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Durham E-Theses Durham E-Theses The Religious Life of Nabataea ALPASS, PETER,JOHN How to cite: ALPASS, PETER,JOHN (2011) The Religious Life of Nabataea, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/3293/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk Abstract The Religious Life of Nabataea by Peter John Alpass ‘The Religious Life of Nabataea’ examines the evidence for the religious practices and beliefs of the inhabitants of the Nabataean kingdom. It analyses material produced in the large area of the north-western Arabian Peninsula that was under the rule of the Nabataean king until the annexation of his kingdom by Rome in AD 106. Because of the scarcity of literary sources describing Nabataea, this study is largely dependent on inscriptions, with architectural and archaeological remains helping to put these better into their context. It is argued that a number of methodological problems with earlier studies have produced an inaccurate picture of a ‘Nabataean religion’ that cannot be easily reconciled with this material. The focus has been on recovering the identities and characteristics of individual gods and the relationships between them. Inconsistencies and diversities in the evidence have often been minimised in order to produce a coherent model or system of beliefs that ‘the Nabataeans’ followed. Underpinning this has been the scholarly perception of Nabataea as a culturally monolithic bloc that was inhabited by a people following the same way of life. This study takes a different approach, analysing the material first and foremost in its local context. Each chapter therefore focuses on a different centre or region of Nabataea, before the conclusion compares these to consider the kingdom as a whole. It is concluded that there is very little sign of a coherent pattern of religious practice covering Nabataea. On the contrary, it is the variety of practices that emerges most strongly. Although this area was all under the control of the Nabataean king, its religious life was dominated by a diversity of much more local traditions. The Religious Life of Nabataea Peter John Alpass A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Classics and Ancient History Durham University 2011 The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without the prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor, Ted Kaizer. His support and advice has far superseded anything I could have expected, and his enthusiasm and encouragement has provided constant inspiration throughout four challenging years. I owe a great deal of gratitude to many academics and students whom I have had the pleasure to work with during my PhD. Among the former, I would like to single out Achim Lichtenberger and Rubina Raja for readily providing the advice and opportunities so valuable to young scholars. My two examiners, Johannes Haubold and John Healey, also far exceeded their duties in providing advice and suggestions for the continued life of this thesis. Among my colleagues, I would particularly like to thank Cristina Acqua, Lucy Wadeson, Rik van Wijlick and Simon Day, whose assistance and friendship has, for one reason or another, proved invaluable. Here too I would like to remember a good friend and colleague, Donald Murray, who sadly passed away this year. He was a great source of inspiration and is sorely missed. I would also like to mention the different funding bodies whose generous support has enabled me to complete this study: the Arts and Humanities Research Council, Durham University, and in particular its Centre for the Study of the Ancient Mediterranean and the Near East (CAMNE). My greatest debt of gratitude goes to my family. My parents, as always, have been steadfast and generous with their love and encouragement. Finally, the unwavering support, patience and kindness of my wife, in this as in all else, has been my most valuable asset. I could not have done it without her by my side, and I cannot thank her enough. Contents List of Maps ......................................................................................................... 9 List of Figures .................................................................................................... 11 Abbreviations used in Text ................................................................................ 15 Chapter One ....................................................................................................... 17 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 17 Religion .......................................................................................................... 21 Society ............................................................................................................ 26 History ............................................................................................................ 32 Discovering Nabataea .................................................................................... 37 Sources ........................................................................................................... 40 Inscriptions ................................................................................................. 40 Literature .................................................................................................... 42 Sculpture .................................................................................................... 53 Archaeological Remains ............................................................................ 55 Chapter Two ....................................................................................................... 57 Petra’s Sacred Spaces: Gods and Worshippers .................................................. 57 Approaches ..................................................................................................... 66 Gods ............................................................................................................... 69 Worshippers ................................................................................................... 72 Public Monuments ..................................................................................... 73 ‘Temple of the Winged Lions’ ............................................................... 75 Qasr el-Bint ............................................................................................ 78 ‘Great Temple’ ....................................................................................... 82 The Deir ................................................................................................. 86 Collective Monuments ............................................................................... 90 Processional Ways ................................................................................. 90 ‘High-places’ .......................................................................................... 92 Rock-Cut Sanctuaries ............................................................................. 98 Private Monuments .................................................................................. 102 Triclinia ................................................................................................ 103 Tombs ................................................................................................... 105 Idol Blocks ........................................................................................... 110 Figurines ............................................................................................... 111 Conclusions .................................................................................................. 112 Appendix: Catalogue of Inscriptions ........................................................... 116 Chapter Three ................................................................................................... 143 Hegra in Context: Nabataean Towns in the Northern Hijaz ............................ 143 Languages .................................................................................................... 147 Tayma ........................................................................................................... 154 Dadan ........................................................................................................... 159 8 Hegra ............................................................................................................ 166 Tomb Inscriptions .................................................................................... 168 The Religious Monuments ......................................................................
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