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Universite D'aix-Marseille UNIVERSITE D’AIX-MARSEILLE ED 352 PHYSIQUE ET SCIENCES DE LA MATIÈRE FACULTÉ DES SCIENCES Laboratoire d'accueil: UMR7345 - Physique des Interactions Ioniques et Moléculaires Thèse présentée pour obtenir le grade universitaire de docteur Discipline : Energie, Rayonnement et Plasma Kostiantyn ACHKASOV Study of negative ion surface production in cesium-free H2 and D2 plasmas: application to neutral beam injectors for ITER and DEMO Soutenue le 9 décembre 2015 devant le jury composé de : Ane AANESLAND LPP, Ecole Polytechnique CR, Rapporteur Freddy GABORIAU LAPLACE, Université de Toulouse MC, Rapporteur Ivo FURNO EPFL, Suisse MER, Examinateur Alix GICQUEL LSPM, Université de Paris Nord Professeur, Examinateur Piergiorgio SONATO Consorzio RFX, Université de Padova Professeur, Examinateur Jean-Marc LAYET PIIM, Aix-Marseille Université Professeur, Examinateur Gilles CARTRY PIIM, Aix-Marseille Université Professeur, Directeur de thèse Alain SIMONIN CEA Cadarache Ingénieur-chercheur, Co-directeur Contents Contents Résumé français i English abstract iii Résumé français élargi v List of acronyms xxiv Introduction and motivation 1 1. Negative ion surface production measurements 11 1.1 General principle of measurements 11 1.2. Experimental set-up 12 1.2.1. PHISIS 12 1.2.2. Materials 15 1.2.3. Mass spectrometer 16 1.3. Experimental protocol 19 1.3.1. Representation of spectra 19 1.3.2. RF plasma 20 1.3.3. ECR plasma 23 1.4. Conclusion 27 2. Modeling and reconstruction of NIEDF 28 2.1. Modeling of NIEDF for sample normal to the MS axis 29 2.1.1. Description of the model 29 2.1.2. SRIM software 30 2.1.3. Calculation of NI trajectories 31 2.1.4. Change of surface coverage 33 2.1.5. Effects of surface roughness 36 2.2. Modeling of NIEDF for different tilt angles of the sample 39 2.3. Conclusions on the NIEDF modeling 44 2.4. Reconstruction of surface-produced NIEDF 44 2.4.1. Determination of adjacent angular ranges 45 2.4.2. Collection efficiency 45 2.5. Results and discussion 50 2.5.1. Experimental conditions 50 2.5.2. HOPG 56 2.5.3. Gadolinium 64 2.6. Conclusion 72 3. NI production on different materials 73 Contents 3.1. Molybdenum: background measurements 74 3.2. Carbon materials 76 3.2.1. Graphitic materials 76 3.2.2. Diamond materials 79 3.3. Metals 85 3.3.1. Gadolinium 85 3.3.2. Heated tungsten 90 3.3. Conclusion 95 4. Surface state characterization of NI enhancers 98 4.1. Raman spectroscopy 99 4.1.1. Basics of Raman spectroscopy 99 4.1.2. Raman experimental set-up 101 4.1.3. Raman micro-spectrometer calibration 103 4.1.4. Raman spectroscopy of carbons 105 4.1.5. Raman spectroscopy of carbons exposed to plasma 108 4.2. Temperature programmed desorption 113 4.2.1. TPD principle and experimental conditions 113 4.2.2. Mass spectrometer calibration 116 4.2.3. In situ measurements on HOPG 118 4.2.4. Ex situ measurements on HOPG 120 4.2.5. Correlation of Raman spectroscopy with TPD for HOPG 128 4.2.6. Measurements on diamond films 132 4.2.7. Correlation of Raman spectroscopy with TPD for MCBDD 143 4.2.8. Comparison of total desorption amount 147 4.3. Conclusion 150 5. Pulsed-bias approach 152 5.1. General principle of measurements 152 5.2. Experimental results 157 5.2.1. Results for a conductive sample: HOPG 157 5.2.2. Results for an insulating material: MCD 162 5.2.3. Results for heated materials 172 5.3. Conclusion and perspectives 178 General conclusion 180 Bibliography 184 Publications 193 Résumé français Résumé français L'objectif de cette thèse était trouver des solutions pour produire de hauts rendements d’ions négatifs (IN) H–/D– sur des surfaces dans des plasmas de H2/D2 sans Cs pour des applications en fusion thermonucléaire. Ce travail a été effectué en utilisant une source de plasma à haute densité et basse pression PHISIS. Les IN sont produits sur un échantillon polarisé négativement dans le plasma. Une partie des ions positifs attirés par l'échantillon capture des électrons sur la surface et produit les IN qui sont ensuite détectés en fonction de leur énergie par un spectromètre de masse. La forme des fonctions de distribution en énergie des ions négatifs (FDEIN) mesurés dépend d'abord du mécanisme de production en surface, puis des trajectoires des ions dans le plasma et dans le spectromètre de masse. La modélisation des FDEIN a montré un accord remarquable avec l'expérience pour les matériaux carbonés. Une méthode de reconstruction mis au point dans le cadre de cette thèse a permis de déterminer les distributions en énergie et en angle des IN émis de la surface. La méthode a été validée par un bon accord des calculs SRIM avec les distributions reconstituées à partir des données expérimentales pour le graphite. Après vérification, la méthode de reconstruction a été utilisée pour caractériser la production des IN sur la surface d’un métal à faible travail de sortie (Gd) qui a donné un bon accord avec les calculs SRIM. L'algorithme de reconstruction ne dépend pas du mécanisme de production des IN en surface ni du matériel utilisé. Par conséquent, la méthode de reconstruction peut être appliquée à tout type de surface et/ou d’IN. Une étude de la production des IN en surface a été réalisée sur une grande variété de matériaux (des différents types de graphite, couches de diamant et métaux). L'influence sur le rendement des IN de la température de surface, de la tension de polarisation et du temps d'exposition au plasma a été étudiée. Une méthode de polarisation pulsée a été développée pour permettre l'étude de production des IN sur les surfaces de matériaux isolants tels que le diamant microcristallin non dopé. Nous avons montré que pour toutes les couches diamant le rendement passait par le maximum autour de 400°C – 500°C. Nous avons également montré qu’en mode pulsé le rendement était 2-3 fois supérieur à celui du régime continu. L'utilisation de diagnostics de surface ex situ tels que la désorption programmée en température (DPT) et la spectroscopie Raman ont permis de caractériser l'état de surface des matériaux carbonés. Les analyses de DPT et de spectroscopie Raman ont été effectuées sur les échantillons exposés au plasma à différentes températures de surface, afin de mettre en corrélation l'évolution du rendement des IN avec la température et le changement d'état de surface. i Résumé français L’ensemble des études a permis de montrer que pour optimiser le rendement des IN sur le diamant, il faut travailler avec une surface moins dégradée. Celle ci peut être obtenu en augmentant la température de surface jusqu’à 400°C – 500°C ce qui permet de restaurer les propriétés intrinsèques des diamants. L'état de surface moins dégradé peut également être obtenu en appliquant une polarisation pulsée qui donne la possibilité de diminuer les défauts induits par l'exposition au plasma. Mots clés : interactions plasma-surface, ions négatifs, injecteurs de neutres, spectrométrie de masse, plasmas à basse pression, désorption programmée en température, spectroscopie Raman ii English abstract English abstract The objective of this thesis was to find solutions to produce high yields of H–/D– negative ions (NI) on surfaces in Cs-free H2/D2 plasmas for thermonuclear fusion applications. This work was conducted using a low-pressure high-density plasma source PHISIS. NI are produced on a sample negatively biased in the plasma. Some of the positive ions attracted by the sample capture electrons at the surface and produce NI detected by a mass spectrometer according to their energy. The shape of the measured negative-ion energy distribution functions (NIEDF) depends first on the surface production mechanism and then on the trajectories of the ions in the plasma and the mass spectrometer. Modeling of NIEDF has shown remarkable agreement with experiment for carbon materials. The reconstruction method developed in the course of this thesis has allowed to determine the distribution in energy and angle of NI emitted from the surface. The method was validated by the good agreement of SRIM calculations with the distributions reconstructed from experimental data for highly oriented pyrolitic graphite (HOPG). After the verification, the reconstruction method was used to characterize NI production on the surface of a low work-function metal (Gd) which has given a good agreement with SRIM calculations. The algorithm of reconstruction does not depend either on the NI surface production mechanism or on the used material. Therefore, the reconstruction method can be applied to any type of surface and/or NI. A study was performed on a large variety of materials: different types of graphite, diamond films and metals. The influence of surface temperature, bias and plasma exposure time on NI yield was investigated. The method of pulsed bias was developed to enable the study of NI production on surfaces of insulating materials such as microcrystalline non-doped diamond (MCD). It was shown that for all diamond films the NI yield had a maximum at around 400°C–500°C. We have also shown that in pulse bias mode the yield was 2-3 times higher than in continuous bias mode. The use of ex situ surface diagnostics such as temperature programmed desorption (TPD) and Raman spectroscopy has allowed to characterize the surface state of carbon materials. TPD and Raman analyses were performed on the samples exposed to plasma at different surface temperatures in order to correlate the NI yield evolution with temperature to the surface state changes. Basing on the performed studies, we demonstrated that to optimize the NI yield on diamond one has to work with a less degraded surface.
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