Words Recently Coined and Blended

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Faculty Of Education at Masaryk University in Brno

Words Recently Coined And Blended:

Analysis Of New English Lexical Items

Mrg. Lenka Šomanová

English Language And Literature Section

Mgr. Radek Vogel, Ph. D

June 15, 2017

ABSTRACT

Hundreds of new lexical items are coined or borrowed every year. The focus of the thesis is on analysing lexical enrichment of English as it is reflected in newly derived, compounded and blended words. A number of them has been added into the Oxford Dictionary (https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/), however a great amount have not been included into any dictionary yet. This work will investigate how the new items have eventually been created, the possible reasons why these may have been blended, the purposes and fields of their everyday use and last but not least the specific group of users from various social or professional classes.

CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 2 THERORETICAL PART ...... 2 2.1 WORD FORMATION PROCESSES ...... 2 2.1.1 Compounding ...... 2 2.1.2 Reduplication ...... 3 2.1.3 Derivation ...... 3 2.1.4 Back formation ...... 4 2.1.5 Affixation ...... 4 2.1.6 Blending ...... 4 2.1.7 Clipping ...... 5 2.1.8 Abbreviations ...... 6 2.1.9 Acronyms ...... 7 2.1.10 Analogy ...... 7 2.1.11 Eponyms ...... 7 2.1.12 Novel Creation ...... 8 2.1.13 Creative respelling ...... 8 2.1.14 Conversion ...... 9 2.1.15 Coinages ...... 10 2.1.16 Nonce words ...... 10 2.1.17 Borrowing ...... 11 2.1.18 Calquing ...... 11 2.1.19 Metaphor ...... 12 3 CLASSIFICATION BY THE FIELD OF USE ...... 12 3.1 SOCIAL NETWORKING...... 12 3.2 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ...... 15 3.3 POPULAR CULTURE ...... 18 3.4 TRADEMARKS ...... 19 3.5 POLITICS ...... 22 3.6 JOURNALISM ...... 24 3.7 TEXTING AND MESSAGES ...... 26 4 CONCLUSION ...... 27

4.1 WAYS OF WORD FORMATION IN SOCIAL NETWORKING ...... 27 4.2 WAYS OF WORD FORMATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ...... 28 4.3 WAYS OF WORD FORMATION IN POPULAR CULTURE ...... 29 4.4 WAYS OF WORD FORMATION IN THE FIELD OF TRADEMARKS ...... 30 4.5 WAYS OF WORD FORMATION IN POLITICS...... 30 4.6 WAYS OF WORD FORMATION IN JOURNALISM ...... 31 4.7 MOST COMMON WAY OF WORD FORMATION IN TEXTING...... 32

1 INTRODUCTION Adding new words to a language especially English is recently becoming more and more common. The internet, television, commerce, new industrial products or services have provided a fertile soil for blending of a vast amount of new lexical items. It will not be daring to state that the English language is unbelievably fast in adjusting to the changing world. New expressions from everyday life representing the latest changes and evolutions are conventionalized daily.

Nevertheless, it is necessary to differentiate between new words and neologisms. It is understood that neologisms are completely new expressions that have not yet been entered in the Oxford Dictionary while new words already have. These new words are constantly being coined and gradually being used by particular groups of people and have not become formal yet. The completely new words are called neologisms as the following definition taken from the website www.vappingo.com explains: “Neologisms are newly coined terms, words, or phrases, that may be commonly used in everyday life but have yet to be formally accepted as constituting mainstream language. Neologisms represent the evolving nature of the English language. Over time people create new words that express concepts or ideas that were previously expressed using other words or use words that may not have existed at all. Neologisms can be completely new words, new meanings for existing words or new semes in existing words“.

2 THERORETICAL PART

2.1 WORD FORMATION PROCESSES In the first chapter different ways of word formation throughout history will be depicted. The following paragraphs have been inspired by this internet source: http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words/wordtypes.html

2.1.1 Compounding Compounding means joining two or more common words together in order to form an independent lexical item. Most base words are originally English but sometimes the items are borrowed from other languages such as Latin, Greek. For example: mailbox, mailman, dog house, fireplace, fireplug, email, e-ticket, dry run, cupcake, pick-up truck.

Quite frequently prepositions form part of the compound such as pick-up truck.

It is important to point out different ways of joining the base forms. Sometimes space is left between items (dog house), in other cases the words are connected with a hyphen (pick- pocket) and sometimes they just stand next to each other without any space between (blackbird).

Note that it is possible to create compounds with different parts of speech. Majority of them are noun-noun compounds while less of them are formed with adjective-noun (dry run, hard drive, blackbird). Nevertheless, verb-noun combination appears to be another way of joining lexical items together (pick-pocket). Next, verb-particle pattern is also used while the particle usually expresses kind of a movement, position or often has a metaphorical meaning (drive- through, get-away). It is surprising that sometimes these compounds come out as different parts of speech that their parts (drive-verb, through-preposition, drive-through is a noun).

There exist cases when even more than two items form a compound, such as ice-cream cone, no-fault insurance.

2.1.2 Reduplication So called compound substitutes can also be formed using rhyming words. Actually, two rhyming meaningful words make a rhyming compound (lovey-dovey). On the other hand, rhyming compounds can be created from new invented words that usually have no meaning but rhyme with the first component (higgledy-pigglety, easy-peasy).

Another way of forming compounds is connected with child talk and is called hypocoristic language.

Henny-Penny, Pigiie-Wiggie…. Whereas the second component again usually has no logical meaning but apparently the way they rhyme is entertaining for the little ones.

Other examples may be the following: • adjective-noun compound: blue + berry → blueberry • verb-noun compound: work + room → workroom • noun-verb compound: breast + feed → breastfeed • verb-verb compound: stir + fry → stir-fry • adjective-verb compound: high + light → highlight • verb-preposition compound: break + up → breakup • preposition-verb compound: out + run → outrun • adjective-adjective compound: bitter + sweet → bittersweet • preposition-preposition compound: in + to → into

2.1.3 Derivation Derivation creates new words by modifying the root of the original word which can often lead to the change of part of speech. • verb to verb: appear → disappear • noun to noun: friend → friendship • adjective to adjective: practical → impractical • verb to noun: preserve → preservation • verb to adjective: bore → boring • noun to verb: code → codify • noun to adjective: nature → natural • adjective to noun: ugly → ugliness • adjective to verb: sweet → sweeten

• adjective to adverb: quick → quickly

2.1.4 Back formation On the other hand, back formation is dropping any affixes to form a new part of speech. For example:

• babysitter – babysit • obsessive – obsess • donation – donate • procession – process • gambler – gamble • resurrection – resurrect • hazy – haze • sassy – sass • moonlighter – moonlight • television – televise

2.1.5 Affixation Affixation is a way in which we derive new lexical items through adding suffixes or prefixes to the root. In fact, this word formation resembles derivation. • Free – freedom • Use – useless, useful • Patient – impatient • Ambitious – unambitious • Globalize - globalization • Home – homeless

2.1.6 Blending Blends are words made by connecting two words rather on basis of a sound than morpheme. This formation became one of the most popular due to its creativeness. Generally, forming new words involves combining bases and suffixes or prefixes in a special way while one item ends where another one begins. On the other hand, blending means joining two words by conjoining (fixing) them together in a way that ends one item sooner that the other one starts. For this reason this type of word formation resembles more melting the words together than combining them. In many cases we can recognize one base and the rest is a meaningless part of another base. For example jeggings formed out of jeans and leggins, or mankini (man and bikini). By blending the form and contents are perfectly

integrated into one word like in jeggins which describe the piece of clothes that has the qualities of both jeans and leggins at the same time. Other notable examples may be brunch (breakfast-lunch) and smog (smoke-fog).

It is no surprise that writers were the first who played with words in their stories and naturally coined new expressions as soon as in the 19th century. Lewis Carol and his Jabberwocky should be mentioned for he gave existence to the words such as slithy (lithe and slimy) or galumph (gallop and triumph).

Other examples:

• advertisement + entertainment → advertainment • biographical + picture → biopic • breakfast + lunch → brunch • chuckle + snort → chortle • cybernetic + organism → cyborg • guess + estimate → guesstimate • hazardous + material → hazmat • motor + hotel → motel • prim + sissy → prissy • simultaneous + broadcast → simulcast • smoke + fog → smog • Spanish + English → Spanglish • spoon + fork → spork • telephone + marathon → telethon • web + seminar → webinar

Another accepted term for blended words is portmanteaus.

2.1.7 Clipping This is literally cutting or shortening the words in the way that the shortened item has the same meaning as the abbreviated original version. For example gym, math, ad, lab, photo. • alligator – gator • gymnasium – gym • examination – exam • influenza – flu • gasoline – gas • laboratory – lab

• mathematics – math • raccoon – coon • memorandum – memo • reputation – rep • photograph – photo • situation comedy – sitcom • public house – pub • telephone – phone

There exist four types of clipping:

1) back clipping: dropping the end of the lexeme 2) fore-clipping: dropping the beginning 3) middle clipping: contains only the middle part 4) complex clipping: means cutting on more than one part of the original word

2.1.8 Abbreviations The original expressions are shortened or only the main consonants. Frequently the first and the last consonant create the abbreviation. • Apr. – April • Jr. – Junior • cm – centimetre (s) • Mr. – Mister • d. – died, died in • oz – ounce(s) • dept. – department • Sun. – Sunday • Dr. – doctor • yd – yard(s)

Spoken-Written Abbreviations

• A.M. – ante meridiem [in the morning] • B.C.E. – Before Common Era • GOP – Grand Old Party (Republican Party) • HIV – Human Immunodeficiency Virus • i.e. – id est [that is] • JFK – John Fitzgerald Kennedy • OJ – orange juice • PMS – premenstrual syndrome • RSVP – répondez s'il vous plait • VIP – very important person

Abbreviation has a lot in common with clipping and blending as these word coining processes produce new words in similar ways.

2.1.9 Acronyms The acronyms are made by taking the first letters and making them a word. It is common to use the acronyms as normal words. Some of them worth to mention are for instance UNICEF (United Nations International Children´s Emergency Fund) or UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), SCUBA (Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus).

Text messages, email and chatting are all quick ways of communication. For this reason the words used are mostly shortened or abbreviated. In fact, internet communication gave rise to a great amount of new words, abbreviations and combinations.

BRB – be right back, LOL – laughing out loud, ASAP – as soon as possible, RUOK – are you ok?

Another interesting internet source http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words/wordtypes.html illustrates more creative ways of word formation with examples. These should be described in the next ten subchapters.

2.1.10 Analogy Another quite frequent method is spontaneously changing the original morpheme by adding another one and often making the old one indiscernible such as cheeseburger. This formation method is called analogy. In analogy we usually compare two similar things. There are many types of analogy for example: metaphor, simile, allegory, parable, exemplification.

2.1.11 Eponyms Eponyms are invented by adopting the real or imaginary name.

For example:

• atlas – Atlas • boycott – Charles C. Boycott • cardigan – James Thomas Brudnell, 7th Earl of Cardigan • cereal – Ceres

• dunce – John Duns Scotus • guillotine – Joseph Ignace Guillotin • jacuzzi – Candido Jacuzzi • luddite – Ned Ludd • malapropism – Mrs. Malaprop • mesmerize – Franz Anton Mesmer • mirandize – Ernesto A. Miranda • narcissistic – Narcissus • nicotine – Jean Nicot • pasteurization – Louis Pasteur • poinsettia – Noel Roberts Poinsett • praline – César de Choiseul, Count Plessis–Praslin • sadistic – Marquis de Sade • salmonella – Daniel Elmer Salmon • sandwich – John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich • volcano – Vulcan

2.1.12 Novel Creation In this case writers create a completely new word out of no existing morpheme. Some examples may be mentioned such as slang, googol, blimp. These words often resemble the sound of what they mean like bling or badonkadonk.

2.1.13 Creative respelling The last word formation method intentionally changes some letters in a word and thus forms a new word that is misspelled on purpose (thanx, nite, lite). Change of spelling is often used in commercials and slogans. For example Kleenex tissues, Mortal Kombat (game), Qwikster (movie-by-mail service). Misspelling quite often gives rise to brandnames.

In the next eight chapters more kinds of word formation will be described as provided on http://www.brighthubeducation.com/esl-lesson-plans/59339-teaching-word-formation- conversion/.

2.1.14 Conversion The word or its root is not modified in any way but is simply used as a different part of speech. For example Google (noun) – to google (verb) or email (noun) – email (verb). Conversion is, in fact, a way of derivation called zero derivation or null derivation. Obviously, the noun – verb conversion seems to be the most prolific. • access – to access • host – to host • bottle – to bottle • knife – to knife • can – to can • microwave – to microwave • closet – to closet • name – to name • email – to email • pocket – to pocket • eye – to eye • salt – to salt • fiddle – to fiddle • shape – to shape • fool – to fool • ship – to ship • Google – to google • spear – to spear • torch – to torch • verb – to verb

2.1.14.1 Nominalization

Verb to noun conversion is enormously productive as well.

• to alert – alert • to hope – hope • to attack – attack • to increase – increase • to call – call • to judge – judge • to clone – clone • to laugh – laugh • to command – command • to rise – rise • to cover – cover • to run – run • to cry – cry • to sleep – sleep • to experience – experience • to start – start • to fear – fear • to turn – turn • to feel – feel • to visit – visit

Verb to noun conversion is alternatively named as nominalization.

2.1.14.2 Other types of conversions

It is also possible to come across conversions of other grammatical forms. For example:

• adjective to verb: green → to green (to make environmentally friendly) • preposition to noun: up, down → the ups and downs of life • conjunction to noun: if, and, but → no ifs, ands, or buts • interjection to noun: ho ho ho → I love the ho ho hos of Christmas time.

2.1.15 Coinages Coinages are words invented by accident or intentionally mainly from no evident source. It should be pointed out that many coinages have come into existence by using brand names instead of the object being referred to. It is common that coinages are regularly called neologisms. • aspirin • Laundromat • escalator • linoleum • heroin • muggle • band-aid • nylon • factoid • psychedelic • Frisbee • quark • Google • Xerox • kerosene • zipper • Kleenex

2.1.16 Nonce words Nonce words are words blended using different formation processes often for a single use or purpose. These are very rarely used in everyday lives and approved as real words. They are created for the nonce meaning “for a single occasion”. • cotton-wool – to stuff or close (the ears) with cotton-wool. • jabberwock – according to Wikipedia it is the name of the fabulous monster in Lewis Carroll's poem Jabberwocky in Alice´s Adventures In Wonderland. Hence in allusive and extended uses, especially "incoherent or nonsensical expression." So jabberwocky is invented language, meaningless language, nonsensical behavior; also nonsensical, meaningless, topsy-turvy.

• touch-me-not-ishness – having a "touch-me-not" character; stand-off-ish. • twi-thought – an indistinct or vague thought. • witchcraftical – The practices of a witch or witches; the exercise of supernatural power supposed to be possessed by persons in league with the devil or evil spirits. Power or influence like that of a magician; bewitching or fascinating attraction or charm.

2.1.17 Borrowing Great number of English words have been borrowed from other languages. These are sometimes referred to as loanwords. • algebra – Arabic • murder – French • bagel – Yiddish • near – Sanskrit • cherub – Hebrew • paprika – Hungarian • chow mein – Chinese • pizza – Italian • fjord – Norwegian • smorgasbord – Swedish • galore – Irish • tamale – Spanish • haiku – Japanese • yo-yo – Tagalog • kielbasa – Polish

2.1.18 Calquing Calqued words are produced by translating from foreign languages. Other accepted terms for calqued words may be root-for-root or word-for-word. See the many examples that are being commonly used in English. • beer garden – German – Biergarten • blue-blood – Spanish – sangre azul • commonplace – Latin – locus commūnis • flea market – French – marché aux puces • free verse – French – vers libre • loanword – German – Lehnwort • long time no see – Chinese – hǎo jiǔ bu jiàn • pineapple – Dutch – pijnappel • scapegoat – Hebrew – ez ozel • wisdom tooth – Latin – dēns sapientiae

2.1.19 Metaphor Metaphor is according to the English Oxford Living Dictionary (EOLD) online defined as “a word or phrase applied to an object or action to which it is not literally applicable”. Very often already existing words are given new modern meanings through their semantic extension. For example surf meaning “to browse the net” or mac “meaning a kind of computer”.

3 CLASSIFICATION BY THE FIELD OF USE

3.1 SOCIAL NETWORKING Since the internet has been launched and people began using it for fast chatting, emailing, commenting. Therefore, notable amount of freshly created expressions have come into everyday usage. Some have been derived from new technology, equipment, programme or even an online game. People are not able to imagine their lives without their mobiles, computers, tablets which are mostly useless without the internet connection. This technology revolution has affected our private lives, working conditions, socializing hence everyday life. No wonder brand new expressions have been developed over the last twenty or more years. In the first place, social networking is the area that, in many people´s opinion, offers a fertile soil to new lexical elements.

In the following chapter there will be investigated ten examples form each field in respect of their meaning as explained on https://www.vappingo.com/word-blog/great-examples-of- neologisms/ and the particular way the new word was created. It should also be highly interesting to search its origins and roots in history.

1) Tweet cred

According to The Urban Dictionary online tweed cred is like a street cred and means a social standing or a kind of respect you gain from your humorous, cool and intelligent tweets. Therefore “tweet” is the status or any contribution put on twitter and the word “cred” is the

abbreviation of “credit”. It can be assumed this to classify as a compound “Tweet cred” together with clipping of “credit” to form the second part “cred”.

2) 404

404 is someone who is clueless. From the World Wide Web error message 404 Not Found, meaning that the requested document could not be located. Undoubtedly, this is an interesting new “word” because it actually is not a word but a number. The association of 404 with an error gave rise to this labelling someone obviously unintelligent. However, it is really arguable as for identifying the word formation process. It could be assumed 404 is a coinage.

404 actually reminds me of 420 which has been added to the Oxford dictionary recently and stands for marijuana. The history of 420 is ambiguous but most persuasive explanation seems to be that this used to mean the exact time 4:20 for a group of youngsters in the 1970s somewhere in California. They are said to be called Waldos. Every day at this time they used to go check the field of weed and 420 became their code for this activity.

3) Crowdsourcing

Crowdsourcing is the activity of getting a large group of people to contribute to a project or task, especially by using a website where people can make contributions; for example, online proofreading services. Apparently, this is a compound of crowd and sourcing, thus joining these two words together to form a name for modern activity.

4) Geobragging

Repeated status updates noting your location in an attempt to get attention or make other people jealous. Geo is surely blended from geography and bragging which means busting has been joined to form a new coinage “geobragging”. Thus this is a compound formed from one clipped word and another full word.

5) Unfriend

As the opposite of friend but in connection with any social network where people have lists of contacts – friends who they have added gradually. EOLD briefly defines unfriend as a verb “to remove (someone) form a list of friends or contacts in a social networking site”.

When examining the way of formation unfriend is a derivation from noun to verb affixed with the negative prefix un-.

6) Selfie

Defined in the EOLD selfie is an informal term, noun referring to “a photograph that one has taken of oneself, typically one taken with a smartphone or webcam and shared via social media.” To explain the way it was formed the noun self has taken a suffix – ie. Therefore, it can be labelled as derivation.

7) Wall

Apart from its original meaning that comes from the Latin “vallum” in the internet world this word started to be used as something completely different. Wall is the virtual space on your social networking profile where you can display and share photos, feelings, videos, etc. and other members can see it. This is a metaphor denoting new meaning.

8) Like

It is not a secret that like can stand for a noun as well as for a verb while its meaning is to have a positive attitude, sympathy to something. Nevertheless, in social networking world this is a button for giving somebody a “thumbs up” as to react to somebody´s contribution.

9) Troll

From the Old Norse troll is an ugly creature usually a giant or a dwarf from Swedish folklore. People started using this term in connection with someone who keeps bothering others by posting rude comments on Facebook or other social networks.

10) Tweet

From this onomatopoeic expression that originally refers to the sound made by birds developed into the name of a post on the social media application Twitter. According to the EOLD tweet can also be used as a verb in the same sense.

It is obvious that wall, like, troll and tweet are all social networking metaphors.

3.2 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

In fact, the field of science and technology appear to be a bottomless source of new lexical item

1) Google

To google means to use an online search engine for looking up information on the World Wide Web. This is the verb that has been derived from a noun Google – the most widely used internet search engine. The longish phrase “to look up the information on Google” has been deliberately replaced with a much shorter version: “to Google”. This word appears to be made by conversion which happens when for instance a noun is gradually used as a verb in the same form.

2) Spam

To spam is flooding the Internet with many copies of the same message, in an attempt to force the message on people who would not otherwise choose to receive it. The way this word has been formed is actually part of history.

It is believed that SPAM at first was chopped pork shoulder with ham, salt, sugar, water and sodium nitrite. It was originated in the Depression times when the people were desperate and hungry. Margaret Thatcher is said to have called this food a “wartime delicacy” although she would never it. We assume that it was “something posing as meat” or “shoulder of pork and ham” as Hormel stated. But these are mere speculations and nobody really knows what SPAM

stands for. This leads us to interpreting the word SPAM as something fake, low quality, rubbish. The question is how it got connected with email. Surprisingly, Monty Python has originally brought the word up again in association with something that does not contain meat and he liked to use it repeatedly. As a result, this repetition becomes annoying which is apparent in:

One Sketchy Breakfast: Items from the Monty Python Menu

"¢ Egg and bacon "¢ Egg, sausage and bacon "¢ Egg and SPAM "¢ Egg, bacon and SPAM "¢ Egg, bacon, sausage and SPAM "¢ SPAM, bacon, sausage and SPAM "¢ SPAM, egg, SPAM, SPAM, bacon and SPAM "¢ SPAM, SPAM, SPAM, egg, and SPAM "¢ SPAM, SPAM, SPAM, SPAM, SPAM, SPAM, baked beans, SPAM, SPAM, SPAM and SPAM "¢ Lobster thermidor aux crevettes with a Mornay sauce served in the ProvenÃ§ale manner with shallots and aubergines, garnished with truffle patÃ©, brandy and with a fried egg on top and SPAM

This piece was excerpted from the mental_floss book In the Beginning: The Origins of Everything. You can pick up a copy in our store

3) App

This means software application for a smartphone or tablet computer. App is a typical clipping the long application.

4) Noob

Noob is someone who is new to an online community or game. Noob comes from a term used by gamers and refer to someone who is unskilled, who is new to the game and is called

“newbie” or “newb”. Over time usage of “noob” became popular. Noob could be classified as creative respelling.

5) Ego surfer

A person who boosts his ego by searching for his own name on Google and other search engines is called ego surfer. It is a compound of two nouns ego and surfer.

6) Surf

According to the EOLD surf does not only mean to surf on a board in the sea but “to move from site to site on the internet”. Since this neologism has been used in a completely different connotation it is a metaphor.

7) Mac

Mac originally is, of course, a brand name of a Macintosh computer produced by Apple Inc. In the 21st century it has gained another metaphorical meaning as a type of computer.

8) Youtuber

Youtuber is someone who is using his/her You Tube account to display and share videos of his/her own. The expression was created by affixation – You Tube – r.

9) Blog

Blog is a website regularly updated by one or more authors. To blog means to write or to contribute to this website which can be done daily. The lexeme is a clipping of the original weblog as explained in the EPLD.

10) Hashtags

As stated in The Guardian online hashtag used to stand for a shorthand for a weight in pounds. It was not until on Twitter it was used as a code in social communication. For

example: #thankgoditsfriday#. Therefore it might be classified as a metaphor – as it is used in different meaning.

3.3 POPULAR CULTURE The definitions of the following examples have been adopted from the website called www.vappingo.com.

1) Tebowing

It is a description of a prayerful victory stance derived from NFL quarterback Tim Tebow. The expression could be sorted as eponym.

2) Brangelina

It is used to refer to a super couple Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie. This is an excellent example of blending, unfortunately no longer a reality.

3) Metrosexual

It is a man who dedicates a great deal of time and money to his appearance. Joining the two words metropolitan and sexual creates the portmanteau which is reported to have been coined in 1994.

4) Muffin top

This refers to the (often unsightly) roll of fat that appears on top of trousers that feature a low waist. It is a compound that substitutes something completely different only because the two things look the same.

5) Stitch ‘n’ bitch

It means a gathering of individuals who chat or gossip while knitting or crocheting. This seems to be the compound of the words stitch and bitch which simply means bitches (women) who are stitching or knitting or crocheting.

6) BFF

BFF stands for best friends forever. Used to state how close you are to another individual. This is an acronym of the three words.

7) Chillax

It means to calm down or relax, it is a slang term used when someone is starting to get uptight about something that is happening. Chillax proves to be an example of blending.

8) Racne

Racne is acne located on a woman’s chest (acne on the rack). The word is a blending of rack and acne.

9) Staycation

According to the www.vapingo.com staycation is a vacation at home or in the immediate local area. It is formed by blending stay and vacation.

10) Bromance

Bromance is a close but non-sexual relationship between two men originally describing the relationship between two skaters. It is a blend or a portmanteau of the two words brother (bro) and romance.

3.4 TRADEMARKS In this group belong brand names or words that were created especially for advertising and PR campaigns that are now used generically. These are sometimes also referred to as generonyms (a neologism in itself): They have been included here as neologisms as they have become terms denoting meanings similar to the original trademark products. Some names of trademarks are used to refer to all similar things. As Nancy J. Girard states in her article “Neologisms and genericized words in everyday language” in an online Aorn Journal for instance Kleenex is used to address any cleaning tissue or Xerox is used to refer to any

photocopier, etc. Therefore, they are not used as trademarks any more but to refer to the service the product provides.

1) aspirin

Late 19th century: from German, from acetylierte Spirsäure ‘acetylated salicylic acid’ (the element Spir- being from the plant genus name Spiraea). Aspirin seems to have been coined by blending acid and Spiraea. The term is generally used to denote any painkiller and it could be either Ibuprofen or Paracetamol or any other.

2) hoover

Hoover is a noun - a vacuum cleaner, properly one made by the Hoover Company. It is also a verb – to clean (something) with a vacuum cleaner. It was named after W. H. Hoover (see Hoover, William) and is an eponym.

3) laundromat

This is originally American, as the proprietary name of a washing machine. The word appears to be a blend or a coinage of launder and automatic.

4) band-aid

Band-aid is a piece of sticking plaster having a gauze pad. Band-Aid is a coinage.

5) kleenex

Kleenex is an absorbent disposable paper tissue. It is used to name any cleaning tissue available. The neologism is classified as a coinage or may be also labelled a creative respelling.

6) frisbee

This is a concave plastic disc designed for skimming through the air as an outdoor game or amusement. 1950s: said to be named after the Frisbee bakery (Bridgeport, Connecticut),

whose pie tins could be used similarly. Once classified as a coinage it can also be labelled eponym due to its reported origin.

7) tippex

Tippex is a type of correction fluid. The expression comes from German, from tippen ‘to type’ and Latin ex ‘out’. Tippex is frequently used as a verb meaning to erase text with this correction liquid. This new word is a coinage.

8) xerox

It is a xerographic copying process classified as an invented name or a coinage, based on xerography. The expression has another meaning as a verb – to copy or photocopy a document.

9) tupperware

Tupperware is a range of plastic containers used for storing food. 1950s: from Tupper, the name of the American manufacturer, + ware.

10) escalator

Escalator is a moving staircase consisting of an endlessly circulating belt of steps driven by a motor, which conveys people between the floors of a public building. Originates in the early 20th century (originally US, as a trade name) from escalade “climb a wall by ladder“, on the pattern of elevator. Escalator is a derivation of a verb into a noun.

3.5 POLITICS

1) Mitthead

Mitthead is an individual who constantly changes his political positions to suit his audience and objectives. The word is compounded from mitt (ugly face) and head.

2) Moon-basing

The act of a candidate or surrogate offhandedly proposing a policy so outrageous that it significantly harms the candidate’s electability. It appears to be a compound of moon and base.

3) Obamania

It is explained in the Urban Dictionary online as „the national obsession with Senator Barack Obama“

Taste the flavor of change... taste the Obamania!

Obamania is obviously a blending of Obama and mania.

4) Euroscepticism Euroscepticism, according to Wikipedia, is a criticism of European Union. The word is a blend of europe and scepticism.

5) Islamofascism

The Urban Dictionary online defines: “Islamofascism refers to the notion that Islam is not so much a religion as it is a political ideology that in many ways resembles "fascism".

The term resembles feature of a blend of islam and fascism.

6) Islamophobia

This blend can be easily understood as fear of islam, islamists.

7) Misunderestimate

Misunderestimate uttered by the most eloquent of presidents, George Bush. Apparently a blend of the two words and meanings at the same time – misunderstand and estimate.

8) Conservatards

The inventor of this harsh expression obviously shares no sympathy for the conservatives and is persuaded about their incompetence and low intelligence. The neologism has been created by joining the words conservative and retard as assumed. Thus it can be classified as a blend or portmanteau.

9) Republicunts

In the same respect as the previous pejorative political term this one shows great disrespect to the representatives of the particular party. Formed by joining the republicans and cunt the word belongs among the blends as well.

10) Feminazi

The Urban Dictionary online states that “ a feminazi is a sexist while a feminist is a supporter of women rights.” To make it clear a feminazis behave aggressive towards all men, they believe they are all stupid, they oppress to wearing a bra, shaving legs, snowmen which should be called snowpeople.

This expression is a blend of a feminist and a nazi.

The neologisms such as misundereastimate, conservatards, republicunts and feminazi have all been found on an online www.forum.wordreference.com as suggested by the forum contributors.

3.6 JOURNALISM In the journalism chapter ten examples of new words will be presented with example sentences and the definitions as comprehended from the given context. These examined examples have been taken from recent issues of The Independent and The Guardian newspapers.

1) Pissedness

On our way one Saturday evening, we passed two blokes heading for the stairs in that particular state of total, glassy-faced, marinated pissedness you get only from drinking steadily all afternoon.

As it is obvious from the extract above this colloquial expression describes a state of drunken weariness when you may not be able to drink any more. It can be labelled as a conversion of an adjective pissed to the noun pissedness.

2) Arty-fashion

This season there are also various arty-fashion hook ups of note: Cindy Sherman appearing in a campaign for MAC cosmetics, Nan Goldin shooting for Jimmy Choo, Acne teaming up with artist Daniel Silver to create a range of clothes.

Arty-fashion describes the fashion that is being promoted by artists and proves to be a compound of art and fashion.

3) Pre-degree-level

The UKBA's intended target are private pre-degree-level colleges that have lower entry requirements and less independent scrutiny of language skills.

Pre-degree-level is a compound adjective describing the quality of certain colleges and their education which is lower than in other colleges.

4) Freaky-squeaky

Enter Melesha O Garro aka Lady Leshurr, a 23-year-old Midlander armed with a freaky- squeaky voice and an arsenal of metaphors she tends to fire at listeners like the spawn of Missy Elliot and Minnie Mouse wielding a cartoon gun.

Freaky-squeaky voice is an eccentric or bizzare high-pitched voice and the expression was formed as a rhymed compound.

5) High-keys

A contrastingly jumpy theme of racing percussion and organ chords broken by dead halts was followed by a whistling, high-keys melody, a spooky, shivering synth drone against ominous low percussion, and an evocatively hymnal and richly orchestral passage that became a vehicle for the gleaming trumpet lines of Mathias Eick.

High-keys seems to classify as a compound meaning high tones, high sounds produced on the musical instruments.

6) Log-handled

Ned Ludd wears its philosophy on its plaid-shirted sleeve: a quick glance at the restaurant's many rustic design details - piles of logs for the wood-fired oven, copper pots, pottery chickens, hessian food sacks stitched together to form a curtain, log-handled beer pumps, the odd axe lying around - lets you know right away you're in for something homely, farm-centric and fresh.

Log-handled things have handles made of wood so that they look more country-like. This formation is a compound once again.

7) Chested

So now, as well as cult vocabulary such as' Moloko' for milk, fans also have phrases like cheested up for getting clean, or Zemolchy, which is an exclaimation of delight or wonder.

Cheested is taken from Russian while the original pronunciation is rewritten into English. “чистить” means to clean. This can be taken as a combination of borrowing and creative respelling.

8) Neocreationists

A key concern of American neocreationists is to 'Teach the controversy'.

Neocreationists appear to be the people who teach controversy, violate the rules and conventions as they are accepted by the society. This is a compound of neo and creationists.

9) Mass-walkout

Six million workers could strike across UK TUC steps up anti-austerity campaign by looking into practicalities of staging first mass-walkout since 1926.

Mass-walkout is a demonstration or a protest against something by walking or marching in the streets. The expression resembles features of a compound.

10) Audioboo-ing

But this pilgrim will have found his way there via Google maps on his android phone and will be tweeting, blogging and audioboo-ing the moment for his followers at home and aboard.

When someone is audioboo-ing he or she places a sound recording or audio recording on his social network profile or anywhere on the internet.

This is a compound of audio and boo-ing.

3.7 TEXTING AND MESSAGES Texting language is an enormous database of acronyms, clippings and code words that is being used mainly by young people, nevertheless, the older users are gradually adopting these words to adapt to the modern lifestyle.

The most popular words in texting are acronyms. That is the initial letters of the phrase. However, there exists a number of words that are substituted by numbers or letters which are pronounced in the same way like homophones. For example: G8 – great, U2 – you too, 4U – for you, etc.

In the appendix 1a list of randomly selected texting acronyms and their meanings as taken from www.smart-words.org can be found.

4 CONCLUSION In this last chapter the analysed examples of neologisms should be compared as for their province or purpose and the way they have been invented. The aim is to find out which way of creating new words is most frequent or most common in particular branches and why. Furthermore, it should be drawn from this analysis what led the inventors into forming these new expressions in those particular ways.

4.1 WAYS OF WORD FORMATION IN SOCIAL NETWORKING

Figure 1.

As can be seen in the diagram above it is obvious that metaphor has enriched the world of social networking sites with the most new words. Neologisms such as unfriend, wall, like, troll and tweet all have gained new meanings together with the development of the virtual communication. Therefore, these words have started to be used in completely different connotations than originally. While the interned has been launched the new things, new meanings came to the English language and they were given names with similar meanings but now used differently. Using metaphor might be evaluated as the easiest and quickest way of inventing new terms because nothing new is actually invented. The only real invention is a different meaning given to the old words. Social networking sites try hard to be accessible to anyone from young age to the elderly. That is the reason why their language needs to be as simple as possible. Using the terms that every ordinary person knows already and teaching them to use them to refer to something new is the smartest way.

On the contrary, only one word out of the analysed sample shows to be a coinage (404). Coinage is a brand new expression often made out of nothing. For that reason, I assume they are not much popular because users have to learn about them. These are well known only among the information technology specialists.

4.2 WAYS OF WORD FORMATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Figure 2.

In the field of science and technology metaphor is the most common (30%). Again, the reasons may be the same – it is easy, simple and comprehensible. People are experiencing new digital and physical realities so adopting items denoting real things must be used for new meanings in virtual world. Clipping (app, weblog) is used in two cases. The internet makes life and communication faster. Thus even the words being used must be made shorter to save space and time. Actually, the internet is flooded with clippings so we cannot be surprised by this fact that it is the second most popular way of forming neologisms here.

4.3 WAYS OF WORD FORMATION IN POPULAR CULTURE

Figure 3.

In popular culture most new lexical items have been formed by blending. Blending perfectly demonstrates the productivity on the English language. With the development of smart world where everyone uses devices so called all-in-one people have to accustom to the fast evolution. In the world of celebrities many blends have been formed to join two names, two words to describe their connection. Let´s take the already non existing super-couple name Branjelina. But this might not be the best example. Staycation shows us how new way of vacation can be described – simply by joining the two important items.

4.4 WAYS OF WORD FORMATION IN THE FIELD OF TRADEMARKS

Figure 4.

The most used way of creating new items as the diagram in figure 4 illustrates is coinage. Complete novelties to the English lexical store in a field of trademarks occur when a company needs an original label which can be registered without violating any existing copyrights.

4.5 WAYS OF WORD FORMATION IN POLITICS

Figure 5.

In politics, especially, it is apparently frequent to coin new terms by blending two items to interconnect their meanings. The most popular way of creating new words here, blending gives us a unique opportunity to describe the deficiencies in original items. Therefore, republican who is unpopular is a republicunt and so on.

4.6 WAYS OF WORD FORMATION IN JOURNALISM

Figure 6.

Compounding in newspapers seems to be the leading trend as for coining neologisms. Arty- fashion or mass-walkout is a great example of catchy but economical phrases. There is no time for wasting words for news must be swift, short and concise.

4.7 MOST COMMON WAY OF WORD FORMATION IN TEXTING

Figure 7.

As could be seen in the previous chapters economy and speed is the motto of modern society. Texting is no exception. What is more, messaging is a domain of condensed words and short sentences. As a result of shortening, people ended up texting with acronyms. This often means the whole sentence is reduced into an acronym of initial letters, for example DGMW (Don´t get me wrong). Actually, that is what short message sending (SMS) was designed for.

To sum it up, the English language is changing faster than ever leaving the older generation lost in the flood of new items. This fast evolution is taking place thanks to the massive use of smart phones and the internet communication. It is notable that new lexical items have appeared in many other branches of use, such as journalism and politics. People are surprisingly inventive as for coining new expressions to suit their needs and situations. These new coined words are included in the Oxford Dictionary annually. That proves the English language is a real living thing which never stops evolving and its users must instantly be on alert in order not to be left behind. This paper displays compounding and blending as the most popular ways of coining new expressions in the English language. However, also metaphor and coinage appear to be quite common. It must be admitted that it depends on the purpose for which the word has been designed and that evidently defines the most convenient way of

creation. Of course, sometimes a coinage can be a mere accident which has become popular and accepted in everyday use. Either way reveals a rich source of hundreds new contributions to the English language lexicon and thus we shall never stop learning.

Bibliography:

1. Last accessed on June 10, 2017, https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/

1. “54 Great Examples Of Modern Day Neologism,” last modified on April 4, 2017, https://www.vappingo.com/word-blog/great-examples-of-neologisms/

2. “Derivation and back formation,” last modified on May 6, 2017, http://www.brighthubeducation.com/esl-lesson-plans/59338-word-back-formation-list/

3. “Types Of Word Formation Processes,” last modified on April 22, 2017, http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words/wordtypes.html

4. “Word Formation – Conversion,” accessed on May 6, 2017, http://www.brighthubeducation.com/esl-lesson-plans/59339-teaching-word-formation- conversion/

5. Last modified on May 14, 2017, http://www.urbandictionary.com/

6. “Word Formation: Coinages, Nonce Words, Borrowing, and Calquing,” accessed on May 5, 2017, http://www.brighthubeducation.com/esl-lesson-plans/60060-formation-types- coinages-nonce-loanwords-and-calques/

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8. “Neologisms In Journalistic Texts,” extracted on May 16, 2017, http://rdues.bcu.ac.uk/neologisms.shtml

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10. “The 10 Best Words Internet has given English,” extracted on May 31, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/books/2013/apr/17/tom-chatfield-top-10-internet-neologisms

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12. “Political Neologisms,” last accessed on June 3, 2017, https://forum.wordreference.com/threads/political-neologisms.121754/

Appendix 1: List of texting acronyms

2F4U Too Fast For You 4YEO FYEO For Your Eyes Only AAMOF As a Matter of Fact ACK Acknowledgment AFAIK As far as I know AFAIR As far as I remember / recall AFK Away from Keyboard AKA Also known as B2K BTK Back to Keyboard BTT Back to Topic BTW By the Way B/C Because C&P Copy and Paste CU See you CYS Check your Settings DIY Do it Yourself EOBD End of Business Day EOD End of Discussion EOM End of Message EOT End of Thread / .. Text / .. Transmission FAQ Frequently asked Questions FACK Full Acknowledge FKA Formerly known as FWIW For what it's Worth FYI / JFYI (Just) For your Information FTW Fuck the World / For the Win HF Have fun HTH Hope this Helps IDK I don't know IIRC If I Recall / Remember Correctly

IMHO In my Humble Opinion IMO In my Opinion IMNSHO In my not so Humble / Honest Opinion IOW In other Words ITT In this Thread LOL Laughing out loud DGMW Don't get me wrong

MMW Mark my Words N/A Not Available / Applicable NaN Not a Number NNTR No need to Reply noob n00b Newbie NOYB None of your Business NRN No Reply Necessary OMG Oh my God OP Original Poster, Original Post OT Off Topic OTOH On the other Hand PEBKAC Problem exists between Keyboard and Chair POV Point of View ROTFL Rolling on the Floor Laughing RSVP Repondez s'il vous plait (French: Please reply) RTFM Read the fine Manual SCNR Sorry, could not Resist SFLR Sorry, for late Reply SPOC Single Point of Contact TBA To be Announced TBC To be Continued / To be Confirmed

TIA Thanks in Advance TGIF Thanks God, its Friday THX TNX Thanks TQ Thank You TYVM Thank You Very Much TYT Take your Time TTYL Talk to you Later w00t Whoomp, there it is; Meaning "Hooray" WFM Works for Me WRT With Regard to WTH What the Hell / What the Heck WTF What the Fuck YMMD You made my Day YMMV Your Mileage may vary YAM Yet Another Meeting ICYMI In Case you missed it