United States Department of Water and People: Challenges Agriculture Forest Service at the Interface of Symbolic Pacific Northwest and Utilitarian Values Research Station General Technical Report PNW-GTR-729 January 2008 The Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture is dedicated to the principle of multiple use management of the Nation’s forest resources for sus- tained yields of wood, water, forage, wildlife, and recreation. Through forestry research, cooperation with the States and private forest owners, and manage- ment of the national forests and national grasslands, it strives—as directed by Congress—to provide increasingly greater service to a growing Nation. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex, marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or part of an individual’s income is derived from any public assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD). To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, S.W. Washington, DC 20250-9410, or call (800) 795- 3272 (voice) or (202) 720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer. Editors Stephen F. McCool was a professor (now retired) of Wildland Recreation Manage- ment, College of Forestry, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812. Roger N. Clark and George H. Stankey were social scientists (now retired), U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. Clark was at the Pacific Wildland Fire Sciences Laboratory, 400 N 34th St., Suite 201, Seattle, WA 98103, and Stankey was at the Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 3200 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331. Cover Photo Kootenai Creek, Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness Kootenai Creek is representative of the changing values and uses of water in con- temporary American society. The creek flows out of the Wilderness to the Bitterroot Valley in Montana, where its water is extensively used for irrigation of farmlands. And yet, water from the creek maintains a certain symbolism not associated with its more instrumental values. Water in the streambed contains an aesthetic valued in situ and not for other uses. Water here is used by fish and other animals, by artists, by recreationists, not only for drinking, but for appreciation as well. These sym- bolic values, unfortunately are rarely considered in allocation strategies and pro- cesses. Managers of wildlands then become the stewards to ensure that such values are protected and accounted for in decisionmaking. Photo by Stephen McCool. Abstract McCool, Stephen, F.; Clark, Roger N.; Stankey, George H., eds. 2008. Water and people: challenges at the interface of symbolic and utilitarian values. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-729. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 246 p. The demand for water is rapidly increasing, but the uses to which that water is put and the values society places on water are changing dramatically. Water is the source of life, the sustenance for living, the resource needed for manufacturing, mining, agriculture; the element required to grow our lawns, to water our landscaping, to shower us with refreshment; it is the place where we play; it provides the snow for our winter recreation, and it provides the habitat for much of our wildlife. Water in contemporary American society is more than a simple physical entity, its symbolic values, and noninstrumental uses are growing in significance. As with many Native American cultures, water is as much a symbol as it is something to extract and use in the production of commercial products. This book is about the issues associated with these symbolic values and uses of water: the challenges they present—in our language, in our allocation mechanisms, in our communication—the conflicts raised; and the potential for resolving the difficult, contentious and complex issues concerning the use of water for various purposes. It is as much about framing the questions about symbolic values of water as it is anything else. Keywords: Water, recreation, symbolism, uses and value. Contents 1 Chapter 1: Water, Recreation, and Society: Shifting Demands, Rising Concerns, Growing Complexity Stephen F. McCool, Roger N. Clark, George H. Stankey, and Rhonda Mazza 1 Introduction 3 Society Affects, and Is Affected By, Water 7 Water and Recreation: Changing Conceptions 14 Framing the Challenge of Water in a Changing Society: A Problem in Itself 15 Goal and Purpose of This Publication 16 Organization of This Publication 17 References 19 Chapter 2: Symbolic Aspects of Water Patricia Stokowski 19 Introduction 21 Traditional Approaches to Water in Recreation Resource Management 25 Historical and Cultural Approaches: Water as Symbol 25 Creation Myths 30 Flood and Baptism Myths 31 From Ancient to Modern Times 34 Discussion 37 Water Symbolism in Contemporary Recreation Resource Management 38 Agency Management of Water Recreation Resources 41 From Agency to Recreationists: Water Symbols on a Personal Level 43 Social and Community Issues in Water Management 49 Discussion 52 Conclusions 53 Acknowledgments 53 References 61 Chapter 3: Assessing and Evaluating Recreational Uses of Water Resources in the Pacific Northwest: A Review and Synthesis Christina Kakoyannis and George H. Stankey 61 Introduction 61 Recreation as a Symbolic Use of Water 64 Proposition 1: Population Growth and Migration Influences the Spatial Distribution of Recreation and Affects Public Judgments of Acceptability of Water Management Strategies 64 Population Growth 65 Regional Migration 67 Urban to Rural Migration 70 Proposition 2: Changing Demographics—Such as Age, Race, and Ethnicity— Will Alter Trends in Water-Based Recreation That Require a Shift in Water- Based Recreation Management in the Pacific Northwest 70 Age 72 Increasing Radical and Ethnic Diversity 76 The Combined Influence of Demographic Variables 77 Proposition 3: Knowledge of Other Causal Factors Affecting Recreation Demand—Such as the Role of Technology and the Influence of Leisure Time— Is Limited 77 Technology 79 The Influence of Leisure Time 81 Proposition 4: The Presence of Water Surfaces Is Essential to or Enhances the Satisfaction of Reservationists Engaged in Most Outdoor Recreation Activities 82 Proposition 5: Available Data Suggest That Participation Levels in Water- Dependent Activities Continue to Increase Although Participation Rates Are Slowing. However, Flawed and Inconsistent Methodologies Limit Accurate Analyses of Recreation Use Data 88 Proposition 6: Conflicts Over Competing Uses of Water—Including Recreation, Municipal Uses, Industrial Uses, Irrigation, Habitat, Etc.—Will Likely Grow in the Future 89 Recreation Versus Other Uses of Water 91 Interactivity Conflicts 92 Intra-Activity Conflicts 93 Recreation Substitutability 95 Management Implications 97 Proposition 7: Management Alterations of Flow Regimes Can Affect Water- Based Recreation Opportunities and Experiences 98 The Impact of Streamflow on Recreation 101 Understanding the Impact of Changes in Flow 102 Implications for Research and Management 105 Equivalents 105 References 117 Chapter 4: Water Recreation Economic Values and Future Demands Jeffrey D. Kline, Laurie L. Houston, and Michio Watanabe 117 Introduction 119 Economic Values for Water Recreation Demand 122 Example Values From Published Literature 125 Future Demands for Water Recreation 130 Future Demands for Nonrecreational Water Uses 132 Public and Domestic Uses 133 Industrial and Commercial Uses 135 Irrigation 137 Aggregate Future Demands 138 Conclusions 141 Metric Equivalents 141 References 147 Chapter 5: Symbolic Uses of River Recreation Resources: Whitewater Boaters’ Special Places on the South Fork of the American River Kelly S. Bricker and Deborah L. Kerstetter 149 Place Attachment 150 The South Fork of the American River 151 A Study of Special Places and the South Fork of the American River 154 The Symbolic Meanings Boaters Ascribe to Special Places on the River 154 Symbolic Meanings 154 Natural Environment and Recreational Aspects of a Special Place 155 Social and Recreational Aspects of a Special Place 155 Natural Environment and Human Aspects of a Special Place 156 Whitewater Boating on the South Fork of the American River: An Interpretive Journey of Place Meetings 156 River Mile 0: The Put-In 158 River Miles 1–4: The Upper Reach 160 River Mile 5: Troublemaker Rapid 162 River Miles 6–10: The Coloma-Lotus/Bio Bio Run 163 River Miles 11–12: End of Quiet Zone/Turtle Pond Area 164 River Miles 13–15: Hastings Creek to Fowlers 165 River Miles 16–20: The Gorge 166 River Mile 20.5: Take-Out 167 Meanings Attributed to Special Places and Implications for Management 172 Metric Equivalents 173 References 177 Chapter 6: People of the River—People of the Salmon Wana Thlama— Nusuxmí Tanánma Elizabeth Woody 197 Metric Equivalents 197 References 201 Chapter 7: Institutional Mechanisms for Managing Water in the West: Implications for Recreation Sarah Bates Van de Wetering 201 Introduction 202 Historical Development of Western Water Institutions 202 Prior