id1756359 pdfMachine by Broadgun Software - a great PDF writer! - a great PDF creator! - http://www.pdfmachine.com http://www.broadgun.com

MONASTERIES SHRINES& SOCIETY First Edition 2011 Published by · Buddhist and Brahmanical Religious MANAK ~ PUBLICATIONS PVT. LTD ,, Institutions in in their B-7, Saraswati Complex, Subhash Chowk, l Laxmi Nagar, New Delhi 110092 f ;j: Socio-Economic Context Phone:22453894,22042529 E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] USA Office Editedby 8145 KOLB AVE, ALLEN PARK, M.I. 48101 USA Birendra E-mail: [email protected] All nghts reserved

© Editor, 2011

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher .

ISBN 978-81-7831-231-6

Layout by I

l.Aser Typeset by T. ALI, Hamdard Nagar , New Delhi

Printed in India by Nice Printing Press, New Delhi

Buddhism in a Regional Perspective 85

zone has considerably high plains and hills, except in the nuclear portion of the Purna valley. The Eastern comprising the remaining districts primarily has a landscape of low elevation and irregular hills and slow-moving streams.

Previous Researches 3 The excavated sites from Vidarbha, for which published data is available, are Kaundinyapur, 6 Paunar,7 Takalaghat­ Khapa, 8 Pauni,9 Mahurjhari, 10 Mandhal, 11 Nagara, 12 15 16 17 BUDDHISM IN A REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE Khairwada, 13 N aikund, 14 Bhagimohari, Tharsa, Arni, 21 22 Arambha, 18 Adam, 19 Shirkhand, 20 Pachkheri, Bhawar, A Glance at Early Historic Vidarbha 25 Hamlapuri, 23 Mansar,2 4 Bramhapuri (district Chandrapur), 27 Bhon 26 (district Buldhana), Kholapur (district Amaravti) and others. As far as Buddhist presence in Vidarbha is concerned, REsHMA SAwANT 28 which is the main focus of this paper, excavations at Pauni ( district), Adam 29 ( district), Mansa~, 30 and recently at the site of Bhon 31 (Buldana district) have unearthed the evidence of stupa structures. New discoveries in the form can be divided, archaeologically, into two zones­ of Buddhist sculptures or rock-cut caves have also been (a) Vidarbha (extreme eastern part of the state of Maharashtra) reported .32 These studies notwithstanding, Buddhism in early and, (b) Rest of Maharashtra. 1 In Vidarbha protohistoric human historic Vidarbha has never been a main object of any detailed settlement began around the beginning of first millennium study. But a few researches are worth mentioning, such as, an BCE at the Chalcolithic levels, as evidenced at sites like article by S.B. Deo 33 focusing on Hinayana Buddhism in Tulajapur Garhi,2 Adam,3 Arambha, 4 and Shirkanda.s But at Vidarbha. Pradeep Meshram 34 has also looked into various majority of si.tes of Vidarbha, human occupation started from aspects such as the architecture of Buddhist caves, sculpture, Iron Age penod characterized by megalithic burial. In rest of and reading of inscriptions. ~aha~ashtra, ~ft~r the decline of Chalcolithic cultures, early his~or~cal habitation began during the Mauryan period but Before the advent of Buddhism: Early Iron Age Megalithic maionty of ~own sites belong to the Satavahana period. culture (700 - 300 BCE) The Vidarbha region forms the eastern part of Maharashtra and presently comprises eleven districts of Vidarbha is located on a very strategic position forming Maharashtra, viz., Buldhana, Akola, Washim, Amaravati, a link between northern and southern India. This locational advantage seems to have proved very useful for cultural Yevatmal, ~a~dh.a, Nagpur, Bhandara, Chandrapur, Gondia diffusion from north and south in Vidarbha. Numerous cultural and Gadchiroh (Fig. 1). The river Wardha forms a natural line currents passed through vidarbha which cultivated reciprocal of division for Vidarbha, creating two zones, viz. the Western relationship and induced developments in various fields. This Vidarbha and the Eastern Vidarbha. Western zone includes the districts of , Buldhana, Yevatmal and Akola. This brought Vidarbha in political orbit of India from the very early stages of historical peri:ld. It has also been observed that the

Buddhism in a Regional Perspective 87 86 Monasteries, Shrines and Society BCE. They, thus, help in assigning the Megaliths and habitations to a period between 7th and 5th centuries BCE. The early Iron Age in Vidarbha witnessed a great progress in craft specialization in metal art , lapidary or pottery. The relative progress in the use of metals suggests that the

n 2 ed for these was becoming quite considerable and the reason behind this may be related to either military, agricultural, or increasing exchange needs. The same phenomenon applies to the period of early Iron Age in Vidarbha . The wide range of iron and copper implements and variety of ornaments in gold, lapidary art of excellent artistic skill support this observation. The grave goods associated with megalithic burials of the early Iron Age of Vidarbha exhibits their artist's skill. On the basis of numerous and variety of artifacts, there seem to be distinct classes of artisans and craftsmen like blacksmith, coppersmith, -- - goldsmith, potter, cobbler, carpenter, highly skilled craftsmen in lapidaries, etc. It is interesting to note that at Naikund three Fig. 1: Vidarbha region and important Early Historic Sites copper bells are recovered from one of the stone circle having domical body which is made out of thick sheets of copper, Chalcolithic and the early Iron Age-Megalithic sites are located and the clappers of iron riveted to them internally. In another in the districts of Nagpur, Chandrapur, Bhandara and instance, the copper tongue has been attached with iron Gadchiroli. A very large number of megalithic burials (burial rivets. 36 This bimetal technological advancement in types: stone circles, menhirs, and sarcophagus) as well as craftsmanship is noteworthy. habitation sites occur in the eastern part of Vidarbha from 7'h Apart from craft specialization, the archaeozoological - 6th centuries BCE onward. Within Vidarbha, a particular evidences furnished use of cattle, sheep and a unique evidence heavy concentrations of sites with numerous megaliths are of horse (as status symbol/ transportation facility), which noticed in the district of Nagpur. Most of the sites are located show significant importance of animal husbandry. Along with in a 50km radius from Nagpur city. They include Kamptee this, a few more important developments are noticed at the (21 ° 14 N; 71 ° 15'E), Junapani (21° 12· N; 79° 00' E), Mahurjhari sites like Adam and Bhagimohari, indicating agricultural (21° 14'N; 79° 30'E), Takalaghata Khapa (20° 54' 40" N; 78° 56' intensification. Bhagimohari, a burial-cum-habitation site of 30" E), Naikund (2I° 20' N; 79° 10' E), Borgaon (21 ° 20'N; 78° Iron Age, has yielded cultivated species like barley, lentil, 55' E), and Bhagimahari (21° 24' N; 78° 51' E), Raipur (21° 5'N; common pea and grass pea as winter crop and rice, common 78° 58' E), excavated in varying degrees over the years. Of bean, horse gram, and black gram among the monsoon these, Takalaghata-Khapa, Naikund, Bhagimahari, and (summer) crop, suggesting that the early Iron Age inhabitants Mahurjhari have habitational mounds. The rest are exclusively not only knew and developed the agricultural skill, but also burial sites. Some sites are only habitation sites: Kaundinyapur carried out their farming operations during both summer (20° 55' N; 78° 05' E), Arni (20° 4' N; 78° 57' E), and Tharsa (21° (khari.f) and winter (rabbi) seasons. Rice had perhaps become 15' N; 21° 15' E). The dates for the middle levels of megalithic the commonest ingredient of the staple during the pt habitations at Takalaghat35 are 615 ± 105 BCE and 465 ± 90

88 Monasteries, Shrines and Society Buddhism in a Regional Perspective 89

millennium BCE.37The site of Adam yielded domestic rice h s been observed during early historical period of western grass pea, leguminous cotyledons, weed species, Indian juju be' ~ccan. 43 Though shell remains from excavated sites of the beleric myrabolan, etc. from the early Iron Age levels. Of th~ rotohistoric and early historical period from Vidarbha are two early Iron Age megalithic sites, Naikund and Khairwa da ~ot studied in specific, the archaeological evidences from these the former has yielded evidence for rice, wheat, barley, black sites indicate similar nature of procurement of shells by the gram and Indian jujube and latter furnished the evidence for communities. The sites like Adam, 44 Shirkanda, 45 and rice, weeds of cultivation. 38 These evidences definitely indic ate Bramhapuri 46 have yielded the evidence of marine shell objects fairly de_veloped agricultural economy during the early Iron in the form of bangles or beads, indicating long distance Age penod. The gradual spread of iron technology is giv en exchange. as the one of the reasons for intensification of agriculture whi ch The period of circa 500-300 BCE witnessed the use of also made it possible the necessary surplus for the productio n punch-marked coins in limited scale as very few coins are of commodities for exchange. 39 reported from Vidarbha region. Coins are reported from: 47 48 The wide range of iron implements found in the buri als unknown place in Vidarbha ; Bramhapuri (district 49 and the habitation sites and the discovery of iron-smelti ng Chandrapur); Akola, Bhandara and Yevatmal ; Umrer5° furnace led the scholars to experiment and to check whe ther (district Nagpur) etc. Naikund was producing iron implements and had exchang e In my doctoral research, I have attempted to show that with ot~er site~. It yielded an interesting results suggesti ng mahiijanapada was situated in the Wardha-Winganga that the iron obJects from Mahurjhari, Khapa, Gangapur, and valley and its cultural material can be identified with early Borgaon had been produced at Naikund. 40 The site of Iron Age-Megalithic culture of Vidarbha. 5 1 This period is Mahurjhari has yielded a large-scale carnelian, jasper, and marked by agro-pastoral economy with craft specialization; agate beads of different varieties. This site is regarded as a extensive and creative use of metals like iron and copper; use bead manufacturing centre of early Iron Age. Similarly the of horse and horse ornaments; intra-regional exchange/ trade; site of Raipur is also labeled as a bead making centre, bu t not and a widespread ideology of erecting megaliths over the as big as that of Mahurjhari. The study also put forward that dead. the bead-making centres referred above possibly had exchan ge Thus, during c. 7th-3 rd centuries BCE, when north India mechanism with other centres like Takalaghat-Khapa, Naik und was experiencing the emergence of urbanization, Vidarbha and Khairwada. 41 A few gold objects are also reported fro m witnessed a coexistence of agro-pastoral way of life in the megalithic sites. Since no known source for gold is traceabl e form of Janapada formation and interwoven community of in nearby region, tentatively it is assumed that gold came fro m megalithic builders. Kolar mines of . It has been observed that th e Chalcolithic communities of western Deccan were using marin e Advent of Buddhism: Mauryan and pre-Satavahana period shell. The presence of these shells especially Turbinella pyrum (300 BCE - 100 BCE) or sacred conch shell at the Chalcolithic sites, majority of them Vidarbha region gradually evolved from the early Iron in the form of bangles, was probably result of long distance Age pre-literate society to early historic literate society, which trade or through contact with coastal communities. The set new path for development. This has been observed in the Turbinella pyrum species are found on coral reef areas in Gulf :"1auryan and pre-Satavahana period (c. 300-lO0BCE). The of Kachchh on the coast, Gulf of Khambhat, Palk of mteraction with northern India amplified as based Bay and Gulf of Mannar. 42 Similar exploitation and use of shells dynasties turned towards southern India as a part of their

· \0 a ~ I n, (fl ;:t­ -; s ~ !:) l [ gi n J" - · · tx:J ~ ~ !:) :: ~ ;;; ~ 0 §. ? [ \0 ..., °3. l - 68; 92: 73-74 - 2007, References 1988-89: 50-62; 1988-89: deposits et al. et JAR 1990-91: 45-50; 1990-91: 1991-92: 63 1991-92: Nath 69-79 1992: IAR 1991 IAR 1978-79: 71-72; IAR 1978-79: 1984-85: 55-56 IAR 1992-93: 55-62 IAR 1992-93: Deotare 2008 Sawant 2006 Dikshit 1968 2008 Sharma 2005 Joshi and Deotare n the pre-Satavahana etc. i silver appliquE ity wells, v canal, . Parvati; Janapada l acti ra trinetra ructu st le a c Table 3.1 Table g e s Other important antiquities are: ar . d l e brick wells and brick terracotta ring eld pa, u t s carnelian, quartz, jasper; copper antimony has yi , mullers and grinders, etc.; a n , pestles - rm -of Brick Cultural Material Cultural bead, whetstone and fragment iron of rod are also reported. Excavation has yielded burnt brick structures; remains of public red wares, besides a solitary example of Northern Polished Black Ware. Other important antiquities are: punch-marked coins; hand­ made figurines, both human and animals, some with features; few etched carnelian beads; beads of crystal, agate and terracotta; iron implements, A etc. stupa was also discovered. Black-and-red ware bowls and dishes and a tiny Northern Black Polished sherd a of bowl are reported. Fragments bangle, of crystal Northern Polished Black sherd. No other details are available. Pottery assemblage consists of red ware, which continued with certain innovations in the form of micaceous red ware with application of red and brown slip. The ceramic shapes included storage jars and vases, basins, dish-on-stand, huge bowls with inverted rims. Some of the important antiquities are grinding stone, iron knives, points, fo rods and few terracotta beads, etc. The excavatio residential as well as commercial structures, irrigation Few sherds are of NBP reported. Other important antiquities are beads of terracotta rods; carnelian finger ring etc. (stupa structure will be discussed in later paragraphs) miniature bell; antimony rod; punch-marked coins etc. unslipped red ware and large number of red polished ware Pottery of this period consists of black-and-red ware, slipped and punch-marked coin; copper punch-marked coin; two terracotta a turbaned male head; and Siva-Parvati with bull. A stupa structure Two pieces jet black of Northern Polished ware Black and (NBP) punch-marked coin of locally issued type are reported Pottery type of this period include micaceous red ware, slipped and particularly spouted vessels and sprinklers, etc. Antiquities include: beads of semi-precious stone and terracotta; bangles; iron objects The Mauryan brought layers (6-5) to light a few associated red was also discovered. Kuhi, Arni, il: (tehsil: s ) (tehsil: (tehsil: Details of excavated sites which have yielded Mauryan and (teh hsil: (tehsil: e (t : Chandur, eye bead; earplugs jasper, of glass and terracotta; spindle whorls Site Adam district: Nagpur) drainage system. Pottery consists of micaceous red and black-and­ Arambha Samudrapur, district: Wardha) Arni district: Yevatmal) Bhawar (district: Bhandara) Buldhana Bhon (district Bramhapuri Bramhapuri, unslipped red ware. The important antiquities are: district (tehsil: district: Amaravati) in terracotta; small arrow head; part of javelin; iron; chisel of Chandrapur) animal figurines; and beads. Nagpur) Amaravati) Mansar Kaundinyapura Three sherds of are NBP found Ramtek, district: Kholapur (district: Pachkheri Kuhi, district: wares showing vases of Ahicchatra lOA type and black-and-red ware

Buddhism in a Regional Perspective 93 92 Monasteries, Shrines and Society expansionist policy. This resulted in number of changes in ct') r--.. social, economic, political and religious fields. These changes ..,;. '-D are quite evident from available archaeological and literary N data. However, the most important change was the arrival of o;, ct:) ..... Buddhism in this land during the Mauryan period. The most °'O'\ °' ..... important visible outcome of this penetration is the remains .....°' .r: p::; -:u of stupa structure at various sites. Before dealing with this ......

Stupa sites from Vidarbha A legend has ·been furnished by Hiuen Tsang (also spelt as Yuan Chwang) that Asoka constructed 84000 stupas or tapes are generally said to have been for the distribution of the Buddhas relics taken for the purpose by the king from seven 52 of the eight topes erected by the original recipients. Whether to believe in this legend is difficult to answer, but one may definitely state that during Asoka's time Buddhism attained 53 54 new heights. The religious establishments at Pauni, Ter, 57 58 Bhon, 55 Amaravati, 56 Nagarjunkonda, Bh.1ttiprolu, and Jaggayyapeta 59 could have been the dir ct or indirect consequences of Asoka's full-hearted enc 1uragement to Buddhism in Deccan. An early spread of Buddhism down the south and western Deccan was probably routed through Vidarbha. The region of Vidarbha produced four sites with stupa structures. They are discussed in following paragraphs with their chronological appearance.

Pauni The site of Pauni (20° 48'N; 79° 39'E) (district Bhandara, Maharashtra) is 82 km due southeast of Nagpur. It was excavated by Nagpur University in collaboration with the Archaeological Survey of India. 60 The site was excavated for two seasons (1969 and 1970). One of the locality known as Jagannatha Tekdi yielded remains of stilpacomplex. The structural phases of stupa broadly fall into three phases. 61 (Fig. 2):

94 Monasteries, Shrines and Society Buddhism in a Regional Perspective 95

Phase I Ma uryan i. Original stupa (original diameter 38.20 mt, brick size 40 x 37 x 10 cm) Phase II Sunga ii. The first encasement, iii. The lime Pradakf?hitJ-iipatha with wooden railing, iv. Five course brick ring with wooden ring v. Stone stump railing, vi. Pradak~hil'!-iipatha (maximum width 2.78 mt) withtonelabs, outer railing, gateways, pillar Phase III Satavahana­ K!,>atrapa vii. Repairs and renovations on I a limited scale I I This excavation has yielded number of inscriptions on coping stone, octagonal pillars of the outer railing, sucis or horizontal bars etc. Most of the them are of one line and they record donations made by individuals. None of these inscriptions refer, even indirectly, to any king, royal officers or any member of the royal family. That forces us to conclude that these structures were able to survive and expand due to their intricate linkages with the common population. Various sculptural remains are also reported in the form of anthropomorphic (human, ya~a) floral, geometric, and religious motifs. 62

Bhon The site of Bhon (20° 55' N; 76° 39' E) is situated on the right bank of the river Purna in Sangrampur taluka of Buldhana I district, Maharashtra. This site was excavated by Deccan I College for five seasons (2003 to 2007). The excavation has I unearthed brick built stupa remains (Fig. 3). The diameter of - = :li t;I uJ w stupa is 14 m including Prada~hil'!-iipatha. The dome is completely it"' ~ ~ absent . The Pradak~hil'!-iipatha is around 1.75 m in breadth L J forming five rows -of bricks. The brick sizes are restricted to

96 Monasteries,Shrines and Society Buddhism in a RegionalPerspective 97

two dimensions i.e. 40 x 26 x 22 x 8 cm and 52 x 28 x 24 x 8 cm. The outermost brick row of Prada~hi)Jii patha has peculiar symbols incised on it . Post-holes are also noted on the outermost row of Pradafa;hi)Jiipatha, which probably indicates the existence of wooden railing around the stupa. No relic casket has been found but bottommost levels of stupa yielded few potsherds, a bone point and lot of charcoal. This charcoal 1 · dated to 2180±90 years BP. According to the excavator, the :,,ructural stupa at Bhon is of 3rd century BCE. It is likely to be the earliest stupa in Maharashtra. 63

Mansar The site of Mansar (21° 24' N; 79° 17' E) (tehsil: Ramtek, district: Nagpur) was excavated by the Archaeological Survey of India. At the locality called Hidimba Tekdi of Mansar, at the depth of 3.90m built right over bed rock, portion of a brick built stupa, having diameter of 8m, was exposed. The size of bricks used for the stupa is 46 x 22 x 7cm. The nature of evidence of fallen debris in a particular fashion indicates that this stupa was destroyed by an earthquake. Immediately after the destruction of original stupa (stiipaI) in period 1B another stiipa was built, this time by creating boxes which were filled up with small boulders, brick bats and earth. In one of the boxes, thirty-four courses of bricks measuring 42 x 22 x 8cm were exposed. The base and knob of a lime stone relic casket were recovered from the area of stupa. These two stupas were constructed during the late Maurya and the early Sunga period. Also of this period, on the south-eastern comer of Hidimba Tekdi, a brick built oblong chaitya has been exposed. 64

Adam The site of Adam (21° 00' N; 79° 28' E) was excavated by the Archaeological Survey of India. A locality called Devi Hudki (ADM - 2) yielded remains of a stupa. The earthen stupa was built over with two distinct phases of construction. Circular on plan, the stupa consisted of drum (medhz) (radius 17.30m) and dome (a1Jqa)(radius 10.30m) which atop the basal remains

Buddhism in a RegionalPerspective 99 98 Monasteries,Shrines and Society frne of Asoka 67 and the other to that of the Vakatakas. The of a square harmikii(3.50m); in the centre of it was noticed a ~cription dated to Mauryan period is a four line inscription ring stone once supporting the yas?i of a chhatravali.This stupa ith characters of the early Brahmi alphabet resembling in did not yield any relic casket. It is dated to c. is1 century CE :any cases to those of the Gimar edicts of ~soka. ~e lan~age on the basis of coins. According to the excavators, 'assigned is early Prakrit; similar to the one used m the Gimar edicts. to two phases of period V the stupa of earlier phase was built The object of inscription was to record the command o_fsome over layer (5) whereas towards the later phase the restoration lord (Siimi) prohibiting the capture and slaughter (evidently took place on the top layer (4). In earlier phase a L-shaped of some animals in certain seasons as in Asoka's Fifth pillar pathway (9.80 x 0.40 m) leading to the stupa was demarcated edict, or may be throughout the year) and declaring some with a single coursed shale stone wall whereas in the later punishment for those "'."ho dared_ to disobey it. The third line phase the same was indicated by a brick wall (22.20 x 1.20 m); mentions executive officers (amacha = amatyah) whose duty mud as mortar remained common to both the phases.'6.5 rnight have been to enforce these orders. The last _line c~ntains the date 14, denoting probably the regnal year m which the Epigraphic Data record was incised. In some of his inscriptions (e.g. Rupanath On the basis of available evidences the spread of Rock Inscription) Asoka ordered his officers to get his edicts Buddhism in the region of Vidarbha can be traced back to engraved on stone pillars, rocks and stone slabs throughout Mauryan period, especially dur-ing Asoka's reign. The the districts in their charge. The Deotek inscription probably Ceylonese Chronicle Mahiivamsa contributes to our knowledge is the only instance of its kind. According to V.V. Mirashi, 68 regarding the third Buddhist Council, which met during the the present edict may have been issued by a Dharmamahamiitra reign of Asoka at his capital . According to the text, in the 14th year after the coronation of Asoka. the Council dispatched missionaries for propagating Buddhism in various countries. Some of the missionaries and related Other Miscellaneous Inscriptions regions are listed here. They are: Majjhantika to Kashmir and At Pauni, remains of a very flourishing Hinayana Gandhiira, Mahiideva to Mahi~a-Mai:,.<;lala,Rak1?ita to Vanavasi, Buddhist establishment have been brought to light. In terms Dharmarak1?itato Aparantaka, Maharakshita to Yavana country, of antiquity, this establishment could go back to late Mauryan Sona and Uttara to Suvari:,.abhfuni, Majjhima to Himavata region and early Sunga period. This establishment comprised of two and Mahendra and others to Lanka. Mahiidhamaraksitawas sent stupas (one atJagannath mound and the other atChandkapura, 66 to the region of Maharashtra. Even though ther~ is no direct which is about a mile due south of Pauni) and the remains of mention by Asoka having sent a missionary to the region of possible brick-built monastery in the regions adjacent to these Vidarbha as such, but some recent evidences testifies to the Stupa. Inscriptions associated with these stupas do not mention Buddhist contacts with this region such as Deotek stone slab any king or any other royal person. People, mostly from the inscription of Mauryan period. merchant community, seem to have donated for the upkeep of the stupa. It is apparent that such a magnificent centre Deotek Inscription patronized on a grand scaie o/ the trading community must Deotek is a small village in Chandrapur district, about have attracted a large community of bhikkhus from different 50 miles southeast of Nagpur. It contains an old temple in a parts of Vidarbha and elsewhere. 69 decaying condition and a large stone slab bearing two Some rock-cut caves are located about six miles from the epigraphs. Out of the two inscriptions, one dates back to the village of Mandhal about forty miles due east of Nagpur .

100 Monasteries, Shrines and Society Buddhism in a Regional Perspective 101 Inscription recorded here are dated to c. 2nd century BCE. (IV) T~ese are so_ far. the earliest caves with inscriptions in the V1da~bha regi_on.There are two inscribed records: one is longer Mauryas in Vidarbha: Sphere of Influence and m two lines, the other is short and of one word only Inscribed lines are: · According to the Puriii;ias, the founder of the Nanda " ..•. sa Vanda/aka putasa dynasty Mahiipadma Nanda exterminated the entire K~atriya Apalasa matikamam" race. The K~atriya dynasties which were uprooted by him were Aikshviiku, Piinchiila, Kasi, Haihaya, Kalinga, Kuru , Meaning: ' ... (the cave is) the work of Apala, the Mithilii, Surasena, Vitihotra and Asrnaka. 74 Therefore the son of Vandalaka .....' annexation of Asmaka mahiijanapadqby the Nandas probably !tis ~t~resting to note some resembling names are found in brought Vidarbha under the influence of Magadha based mscnptlons elsewhere in Vidarbha. Pradeep Meshram7o of empires .75 The existence of a city called Navananda Dehra Nagpur University discovered Brahmi inscription of c. 1st (modern Nanded) on the Godavari has been pointed out by cen~ B_C~at Pullar in Bhiwapur tehsil in . scholars to indicate Nanda supremacy over considerable parts 76 The ~cnption founded engraved on a stone pillar lying in of the Deccan. One may think as to why Nanda rulers felt it the fields near a rock cut cave, contains four letters and reads· necessary to annex this region. It is likely that the growing "Vandalasa" · Magadhan Empire must have experienced resource crunch. Also at Pa uni, inscription no. 30, which is on fragmentary The Mauryas faced a similar situation later . As a result of this, stone, reads- probably the Magadha rulers were attracted tow.ards South India and Vidarbha. Probably what had attracted the Nandas "Nadana gahapatino putasa in early age and the Mauryas at a later stage were the large Valanakasa pasado " scale iron ore deposit and mineral sources in Vidarbha and This refers to the gift by Valanaka, who was the son of the other lucrative sources of far south for which they had to householder (g~hapa~i)Nandana. Incidentally, this is the only cross through Vidarbha, therefore, bringing this area under record at Pauru, which refers specifically to the "gahapati."71 their influence was essential. Mahiipadma Nanda annexed On the basis of the evidence in the excavations at Pauni and Asmaka and other areas for extermination of K~atriyas. explorations of the rock-cut caves in the Chandala forest it Probably expansion of Magadhan empire for rich resources may be stated that the Vidarbha region came under influe~ce must have been the concealed reason behind his expansionist of Hinayana Buddhism in the Maurya period. 72 Recently, policy. Same strategy seems to have adopted by the Mauryas. Maharashtra State Department of Archaeology and Ancient The widened trade orbit and increasing demands of their own Indian History, Culture and Archaeology department of state had forced the Mauryas to search for resources of raw Na~ur Uni~ersity jointly read the stone inscription of the material, minerals and lucrative objects in neighboring areas penod of Asoka near Bhivkund (3 km from Adam) near where they could satisfy their needs without imposing direct, Mandhal. This Brahrni inscription is on the ceiling of the centralized rule over the same. Therefore, as S. Seneviratne Pandava caves. Inscription reads- 'ea ta ma va cchi.''13 appropriately described, Mauryas maintained relations with bordering areas as "power to collect homage and tribute" and '.'not the power to organize all political affairs of a large and m principle precisely delirnitable area." 77 What this period reflects is the absence of any significant

102 Monasteries,Shrines and Society Buddhism in a RegionalPerspective 103 known power in Vidarbha. The Asmakas, though literally got •gnificant local ruler in this region. During the pre- of any si b f . annexed by the Nandas, but the possibility of its survival in _ -h na period there are considerable num er o com Satava a d l t . submissive nature cannot be denied. Probably some other local by local rulers showing change and eve opmen m issues ·ty level which' subsequently hastene d sue h chiefs also must have been getting heavy hands over the aut h on . d ( . conditions and trying to establish a small rule. There is no developments as regional and long di_stance t_ra te dc01nd from Bhon and Adam) general mcrease m s an ar evidence of direct rule of Mauryas, but there are evidences of evi• aences ' h long distance trade which required some local administrative f r ing in the form of structural developments (sue as, functionary to carry it efficiently . Archaeological evidences :id:pread use of ring well, good quality bricks for houses, support long distance trade in the form of Punch-marked coins nd material culture (evidences from Adam and Bhon) etc. ) a s- -h · d of Magadha-Maurya, Ujjain-Eran coins, cast coins of Taxila, showing progressive urban traits . The pre- a~ava ana per10 etc. Some antiquities having Mauryan influence like eye bead, tep further towards the state formation process and was a S • d · th decorated legged quern, structural developments like Stupa, full-fledged urbanization. Subsequent peno , i:e. e ring-wells (indicating development of urban traits) cannot exist Siitavahana period, experienced further developme~t m ~tate without an active role of local powers in Vidarbha. Therefore f mation and urbanization process due to changes m various this period has been labeled as 'Sphere of Influence' which fieldsor religious, social, economic, an d po l'ti' 1 ca 1. reflects the active role of the Mauryas in the region of Vidarbha but without disturbing or interfering local political set up. Megaliths, Buddhism and the Mauryas: Change in economic The Mauryan presence has been recognized by the presence set up and expansion of trade of things like NBPW, punch-marked coin, spread of Buddhist Undoubtedly, during the protohistoric and historic institutions (stupa), typical Mauryan antiquities like eye beads, periods, the Vidarbha region, being a significant ~esour~~ base, etc., which had come through the trade orbit expanded by had its own importance. Moreover the strategic position of the Mauryas. The subsequent period saw the emergence of the region constituted a connecting link between 1:o~them a~d powerful local powers in the Vidarbha after the collapse of southern India. In early historic period political unity the Mauryan Empire. established by the Mauryas booste~ trad_e. The ~ra~e with south India also intensified during this penod, which is more Period of decentralization of power: Emergence of local rulers visible if one looks the locations of Asokan edicts which occur and city states in large number in the penin~ula an~ in th~ 1:orth In~ia alo~g After the disintegration of Mauryan Empire India routes leading to the penmsula. 8 As 1t is mentioned m underwent many political changes. This period witnessed the Arthasastra (7.12.22-24), southern route was regarded as more emergence of new local powers in different parts of India, profitable as gold, pearls, diamonds, semiprecious stones, ~nd which can be therefore named as the 'Period of gems came from there. 79 South India, particularly gold bearing Decentralization of Power.' As far as Vidarbha is concerned, region of Karnataka, pearl producers like c_oast~l Andhra we see the emergence of local powers. Circa 2nd century BCE Pradesh, and Gulf of Mannar, ivory, spices, semiprecious stones onwards, we get coins of Bhadra, Mitra and coins of unknown etc. provided lucrative resources for increasing Mauryan trade local rulers (e.g. from Bhon) along with coins issued by some (regional and inter-continental). Vidarbha worked as gateway cities (e.g. Bhadravati). But this emergence of local rulers toward extreme south for Mauryas not only in religious proved favorable for the development of Vidarbha in general. mission but more importantly in trade mechanism . Earlier period (Mauryan period) was marked by an absence The importance of the Vidarbha region as a significant

104 Monasteries, Shrines and Society Buddhism in a Regional Perspective 105

r~sm1~ce_area was recognized during the protohistoric and Table 3.2 historic times. In the Arthasiistra (2.11.37) Sabharashtrakac omes Possible export items of trade from Vidarbha as place from where diamonds could be obtained.so And and South India Sabharashtrakais identified with Vidarbha in Bhattaswa min's 81 Possibleitems for exportfor inter-regionaland long commentary. . on the Arthasiistra. Brhatsamhitiio,JVaraharnihi· ra District mentions V1darbha (XIV.8) as a region in south-eas tern distance trade Spices, lac, teak wood, silk (wild), raw iron as direc~on, which included modem Berar and the tract betwe en 1. Bhandara the nvers Varada and Wainganga. The people of Vidarb ha well as iron objects, food grains, bamboo objects a~e referred to as Vaidarbha (IX.27). There is a mention of the and other forest products, etc. Iron, mica, ochre, pottery, diamond, silk (wild), nver Ve~a (XYI.9) _(~odern Wainganga), a tributary of 2. Chandrapur and Gadchiroli lime and forest products, etc. Godavan. Varaham1hira refers to its banks (IV.26), whi ch Copper, coal, gold, iron, lead, limestone, mica, 3. Nagpur were celebrated for diamond industry (LXXIX.6).a2 The gems and semi-precious stone (raw material or ~handrapur Gazetteer mentions a place called Wairaga d finished beads), bamboo objects, etc. situated at the confluence of Kophragarhi and Sathatas in the 4. South India Gold, diamond, pearls, salt, shells, semi­ Gadchiroli tehsil (now in Gadchiroli district) . It is recorde d precious stones (raw material or finished that Wairagad once possessed diamond mines and are referr ed beads), coral, spices, ivory, etc. to i~ the 'Ain-i-Akabari' of Abul Fazal. 83 The importance of :"7airagad (c?rrupted form of Vajragarh; Vajra means diamo nd) construction of megalithic burials in the form of circles, 84 1s re_flected m_some early South Indian Inscription. Vajra or menhirs, and sarcophagus. Other than these ritualistic Vay1raga~am 1s mention~d in Tamil literature and inscripti on . buildings over the dead, we have very less or negligible data The earliest reference 1s perhaps in Tamil poem entitle d available about religious beliefs of the people of this period . 'Silappadigaram'which is believed to have been written betwee n With the advent of Buddhism in Vidarbha the scenario changed 110 _and 140 CE. It is stated in this poem that the Chola king since it brought with it a whole new idea of philosophy, new Karikala was on terms of friendship with the Kings of Vajra, religious structural settings, new contacts with varied groups 85 Magadha, and Avanti. It is also noteworthy that the chie f of population (monks, traders, royal officials from the north 86 queen of Chedi King was from Vajragadh. It seem s etc.), and probably the new way of living or some developed that because of strong political entity and producer of suc h concepts of urbanization from northern India. ~aluable trading commodity(diamond), Vajragadh had very ~portant role to play in contemporary trade. Apart from such Spread of ideas: Manifestation of Buddhist Symbolism items of trade mentioned in the literature, there might be following goods available for trade: The interaction between different regions during Mauryan Thus, on th~ whole it is surmised that Vidarbha migh t and subsequent periods significantly contributed to the spread hav: played an important role in the widening trade orbi t of various ideas (artistic, religious, material, technology etc.) dunng Mauryan period with its resources described above. which recurrently occurred at various sites in early historic India. Some of the examples are given here. C] Religio-cultural aspects The foremost example of spread of idea is the construction of stupa. With the spread of tenets of Buddhism and the efforts The period before the arrival of Buddhism in Vidarbha of Asoka, the concept of building of stupa also spread all over has witnessed Megalithic culture which saw large scale

106 Monasteries, Shrines and Society Buddhism in a Regional Perspective 107

Indian subcontinent . The visible result is remains of stu pa structures, of mud or brick, small or big, all over India. The stupa sites in Vidarbha are already discussed above. The sites like Nasik, Adam, Bahal, Bhan, Pauni (all in Maharashtra), Kakarehta (), Karvan (Gujara t), Panch-Pahari (), Sonkh (Uttar Pradesh), Taxila (Pakist an ), have yielded few legged querns decorated with auspici ous Buddhist symbols like triratna,nandipiida, , dharmachakr a, pair of fish (min-yugma), triangle-headed standard etc. 87 (Fig. 4). The provenance of this object from Maharashtra to Taxila, A. Bhon specimen and up to Uttar Pradesh and Bihar signifies the popularity of B. Nasik specimen this object. Though its function is not clear to us today. Only speculations can be made. The presence of auspicious symb ols on these querns perhaps indicates ritualistic usage of the se ~llO~....___....,,,. ..._,.,.,.,-. ______.._ legged querns in the past . ---•--.-•--•-u•.J"-•"-~o#'--___,,.,__,,,...... _.- ••-•----•••-•••·--..-•------·- -- ..,,,....._,..--.------,.,,,...,,__·- Another very interesting feature has been noted at the l_,..,...~------___,,,.,...._,,...,,__..... - _ __,._ -- site of Bhan. The outermost brick row of Pradak::jhitJii.patha of ,_,.-.,_,,-...._,.,.-..,~--,...__,,-- ---:~:- ,..,,,- _,__. stupa has three peculiar symbols, i.e . Brahrni 'ma,' second is _.,.,.,,..._.---~------present day devanagari 'ta'; and third symbol somewhat looks ~- like a stupa structure, engraved on it (Fig. 5). Similar type of engraving on bricks is noted at the site of Navdatoli. The bricks of drum portion of Navdatoli stupa bear some Brahrni letters (details about symbols are not published in report ).88 C. Taxila specimen Few engraving on the bricks is also reported from the site of Kasrawad, however they are regarded as 'some irregu lar marks of the brick makers ,'89 but the possibility can no t be ruled out of these being marks some letters or Buddhi st Fig. 4: Decorated legged quems from Nasik, Bhon and Taxila symbols. The similarity in using the same idea, i.e. engravin g symbols on bricks of Pradak!jhi1J-apatha, is striking as the se places are geographically quite far from one another. Henc e interaction between these areas (due to trade contact or any other reason) must have played some role in imparting a similarity -in these engraved decorations . Third example is that of the triratna symbol. Triratna symbol represents the three important tenets of Buddhism, 1. 2. 3. the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha. This symbol has been profusely and very artistically depicted not only on the Fig. 5: Symbols engraved on bricks of Pradakshi1J-apatha,Bhon stilpa decoration (from , to Nagatjunkonda) but (Courtesy: Dr . B.C. Deotare)

108 Monasteries,Shrines and Society Buddhism in a RegionalPerspective 109

on various early historic objects like pottery, decorated legged querns, pendants, household objects, seals and sealings etc. The site of Bhan yielded almost twenty-five triratna pendants out of that, four pendants are highly decorated, similar to those exhibited in Bharhut panels (Fig. 6a-6c). These are some representative examples of Buddhist symbolism manifested through various modes of expression in early historic period in Vidarbha along with the rest of Indian subcontinent. The spread of Buddhist ideology with unique similarities in artistic expression is outstanding in spatial and temporal context.

Patterns of patronage to Buddhist instituti ons In western Maharashtra there are various groups of Buddhist monuments (caves, stupa, vihiiras), important are Bhaja, Karle, Bedase, Kuda, Kanheri, , , Nasik, Ajanta etc. Majority of monastic structures received donations from traders (i.e. perfumer), guilds, professionals (i.e . physician), common people etc . The caves of Nasik (some 20 in number) owed their existence to the Siitaviihanas and the K~atrapas. 90 It is generally assumed that big religious establishments needed royal or mercantile backing to flourish. Interestingly, in the case of stupa establishment at Pauni, it seems that this establishment was supported by the common population. Votive inscriptions from Pauni do not refer, even indirectly, to any kind of royal patronage. Even the names of any royal official do not figure as donor. So we may conclude that the Pauni stupa was a monument revered and nourished by the common population. Similarly the archaeological material from the site of Bhon is a good example of patronage provided by the royalty as well as the commoners. The stupa structure, triratna pendants, triratna symbols on pottery, legged querns (decorated with auspicious Buddhist symbols), and symbols depicted on coins Fig. 6a-6c: Decorated triratnapendant from Bh . (i.e. tree-in-railing, wheel) are various forms through which Deotare et al. 2007) Bh k d (F' on (Fig. 6a, after an ideology of Buddhism recurrently comes in forefront. Bh h (F,. o ar an ig. 6b, after Deo 2000) and ar ut ig. 6c, after Cunningham 1879)

Budd/liSlllin a Regional Perspective 111 110 Monasteries,Shrines and Society rahalaya, Bhopal during 28th S g Summing up Gandhi Rashtriya Manav an -30th Nov. 2005. . . r 'Report of Paunar Excavation The development of Megalithic culture of early Iron Age 7. S.B. Deo and M.K._Dh~valika ~I (Humanities),Vol. XVIII, Nos. in Vidarbha, Kamataka and ; the penetration (1967),' Nagpur University Jottrtl of the Mauryan economy and administration on one hand and 3 & 3, 1968. . a hat and Khapa, Nagpur, 1970. Buddhism on the other, have induced social changes. Increas e 8. S.B. Deo, Excavationsa~ Takaif Excavation (1969-70), Nagpur, in trade, extent of trade network, trader class, and ultimately 9. S.B. Deo and J.P. Joshi, Pau1~ionsat Pauni, New Delhi, 1998. 1972; A. Nath, F~rtl~r Excava_ 1970-72, Nagpur, 1973. change in economical background, may have accelerate d 115 10. S.B. Deo, Mahunharz Excav~101

112 Monasteries, Shrines and Society Buddhism in a Regional Perspective 113

28. S.B. .Deo and J.P. Joshi, Pauni Excavation (1969-70), Nagpur Institute 43, 1984, pp. 49-52. 1972. · 41. P.S. Joshi, The Vidarbha Megaliths: A Cultu~al S_tudy. 29. A. Nath, 'Archaeology of the Wardha Wainganga Divide,' Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation submitted to Umvers1ty of Puratattva 20, 1989, pp. 93-98; A.Nath, 'Adam - an Index to Poona, Department of Archaeology, 1993, pp. 207-~08. , . Vidarbha Archaeology,' in B.U. Nayak and N. C. Ghosh (eds.), 42. J.M. Kenoyer, 'Shell Working at Mohenjo-daro Pakistan, m J. New Trends in Indian Art and Archaeology, Vol. I, New Delhi, Schotsmans and M Taddei (ed.), South Asian Archaeology1983, 1992, pp. 69-79. Naples, 1985, pp. 301; Arati Deshpande - Mukherjee, 'Marine 30. J.P. Joshi and A.K. Sharma, 'Mansar Excavation 1998-2004: shell utilization by the chalcolithic societies of Western Deccan the Discovery of Pravarapur,' Puramanthan (Pravarapur region of India,' in Daniella E. Bar, Yoser Mayer (ed.), special) 3, 2005, pp. 1-26. Archaeomalacology,Proceedings of the 9th conference of the 31. B.C Deotare, Gurudas Shete, Reshma Sawant, Vaishali Kathale international council of Archaeozoology, Durham, 2002, PP· S. Naik, 'Discovery of Structural Stupa at Bhon, Distric; 174-184. Buldana, Maharashtra,' Puratattva, 37, 2007, pp. 177-185. 43. See Arati Deshpande - Mukherjee, op. cit., pp. 174-184. 32. IAR 1994-95, p. 58; Pradeep Meshram, 'Vidarbhat Alikade 44. lAR 1990-91, pp. 89-90. Milalele Kahi Bauddha Puravashesha,' Vidarbha Samshodhana 45. IAR 1991-92, pp. 68-69. . . . . Manda/ 1995, 38, pp. 155-166. 46. S.R. Walimbe, 'Excavations at the Early Histonc Site of Kahah­ 33. S.B. Deo, 'New Evidence of Hinayana Buddhism in Vidarbha,' Bramhapuri,' Deccan CollageAnnual Report (2001-2002), Pune, Puratattva, 6, 1972-73, pp. 84-86. 2003, pp. 39-40. . . . _ _ 34 . Pradeep Meshram, Vidarbhatil Budclha Dharmacha Itihaas, 47. D. Rajgor, Punch-markedCoins of Early Historic India, California, Nagpur, 1993; Pradeep Meshram, Vidarbhatil Bauddha 2001. Coin Type no. 479, 494. . , Dharmakshetra- Pauni, Yavatmal, 1994; Pradeep Meshram 48. Reshma Sawant, 'Asmaka Mahiijanapada:A New Perspective, et. al., Kshitij Vaidarbhiya Paryatanache,Bhatala - Ek Upekshit Man and Environment, XXVII(2), 2003, pp. 9-20. Shilpgram, Nagpur, 2005. 49. D. Rajgor, Punch-markedCoins of Early Historic India, California, 35. S.B.Deo, Recent Researches on the Cha/eolithic and Megalithic 2001. Coin Type no . 479, 494. _ Cultures of the Deccan, Madras, 1982, p. 37. 50. A. Ramteke, 'Coins of Vidarbha Janapada: A Revolutionary 36. S.B. Deo and A.P . Jamkhedkar, op. cit. Discovery,' Indian CoinSociety Newsletter, no. 40, July-September 37. M.D. Kajale, 'Archaeobotanical Investigation on Megalithic 2006, pp.68-87. . . Bhagimohari and its Significance for Ancient Indian 51. For details, see Reshma Sawant, Vidarbha:An Archaeo-Histoncal Agricultural System, ' Man and Environment, Vol.XIll, 1989, pp. Approach, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis submitted to Deccan 87- 92. College, Pune, 2006. , . . 38. M.D . Kajale, 'Archaeobotanical Investigation on Megalithic 52. Thomas Watters, On Yuan Chwang s Travels in India (629-645 Bhagimohari and its Significance for Ancient Indian A.O.), Vol. II, New Delhi, 1988, p. 91. Agricultural System,' Man and Environment Vol. XIll, 1989, pp. 53. S.B. Deo and J.P. Joshi, Pauni Excavation (1969-70), Nagpur, 87-100; M.D. Kajale, 'Archaeobotanical Investigations on a 1972. Multicultural Site at Adam, Maharashtra, with Special 54. B.N. Chapekar, Report on the Excavation at Ter (1958), Poona, Reference to the Development of Tropical Agriculture in Parts 1969. of India,' in J.G. Ha ther (ed.), TropicalArchaeobotany: Applications 55. B.C. Deotare, Gurudas Shete, Reshma Sawant, Vaishali Kathale and New Developments, 1994, pp. 34-50. and S. Naik, 'Discovery of Structural Stupa at Bhon, District 39. S.Seneviratne,. 'The Mauryan State,' in H.J.M. Claessen and P. Buldana Maharashtra ,' Puratattva 37, 2007, pp . 177-185. Skalnlk (ed.), Tlze Early State, the Hague, 1978, p. 382. 56. Arnita Ray, Life and Art of Early Andhradesa,Delhi, 1983. 40. V.D. Gogte, et. al., '14 MeV Neutron Activation Analysis of 57. Ibid. Megalithic Iron Objects,' Bulletin of Deccan College Research 58. A. Rea, South Indian Buddhist Antiquities, Madras, 1894.

114 Monasteries, Shrines and Society Buddhism in a Regional Perspective 115

59. Ibid. New Delhi, 2002, pp. 428-430. 60. S.B. Deo and J.P. Joshi, Pauni Excavation (1969-70), Nagpur, 79_ RP. Kangle, The Kautiliya Arthasiistra, Part II, Bombay, 1963, p. 1972. 179. 61. S.B. Deo and J.P. Joshi, op. cit., pp. 22, 25-30. 80. Shamashastry, Kautilya's Arthasiistra, Mysore, 1929, p. 78. 62. S.B. Deo and J.P. Joshi, op. cit., pp. 37-43, 44-56. 81. K.P. Jayaswal and RD . Banerji 'The Hathigumpha Inscription 63. B.C. Deotare, et.al., 'Discovery of Structural Stupa at Bhon, of Kharavela,' Epigraphialndica, XX (1929-30), 1933, pp. 71-89. District Buldana, Maharashtra,' Puratattva, 37, 2007, pp. 177- 82. A.M. Shastri, India As Seen in the Brhatsamhitiiof Variihamihira, 185. Delhi, 1969, p. 106. 64. J.P. Joshi and A.K. Sharma, 'Mansar Excavation 1998-2004: 83. C11andrapurDistrict Gazetteers, 1973, (second revised edition), The Discovery of Pravarapur,' Puramanthan (Pravarapur p. 782. special), 3, 2005, 1-16. 84. Hiralal, 'Kuruspal Stone Inscription of Somesvaradeva,' 65. A. Nath, 'Archaeology of the Wardha Wainganga Divide,' Epigrnphia lndica, Vol. X, 1909-10, pp. 25-28. Puratattva, 20, 1989, p. 97. 85. Ibid., pp. 25-28. 66. P.V. Kane, 'Ancient Geography and Civilization of 86. K.P. Jayaswal and RD. Banerji, op. cit., p. 71. Maharashtra,' Journal of Bombay Branch of Royal Asiatic Society 87. Reshma Sawant, Historical Archaeology of Vidarbha Vol. XXIV (1914-17), 1917, p. 621; A.M. Shastri, An Outline of (forthcoming). Early Buddhism, Varanasi, 1965, p. 57; S.B. Deo, 'New Evidence 88. H.D. Sankalia, S. Subbarao and S.B. Deo, The Excavations at of Hinayana Buddhism in Vidarbha,' Puratattva, 1972-73, 6, p. Maheshwar and Navdatoli 1952-53, Pune, 1955, pp. 29-30. 84. 89. D.B. Diskalkar, 'Excava tions at Kasrawad,' Indian Historical 67. V.V. Mirashi, 'New Light on Deotek Inscriptions,' in Studies in Quarterly, 25, 1949, pp. 2-3. Indology, Vol. I, Nagpur, 1968, pp. 125-134. 90. B.G. Gokhale, Buddhism in Maharashtra, Bombay, 1976. 68. Ibid., pp. 125-134. 69. S.B. Deo and J.P. Joshi, Pauni Excavation (1969-70), Nagpur, 1972; S.B. Deo, 'New Evidence of Hinayana Buddhism in Vidarbha,' Puratattva, 1972-73, 6, pp. 53-60. 70. IAR, 1994-95, p. 58. 71. S.B. Deo and J.P. Joshi, Pauni Excavation (1969-70), Nagpur, 1972, pp. 41-42. 72. S.B. Deo, 'New Evidence of Hinayana Buddhism in Vidarbha,' Puratattva, 1972-73, 6, pp. 84-86. 73. Lokamat, Hello Nagpur, 6th January 2008. 74. H.C. Raychaudhury, PoliticalHistory of Ancient India. Calcutta, 1950, p. 156. 75. In my Doctoral thesis, I have identified Asmaka Mahnjanapada period with the period of early Iron Age Megalithic culture of Vidarbha . 76. P.L. Gupta, The Amaravati Hoard of Silver Punch-marked Coins, Hyderabad, 1963, p. 150. 77. S. Seneviratne, 'Kalinga and Andhra: the Process of Secondary State Formation in Early India,' The Indian Historical Review, VII, 1981, p . 62. 78. Romila Thapar, Cultural Past - Essays in Early Indian History,