lessened considerably. And dedicated to laying the groundwork for of values. "American society promotes that's the truth. (Or so Cooney believes.) his argument, by describing Darwin's addiction by discouraging people from theories, laying out the possible relation- taking charge of their lives," Miller The Question of Humanism, edited by ship between evolution and ethics, and writes. Rather than imposing Draconian David Goicoechea, John Luik, and Tim pointing out the close biological connec- laws, we should dispassionately study the Madigan (Buffalo: Prometheus Books, 58 FREE INQUIRY 1991). 341 pages. $29.95 cloth. A stood through examining the findings of collection of essays by humanists and such sciences as chemistry, physiology, PUT antihumanists, investigating how hu- immunology, and biology. manism is evolving and how it addresses FREE the challenges it confronts. The Secular City: Twenty-Fifth Anniver- sary Edition, by Harvey Cox (New York: INQUIRY Making Saints: How the Catholic Collier Books, 1990). 255 pages. $9.95 ON THEIR SHELVES Church Determines who Becomes a paper. Theologian Harvey Cox began his Saint, Who Doesn't, and Why, by seminal 1965 book thusly: "The rise of Give a gift subscription to Kenneth L. Woodward (New York: urban civilization and the collapse of your library. Simon and Schuster, 1991). 462 pages. traditional religion are the two main By giving your favorite school or $24.95 cloth. How are saints made? Not hallmarks of our era and are closely community library a gill subscrip- surprisingly, through political maneu- related." What was interesting about The tion to FREE INQUIRY, you'll be vers, influence peddling, and sometimes Secular City, which sold over one million helping to reach a broader outright chicanery. Woodward, Religion copies, was Cox's assertion that secular- audience with the secular hum- Editor for Newsweek and a practicing ization was not a bad thing, and in fact anist point of view. Catholic himself, gives a behind-the- marked the coming of age of human o One year $25 scenes description of how saints (dead societies. Steeped in the theological o Two years $43 Catholics who are worthy of veneration tradition of Dietrich Bonhoeffer and the ❑ Three years $59 and who can intercede with God Himself existential philosophy of Albert Camus, Check or money order enclosed on behalf of the faithful), are chosen. The Secular City was a powerful defense o Charge my D Visa o MasterCard If you thought this was a quaint old of St. Augustine's concept of "The City practice the Church now shies away of Man," with room for both believers from, think again-John Paul II can- and nonbelievers. Now, twenty-five years Expiration Date onized more saints than any pope before later, Cox has reissued the book. Taking Sig him, 122 in 1988 alone! For those of into consideration the return of funda- Send to: you who aspire to sanctity after your mentalism, the burgeoning feminist Library demise, here's a helpful tip-make theology movement and the rise of friends with someone in the Vatican "supercities" such as Jakarta, Calcutta, Address curia before you go, the higher up the and Mexico City wherein millions live City better. And lay aside substantial cash for in squalor and poverty, he reiterates his State Zip your friends to use in arguing your case. hopeful message that secularization "has Sainthood doesn't come cheap. accomplished what fire and chain could My Name not: It has convinced the believer that City The Science of Love: Understanding he could be wrong, and persuaded the State Zip Love and Its Effects on Mind and Body, devotee that there are more important Daytime phone by Anthony Walsh (Buffalo: Prome- things than dying for faith." A quarter- theus Books, 1991). 276 pages. $22.95 century later, Cox's book is still worth Mail to: Free Inquiry, Box 5, Central Park Station cloth. Walsh argues that the satisfaction reading, by secularists and religionists Buffalo NY 14215-0005 of the need for love is a basic human alike. Or call toll-free 1-800-458-1366. requirement, and can best be under- -Tim Madigan

(Sex and Love, cont d. from p. 24) 3. Ashley Montagu, Growing Young (New Liebowitz is my source for most of the material and Behavior (Toronto: University of Toronto York: McGraw-Hill, 1981), pp. 89-99. on the chemistry of attachment and attrac- Press, 1980), p. 58. 4. Ronald E. Kalil, "Synapse formation in tion. 17. Pierre Chauchard, Our Need for Love the developing brain," Scientific American 10. /bid., p. 37. (New York: P. J. Kennedy, 1968), p. 30. (December 1989), 76-85. 11. Stanton Peele, and Archie Brodsky, Love 18. Mary Long, "Visions of a new faith" 5. Anthony Walsh, "Neurophysiology, and Addiction (New York: Signet, 1975), p. 17. Science Digest, 89(1981):36-42. motherhood, and the growth of love," Human 12. Anthony Walsh, and Grace J. Balazs, 19. Paul Pearsall, Superimmunity (New York: Mosaic, 17(1983):51-62. "Love, sex, and self-esteem." Free Inquiry in Ballantine, 1987), p. 33. Carol Gilligan arrives 6. Bruce S. McEwen, "Neural gonadal Creative Sociology 18(1990):37-42. at the same conclusion from a social psychological steroid actions." Science, 211(1981):1303-1311. 13. C. Tarvis, and S. Sadd, The Redbook point of view when she writes, "... girls emerge 7. See generally Melvin Konnor, The Report on Female Sexuality (New York: Dela- from this [socialization process] with a basis for Tangled Wing (New York: Holt, Rinehart and corte, 1977), p. 167. `empathy' built into their primary definition of Winston, 1982), chap. 6. 14. See generally P. Wilson, Man, the Prom- self in a way that boys do not." Carol Gilligan, 8. See generally Alice S. Rossi, "Parenthood ising Primate (Yale University Press, 1980). Ina Different Voice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard in Transition" (In J. Lancaster, et al., Parenting 15. D. McGuinness "Away from unisex University Press, 1982), p. 8. See also, J. Miller, Across the Lifespan (New York: Aldine De psychology: Individual differences in visual, "The development of a woman's sense of self." Gruyter, 1986), chap. 3. sensory and perceptual processes," Perception Working papers, Stone Center for Developmental 9. Michael R. Liebowitz, The Chemistry of 5(1976): 279-294. Services and Studies, Wellesley College, Welles- Love (New York: Berkeley, 1984), p. 107. 16. Paul McClean, A Triune Concept of Brain ley, Mass., 1984, p. 5. •

Summer 1991 59 (Letters, Cont d. from p. 4) to the irreligious. Try This While prayer is an influence that Church-State Separation determines moral judgment, the con- This may seem trivial, but I appreciated science impels to moral development and that the Spring issue had the Council Alan M. Dershowitz spoke well to the action. for Democratic Secular Humanism's issue of "Upholding the Wall of Sep- organization chart inside the back aration" (FI, Spring 1991). The Ninth R. Upton Nelson cover, and I hope you continue that Amendment states: "The enumeration in Bangor, Me. practice. the Constitution of certain rights shall With that arrangement, I can clip not be construed to deny or disparage off the back cover, put it and the list others retained by the people." Prayer Marx and Social Science of back issues in an envelope and send at institutions that are state or federally to editors to inform them of our funded does disparage the irreligious by Antony Flew's article "Was Marx a existence. I include a short note. In the indirect means of invidious compar- Social Scientist?" (FI, Spring 1991) was Oregon, with the highest percentage of ison. Such prayer implies open condem- interesting and informative, but suffers non-religious in any state, every editor nation with intent to discredit a from a lack of adequate references. ought to know about us. conscientious life-stance of the irreli- Given the size, complexity, and multiple- gious. Such prayer is an attempt, by the versioned nature of the body of Marx's Charles Selby religious, to coerce the irreligious. Such letters and other writings, this is not a Christmas Valley, Ore. prayer does dominate a public gathering minor concern. with the concept that morality comes The organizational chart listing only through the agency of supernatural Ed J. Gracely CODESH and other humanist groups authority. Such a concept is repugnant Sicklerville, N.J. will return in our next issue.—EDs.

Why We Use `Eupraxophy'

hy should humanists use the ing with no satisfactory name until pervasive prejudice that religion and Wword eupraxophy to describe now. morality are not separate issues. their philosophy? First, because it is Fourth, humanists have made a Eupraxophy says up front that the fresh. We have a clean canvas clear break from religion and religious good life is guided for us by the unscarred by past character assassi- humanism in that we have a strong natural, human intellect and not by nations on humanism to paint our perspective of scientific inquiry and the supernatural under any guise. new vision. skeptical critique of religion and a set And finally, eupraxophy is new Second, because it is novel. It is of ethical and intellectual principles. and novel sounding. Our progressive a conversation starter and thought We are modeled less on religious instincts foster great curiosity into provoker, not easily dismissed as just organizations and more on science the meaning of the word and hope- a rehash of what is tried and worn. clubs, friendship groups, Frei fully will carry us beyond and through Third, we are doing something new Gemeinde, Turner Clubs, labor the initial resistance. The word is and different. There simply is no word unions, universities, cultural groups entering common usage and has except eupraxophy for a construct and business corporations. always been accepted world-wide, somewhere in the linguistic crack Fifth, we are an international especially in Spanish-speaking between religion, life stance, philo- movement with strong ties to Asia, countries, by humanists looking for sophy, science, art, community, Europe, Africa, and Latin America. a way out of our present conceptual freethought, atheism, agnosticism, The Greek roots of eupraxophy make malaise. ethics, and humanism. Eupraxophy it more easily accepted world-wide to is secular humanism in action, the non-English speaking peoples. We Verle Muhrer good life guided by science, philo- have a strong and unfortunately sophy, and nurtured by the arts and provincial tendency in the American Verle Muhrer is president of the the human community. Indeed, it is humanist movement, which the word Kansas City Eupraxophy Center and a cosmic perspective and a set of ethics eupraxophy combats. is an Instructor of Philosophy at Penn and intellectual principles about liv- Sixth, eupraxophy combats the Valley Community College.

60 FREE INQUIRY Readers' Forum Humanists and Death I have pondered how a humanist deals with the death of a loved one since my wife died seven years ago. I was born, Growing Toward Unbelief raised, and married in the Mormon faith, and lived according to its teachings until In 1961, Bible class was permitted in my order to obtain heaven. I was about twenty-five years old. My high school and I, being a Methodist "How do you know what you believe studies in philosophy and astronomy and counted among the faithful, faith- is true?" I finally asked after about an raised serious doubts in my mind about fully attended. One night as I read, hour of debate. the concepts associated with an anthro- somewhat randomly, through the "We know in our hearts that we are pomorphic god, and I eventually became Revised Standard version, I ventured right," came the reply. an atheist. Around the age of thirty I across Revelations 13:8, which states: "Yes," I said, "and so do the Jews, was introduced to the Unitarian philo- the Hindus, the Buddhists, the Muslims, sophy by a close friend and had the good And all the inhabitants of the earth and the Catholics." fortune to learn about humanism from shall worship it (the beast with seven I then understood that the argument the Reverend Harold Scott. heads and ten horns upon which were against the Mormon's theological During the next several years I every one whose name ten crowns), "truth" applied equally to my own survived a divorce, the usual travails of was not written from the foundation of the world in the book of life of beliefs. No one, I finally realized, has raising three teenagers, career challenges, the lamb that was slaughtered. [Italics any good reason to believe he has a lock and a very happy and satisfying new mine.] on the truth. And that included me! marriage. My atheist-humanism was all The late Joseph Campbell suggested the support system I needed until my Try as I might to rationalize other- that the various religious concepts are second wife died following an agonizing wise, the only interpretation I could but masks that we mentally construct eighteen-month battle with cancer. I did logically conclude was predestination! and place against the ineffable "Some- not want to accept the finality of our What sort of god, I asked myself, would thing" that lies beyond our comprehen- separation. The religious Mormon damn souls to eternal torment before sion. I now have no doubt as to the truth doctrines that I had learned in my youth they were born? of that statement. But I think we must once again seemed desirable even if The next day I asked the Bible class understand that the masks are con- unbelievable. teacher for a different interpretation of structed by insecure minds, and the at- I now accept that we will never again the verse. Her reply was: "We aren't tributes that we bestow on our gods are see and touch, but I also believe that supposed to know everything." I but reflections of our own hopes and our relationship never ended; it only thought, "If we aren't suppose to know fears. changed. what it means, why did God have it Max T. Furr I still don't know how to help others written for us to read?" Richmond, Va. endure the pain of separation that After finishing high school I went into follows the death of a loved one. I think Army basic training. One afternoon humanism faces a major challenge in this some friends asked me to enter into a Because there is nearly always a re- area. I am a hospice volunteer, working debate they were having with a professed shuffling in personal, family, and social primarily with the bereavement process. atheist. Always ready to strike a blow circumstances for the one moving away I feel comfortable consoling those who for the Lord, I donned my godly armor from superstition, we need to hear from have lost a soulmate but I do not have of faith and righteousness and pom- our "fellow travelers" in hope that any pain-relieving panaceas. pously ventured into the fray. I met every helpful information in adapting may be salvo of reasoned logic with my own passed along. My own experience of Florien J. Wineriter volleys of pious faith. In the end, it was several years now has been particularly Salt Lake City, Utah a total rout: mine! stressful and I stand in need of as much The coup de grâce came only a few information as I can get on this difficult weeks later and, again ironically, as a and life-changing experience. Forming If you have some thoughts about the result of my own arguments. One day very close friendships has been one of content of FREE INQUIRY, please share an acquaintance invited me to dinner in my rewards in this process: Bonding them with us. Are there subjects we have his home off post. That night, he and results because unbelievers are in the neglected? What do you think would two others attempted to convert me to minority in my town. make it a better magazine? Write to Mormonism. Among other things, they Allen Combs "Readers' Forum, "FREE INQUIRY, P.O. told me that I had to be a Mormon in Mesa, Ariz. Box 5, Buffalo, NY 14215-0005.

Summer 1991 61 In the Name of God

Praying for War says, he is also a born-again Christian. small village. On Eastern Orthodox In a written testimonial given to holidays and the three annual Days for Washington—Here is a proclamation by evangelists in his prison cell, Noriega said the Dead, the place bustles with people President Bush declaring [February 3, he has found God during the fourteen lighting candles, spreading out picnic 1991] a national day of prayer... . months he has been imprisoned awaiting lunches and pouring plum-brandy liba- "In this moment of crisis may Amer- trial on eleven counts of racketeering and tions onto the graves. icans of every creed turn to our greatest drug trafficking. In this Slavic culture, whose ancient power and unite together in prayer. "I received Jesus Christ as my savior animism spawned belief in werewolves "Let us pray for the safety of the at 11 a.m. on May 15, 1990, in a small and the "living dead" and from whose troops, these men and women who have room, like unto a cave, in the Metropol- language English borrowed the word put their lives and dreams on hold itan Correctional Center of Dade Coun- "vampire," even many city dwellers still because they understand the threat our ty, Fla.," Noriega wrote on July 19. pay special respect to the memory of world faces. "Before Christ came into my life, the their dead relatives... . "Let us pray for those who make the realities of the materialistic world had [Anthropologists say] they were sure supreme sacrifice. In our terrible grief the priority in my daily living, "the letter the grave-house phenomenon would we pray that they leave the fields of battle said. fade away slowly as Yugoslavia adopts for finer fields where there is no danger, Prison spokesman Charles Davis a market-based economy that will give only tranquility, where there's no fear, confirmed that evangelists Clift Brannon people who accumulate capital the only peace, and where there is no evil, and Rudy Hernandez have met many opportunity to invest it in more practical only the love of the greatest Father of times with Noriega, but added they had ways. (New York Times) all. broken their promise to keep things "Let us pray for those who are held quiet. (Knight-Ridder) prisoner that God will protect these, His Prophet in the Polls special children, and will enlighten the minds and soften the hearts of their Major Appliances for the Dead Religion is a dicey subject for humor: captors. just ask Arswendo Atmowiloto, editor "Let us pray for the families of those ... Throughout eastern Serbia, newly of the now defunct Jakarta newspaper who serve. Let us reach out to them with rich peasants with hefty, competitive Monitor. The tabloid had asked readers caring, to make them part of a greater consumer appetites and a thriving cult to vote for Indonesia's most "admirable family filled with love and support. Let of the dead began about 15 years ago public figures. "Arswendo finished 10th, us pray for the innocents caught up in to build houses on the graves of their just ahead of the Prophet Muhammad. this war, all of them, wherever they may relatives. Monitor reporters had warned their be. And let us remember deep in our Not to be outdone by their neighbors, boss to leave Islam's founder off the hearts the value of all human life some people have even furnished their list, and now Arswendo is paying for everywhere in the world. "(AP) grave houses with stoves, refrigerators, his lack of caution. The editor has been televisions, video-recorders, radios and sentenced to five years in prison for other appurtenances that they are sure blasphemy and fined $5,200 for equating Noriega Finds Religion their relatives' spirits will use and enjoy Muhammad with ordinary mortals. One Miami—Manuel Noriega is a general, in the afterlife. consolation for Muslims: with only a prisoner of war, a former strongman, With more than a dozen such grave five votes, Jesus did not make the list. and an accused drug trafficker. Now, he houses, Ribare's cemetery resembles a (Time) BC I MIAr GreS.WSPEVMEAll *~ ir AiEMS '602) NellS'

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62 FREE INQUIRY Saturday, November 2 Saturday, November 2, cont'd. 9:00 A.M.-12 NOON: "The Work of the Committee 2. "Freethought on the Frontier" for the Scientific Examination of Religion" Chair: Verle Muhrer, Professor of Philosophy, Penn Valley Chair: Gerald Larue, Professor Emeritus, University of State College Southern California Gene deGruson, Curator, Special Collections, Pittsburgh Joe Barnhart, Professor of Philosophy, University of State Teachers College North Texas Fred Whitehead, Co-Editor, Freethought on the American Robert Alley, Professor of Humanities, University of Frontier Virginia 7:00-11:00 P.M.: Barbecue Dinner and Entertainment 12 NOON-2:00 P.M.: Lunch (on your own) Featuring a special appearance by entertainer Steve Allen. Granada Theater, Kansas City, Kansas 2:00-5:00 P.M.: Concurrent Sessions 1. "Raising Irreverent Children" Sunday, November 3 Chair: Thomas Franczyk, Co-Editor, Secular Humanist 9:00 A.m.-12 NOON: Concurrent Sessions Bulletin Molleen Matsumura, Editorial Associate, FREE 1. "Relationships and Philosophical Differences" INQUIRY Thomas Flynn, Associate Editor, FREE INQUIRY Dan Barker and Annie Laurie Gaylor, Freedom from 2. "Building Humanist Groups" Religion Foundation Tim Madigan, Executive Editor, FREE INQUIRY "Education and Indoctrination" Chair: Tim Madigan, Executive Editor, FREE INQUIRY 9:00 A.M.-5:00 P.M.: Special Session: Third National John Novak, Professor of Education, Brock University Meeting of Save Our Selves. Michael Rockier, President, Bertrand Russell Society Leader: Jim Christopher, founder of SOS.

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Return to: Jean Millholland, FREE INQUIRY, Box 5, Central Park Station, Buffalo, NY 14215-0005 Or call 800-458-1366. You are cordially invited to attend FREE INQUIRY'S 10th Annual Conference "Humanism and Changing Traditional Values" A Humanistic Perspective on Person, Family, and Society: Systems in Transition Thursday, October 31, to Sunday, November 3, 1991 at the Americana Hotel, Kansas City, Missouri

Featuring: STEVE ALLEN and Dr. Jack Kevorkian Also: Robert Alley George Smith Joe Barnhart Gerald Larue Mary Ann Barnhart Dan Barker Bonnie Bullough Annie Laurie Gaylor Vern Bullough Paul Kurtz Richard Taylor and others PROGRAM

Thursday, October 31 Friday, NoV. 1, cont'd. 7:30-11:00 P.M.: Freethought Halloween Party 12 NOON-2:00 P.M.: Luncheon (Come dressed as your favorite freethinker) Speaker: Dr. Jack Kevorkian 2:00-5:00 P.M.: "The Family in Transition" Friday, November 1 Chair: Bonnie Bullough, Dean of Nursing, SUNY/ 8:00-9:00 A.M.: Registration Buffalo Vern Bullough, Professor of History, SUNY College at 9:00 A.M.-12 NOON: "Humanism and the Family" Buffalo Chair: Anthony Picchioni, Marriage and Family Richard Taylor, Professor Emeritus, Hartwick Counselor College Elisa Maloff, Attorney Charles Faulkner, Syndicated Columnist James Brundage, Professor of History, University of George Smith, President, Signature Books Kansas Mary Ann Barnhart, Psychologist 6:00-11:00 P.M.: Awards Banquet Gary Kirkpatrick, Attorney (Program continued on page 63)