A Sociolinguistic Analysis of Dzongkha: Variation in Final Nasals and Rhotics Wangchuk Rinzin A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Language and Linguistics University of Essex (December 2018) Acknowledgements Page | i Acknowledgements The writing of this sociolinguistic thesis would have never been completed without the untiring guidance of my supervisor, committee members, backing from my university and parent office, help from my friends, and timeless support from my family. At this stage, I would like to extend a very heartfelt and deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Peter L. Patrick, for his excellent guidance, patience, caring, suitable comments, distinctive advice, encouragement and genuine support from the beginning to the final systematic version. He enabled me to develop an understanding of this very challenging project. I am also incredibly grateful to my committee chair Professor Enam Al-Wer, who is well- versed in the sociolinguistic field and believed in my research and work from the beginning to the end. Similarly, I am also very much indebted to my advisor Dr. Vineeta Chand for her invaluable teaching on this particular subject with advice and suggestions during the past forty- four months. I am very thankful to Dr. Uri Horesh, Dr. Khairiah Al-Qahtani and Dr. Kosin Panyaatasin for helping me in Rbrul and answering a number of my queries related to statistical issues. My appreciation also goes to Miss. Siham Rouabah for reading the draft of my thesis, invaluable encouragement, helping my family during my absence and continuous support during the busiest times. From the department of langauge and linguistics, I would like to thank Dr. Wyn Johnson for enlightening me on theoretical and descriptive phonology and Dr. Desmond Thomas for giving me opportunities to practise with PhD thesis writing part I, II, and III, and other helpful and respectful colleagues for their relentless service throughout my study. Acknowledgements Page | ii I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to my government (The Royal Government of Bhutan) and my parent office (DZongkha Development Commission), for helping me to obtain study leave from the office for the period of four years. My gratitude also goes to the UK-Bhutan Society for their vital generosity in supporting this survey with the amount of £500 for supplementary expenditure during data collection. I have also not forgotten to thank all my valuable informants who kindly spent their precious time when participating in this study. Notably, they trusted me and agreed to be recorded and present my thesis with their real names. I would like to express my great appreciation for my family who have shared the bliss and stress incurred during the writing of this thesis. I am also exceptionally grateful to my son, H.E. Truelku Ugyen Drodrul Thinley Kunchap, for performing Serkem and Soelkha (offering of celestial drinks) to immediate and ultimate deities for the success of this PhD thesis. Finally, but by no means least, I offer warmest regards and finest wishes from the bottom of heart, Tashi Delek ‘auspicious-goodness’, to all of those who have offered a hand to me in any circumstances through the completion of the task. Thus, I dedicate this thesis to all of you! Abstract Page | iii Abstract This first quantitative sociolinguistic analysis of DZongkha (Bhutan’s official language), as spoken by residents of the capital Thimphu, investigates variation and change in two salient and traditional linguistic features: syllable-final nasals (N) and postvocalic rhotics (R). Thimphu is Bhutan’s central location for education, jobs, commerce and social network ties. Both (N) and (R) show variable deletion, as correlated with internal (phonetic environment, tone, grammatical category, phrase position) and external (style, sex, age, region, education) explanatory factors. Data came from thirty-six participants originating in three regional communities (Eastern native Tshangla speakers, Western native DZongkha speakers and Southern native Lhotshampa speakers). All were Bhutanese nationals now living in Thimphu, divided amongst school children at seven schools, their teachers and their parents. 3,636 nasal tokens and 2,196 rhotic tokens were analysed using Rbrul to perform multiple logistic regression. The findings demonstrate variation (and suggest change in progress) for both (N) and (R). Low and mid vowels, prepositions and adjectives, preceding and following sonorants, low-toned syllables, and non-initial position favour deletion of (N). Lhotshampa and DZongkha speakers delete nasals more; speakers with secondary education preferred the traditional form. For postvocalic (R), among linguistic factors, low-toned syllables, certain grammatical categories, preceding front vowels, non-final positions and following obstruents promote deletion. Speakers with Western DZongkha backgrounds favoured deletion, as did older adults generally. For both (R) and (N), principal results showed final consonants retained in formal reading tasks, but style could not be included in multiple regression analysis. Variation in DZongkha reflects external developments and socio-economic changes across Thimphu and the country in recent decades. Qualitative analysis of linguistic attitudes, ideology and identity also contribute towards explaining variation and potential change in the use of these features. A grammatical sketch and history of DZongkha are provided. Keywords: Bhutan, Dragon Kingdom, Druk, DZongkha, Official Language, postvocalic rhotics, primary schools, Rbrul, sociolinguistics, syllable-final nasals, variation and change. Table of Contents Page | iv Table of Contents Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... i Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………..iii Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ xi List of Figures ......................................................................................................................... xiv List of Maps …………………………………………………………………………………..xv List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................. xvi Note on Transcription ............................................................................................................ xix Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Overview ................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Motivation and Aim of the Study ......................................................................... 3 1.2.1 The Context of Language Planning and Policy in Asia ........................................... 3 1.3 Significance of the Study ....................................................................................... 7 1.4 Structure of the Thesis ........................................................................................... 7 1.5 Research Questions and Hypothesises ................................................................. 8 1.6 Diglossic Situation ................................................................................................ 10 1.7 Geographic and Demographic Information ...................................................... 12 1.8 Maps and Dialect Classifications in Bhutan ...................................................... 16 1.9 Multilingualism in Thimphu City ....................................................................... 18 1.10 Linguistic History of Dzongkha .......................................................................... 19 1.11 Linguistic Family of Dzongkha ........................................................................... 21 1.11.1 Tibeto-Burman or Sino-Tibetan Family and the Position of DZongkha ................ 21 1.11.2 Old, Middle and Modern DZongkha ...................................................................... 22 1.12 Language Policy in Bhutan ................................................................................. 24 1.12.1 Brief Account of Language Planning and the DZongkha Development Commission…………………………………………………………………………………24 1.12.2 Lingua Franca, Official Status and Decrees of Dragon Kings .............................. 26 1.12.3 DZongkha Curriculum in Schools .......................................................................... 27 Table of Contents Page | v 1.12.4 The Current Standing of DZongkha ....................................................................... 29 Chapter 2 Literature Review ................................................................................................ 33 2.1 Overview ............................................................................................................... 33 2.2 Brief Account on Language Ideology and Behaviour in Bhutan ..................... 33 2.3 Speech Community .............................................................................................. 34 2.3.1 The Concept of Speech Community ...................................................................... 34 2.3.2 Preliminary Introduction on Ethnicity and Language ...........................................