Introduction to Sociology: Social Institutions Prof

Introduction to Sociology: Social Institutions Prof. Dr. Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 6, 2008 1 / 96

Introduction to Sociology: Social Institutions

Prof. Dr. Dirk Helbing and Research Team

Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation

May 6, 2008

Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology: Social Institutions Prof. Dr. Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 6, 2008 1 / 96

Social Institutions

Peter Felten www.soms.ethz.ch [email protected]

Structure:

1 Definition of Social Institutions 2 Role of Social Institutions in the Society 3 The main Social Institutions 1 Economy 2 Politics and Government 3 Families 4 Education 5 Health and Medicine 6 Religion

...expections of ”obeying the rules” which claim an obligatory worth. These rules applies to ones who are aware of them, did not follow them or have forgotten the rules (proving these rules through other players e.g. via punishing glances). simple: way of doing something in the right way → centre of analyses in sociology

Jonathan Turner: ”a complex of positions, roles, norms and values lodged in particular types of social structures and organising relatively stable patterns of human activity with respect to fundamental problems in producing life-sustaining resources, in reproducing individuals, and in sustaining viable societal structures within a given environment”’

Social institutions need to be distinguished from less complex social forms such as conventions, social norms, roles and rituals. The latter are among the constitutive elements of institutions. Social institutions need also to be distinguished from more complex and more complete social entities, such as societies or cultures, of which any given institution is typically a constituive element.

a) Soc. Inst. are often organisations, moreover many institutions are systems of organisations. For example capitalism is a particular kind of economic institution, and in modern times, capitalism consists in large part in specific organisational forms. b) Nevertheless, some institutions are not organisations, or systems of organisations, and do not require organisations. For example, the English language is an institution, but not an organisation.

institutions show two central attributes: beliefs and associated manners of the players which are set and controlled by the society

Institutions act similar to norms, but negative sanctions to limit other players are more in the foreground.

No concrete and contentual social shape (e.g. like marriage) meaning no institutional objective by default, membership and/or rules of operation

Normative rules with claim of validity, espected by a player in specific positions in an organization

in the beginning of the 19th century, institutions have been understood as a social fact Maurice Hauriou (1856-1929) Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) Talcott Parsons (1902-1979)

For the observance of the institutional rules, meaning application is based on the consequences Subjective orientation of the players with their own imagination of a legitmate order, an interest of the player in an institutional order is essential

emergence mostly unplanned but never without a reason problem solution in the everyday life relief of insecurity (e.g. in new situations) individual orientation and collective order corrections of the missing substantive rationality of humans H. Esser: ”all social acting is only effective, permanent, normalized, quasi-automatic and predictable though social institutions”

One of the most important sociocultural component of societies. Clustering of social roles, groups and activities. Each of the clusters have a specific contributions to the overall welfare of a society. Those clusters devoted to meet fundamental needs are called social institutions.

Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology: Social Institutions Prof. Dr. Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 6, 2008 15 / 96 Introduction Definitions Society as a System of Institutions Primitive and modern societies show at least these 5 institutions:

The components of the systems are connected, so that changes in one part produce changes in at least one other part. Finally the overall state of the system changes if parts show interdependence.

...under the assumption that not every component is related to every other component and that the degree of interdependence is different.

Characteristics of a Social Institution which appear in combination and are always inter-dependent in a funtional sense: 1 A soc. inst. arises out of and as a result of repeated groupings of interacting humans individuals in response to elemental needs or drives (sex, hunger, etc.) 2 Common reciprocating attitudes and conventionalized behavior patterns develop out of the process of interaction (affection, loyality, cooperation, etc.)

1 Cultural objects (traits) that embody symbolic values in material substances, are invented or fabricated and become the cue stimuli to behavior conditioned to them (idol, cross, ring, flag, etc.). 2 Cultural objects (traits) that embody ulitarian values in material substances, are invented or fabricated and become the means of satisfying human needs for warmth, shelter, etc. (buldings, furniture, etc.). 3 Preserved in oral or written language, externally strored and handed down from one generation to the next.

these four parts combine to produce the configuration or cultural concretion known as Soc. Inst. 1 Common reciprocating attitudes of individuals and their conventionalized behaviour patterns. 2 Cultural objects of symbolic value, that is, objects charged with emotional and sentimental meaning to which human behavior has been conditioned.

1 Cultural objects possessing utilitarian value, that is, material objects that satisfy human needs. 2 Oral or written language symbols which preserve the descriptions and specifications of the patterns of interrelationship among attitudes, sybolic culture traits and utilitarian culture traits.

Because of the interdependency, the components of a system tend reach a kind of equilibrium (balance, steady state) in their interrelations. Reason: interdependency limits the possible variation of any given part, the (direct, indirect) connections to other parts begin to limit further movement.

Note: Societies are never entirely static because they are open systems (open for external influences, e.g.: natural resources or other societies). Therefore societies can fall apart when their fundamental components got too far out of balance.

Andrew Schotter: A behavioural regularity R of members of a group G, who are involved in a recurrent situation S...is an institution when a) this ”phenomena” is true and b) it belongs to the common knwolegde of G...and at any appearance of S among G: 1 everybody follows/obeys R 2 everybody expects from the others to follow R 3 everybody prefers to follow R, if the others do so, because S is a coordination problem and the compliance represents a coordinated equilibrium or if somebody deviates from R and this is known and the validation of this new situation is worse than under R.

The Social Institutions

Social institutions are the economy and work politics and government families education health and medical systems religion ...many more

Economy is a “social institution that organizes a society’s production, distribution and consumption of goods and services“

3 revolutions, that reorganized production and transformed social life: Agricultural Revolution: hunting and gathering → new agricultural economy which is much more productive (harness animals to plows) → people began to specialize themselves

Industrial Revolution: industrialization changed the economy in 5 fundamental ways

I New sources of energy: muscle power → steam engine I Centralization of work in factories I Manufacturing and mass production: turn raw material into finished products (before people grew or gathered raw material) I Specializations: Before: make products from start to finish. now: repeat a single task I Wage labor: not work for yourself, but for strangers raised standard of living, but very unequally

Information Revolution and Postindustrial Society: shift from industrial to service work → important part: the computer important changes:

I From tangible products to ideas: computer programmers, financial analysts, editors,... I From mechanical skills to literacy skills: speaking and writing, use of a computer I From factories to almost everywhere: laptop, wireless communication, cell phones

Primary Sector: Part of the economy that draws raw material from the natural environment, large in low-income nations Second Sector: Part of the economy that transforms raw material into manufatured goods, grows during industrialization Tertiary Sector: Part of the economy that involves services rather than goods, dominates economy of middle- and high-income countries

Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology: Social Institutions Prof. Dr. Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 6, 2008 30 / 96 The Social Institutions Economy The Global Economy New information technology draws people around the worlds closer together, creating a global economy, which has 5 major consequences: Global division of labor: different regions of the world specialize in one sector of economic activity An increasing number of products pass through more than one country National governments no longer control the economic activity that takes place within their borders A small number of businesses controls a vast share of the world’s economic activity The globalization raises concerns about the rights and opportunities of workers: Lose jobs to low-income nations → lower wages in high-income countries Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology: Social Institutions Prof. Dr. Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 6, 2008 31 / 96 The Social Institutions Economy Economic Systems

There is a wide continuum of systems, at which ends are capitalism and socialism capitalism: an economic system in which natural ressources and the means of producing goods and services are privately owned Features:

I Private ownership of property: Individuals can own almost everything I Pursuit of personal profit I Capitalism encourages the accumulation of private property I Competition and consumer choice: Free-market with no government interference

Socialism: an economic system in which natural ressources and the means of producing goods and services are collectively owned. Opposite features to capitalism:

I Collective ownership of porperty: economy limits private property and makes goods availabe to all, not just to those with the most money I Pursuit of collective goals: Individuals are urged to work for the common good of all I Government control of economy: Centrally controlled economy operated by the governement

Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Source: Macionis, 2007 Introduction to Sociology: Social Institutions Prof. Dr. Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 6, 2008 34 / 96 The Social Institutions Economy Socialism vs. Communism

societies claim themselves as communists, but the communist goal have never been achieved by any society Not the same! Communism: all members of a society are socially equal Socialism is an important step on the path to communism Many socialist societies claim themselves as communists, but the communist goal have never been achieved by any society

Economic productivity: Measured in terms of the gross domestic product (GDP) capitalist countries produce far more Economic equality: Distribution of resources within a population (richest 5 % as compared to poorest 5 %) Capitalists countries: ratio 10:1, socialists ratio 5:1 Capitalsts have a higher overall standard of living but also greater inequalities. vice versa for socialists

Personal Freedom: Political freedom vs. economic freedom Capitalists: Freedom means you can do and buy/produce what you want. Many personal freedoms, but these freedoms are not worth as much to a poor person as to a rich one Socialists: Emphasizes freedom from basic need; more economic equality, but people can’t speak out or travel freely within or outside the country

Characteristics of the profession: “a prestigious white-collar occupation that requires extensive formal education“ Theoretical knowledege: Professionals have a theoretical understanding, rather than mere technical training Self-regulating practice: Self-employed, rather than working for a factory Authority over clients: Professionals have expertise, clients value their advice and follow their directions Community orientation rather than self-interrest: intention to serve others rather than merely to seek income

Self-employed people are more likely to have blue-collar job rather than white-collar (small business owners, plumbers, carpenters, freelance writers, editors, artists, long-distance truck drivers)

Personal reasons: Leave a job, staying at home and raise the children, strike, longterm illnesses, illiterate, without skills to perform useful work Economic reasons: Occupation becomes obsolete, businesses change the way they do business, downsizing, closing in the face of foreign competition or economic recession

The populations of African Americans, Asians Americans and Hispanics are increasing very fast...workplaces have to develop programs and policies that meet the needs of a socially divers workforce examples: Child care at the workplace for working mothers with small children Deal with tension that arises from social differences Rethinking of current promotion practice (nowadays: the higher the position, the fewer women there are)

Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology: Social Institutions Prof. Dr. Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 6, 2008 41 / 96 The Social Institutions Economy New Information Technology and Work Information revolution changes in a lot of ways what people do: Computers are deskilling labor: As machinery replaces the master craftsworkers, the computers threatens the skills of managers. business operations are not based on executive decisions but on computer modeling. Computers are making work more abstract: Industrial workers had a hands-on realationship with their products, postindustrial workers use symbols to perform abstract task Rethink current promotion practice (nowadays): The higher the position, the fewer women there are) Computers limit workspace interaction: Spending more time at a computer termianal means to be more isolated from other workers

Information Revolution changes in a lot of ways what people do: Computers increase employers’ control of worker ability to monitor employees’ the output continuously Computers allow companies to relocate work: Work can be done everywhere, not just where we expect it (Example: Call-center hasn’t to be located in the company building) technology is not socially neutral! It changes the relationship between people in the workspace, shapes the way we work, and alters the balance of power between employers and employees

The biggest corporations are located in the USA, Japan and Western Europe but their marketplace is the whole world outsourcing of work: A worker in mexico is much cheaper than in the US or japan the impact of multinationsals on poor countries is controversal: Pro: Eaised living standard, tax revenues, new jobs, advanced technology Contras: Blocking the development of local industries, making goods for export rather than food and other products for local people

...the economy is changing (information revolution, expansion to global economy, rethinking of economic models: Socialism is unproductive, but capitalism comes with other problems such as corporate scandals, high levels of inequality and significant governement regulations). We must find ways to react to theses changes.

Politics is the social institution that distributes power, sets a society’s goals and makes decisions.

Max Weber: Society is based on power: Ability to achive desired ends despite resistence from others Use of power is business of governement: “a formal organization that directs the political life of a society“ Authority: Power that people perceive as legitimate rather than coercive.

Traditional authority: “power legitimated by respect for long-established cultural patterns“ (it has always been like that) Rational-legal authority: “power legitimated by legally enacted rules and regulations“ (for example police officers, school teachers) Charismatic authority: “power legitimated by extraordinary personal abilities that inspire devotion ans obedience“(turn an audiense into followers)

1 Monarchy: Single family rules from generation to generation 2 Democracy: Give power to the people as a whole and put authority in the hands of leaders chosen by the people 3 Autorithanianism: “political system that denies the people participation in government“ 4 Totalitarianism: “highly centered political system that extensivly regulates people’s lives“ (one party claims total control of the society and permits no opposition) Example: G. Orwell - 1984

High-income countries claim to be democratic, but they are not truly democratic because of 2 reasons: Bureaucracy: Most people who run the governement (office workers,...) are not elected and do not have to answer people directly Economic inequality: Rich people have more political power than poor ones

Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology: Social Institutions Prof. Dr. Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 6, 2008 50 / 96 The Social Institutions - Definitions Politics and Government Democracy and Freedom: Capitalist and Socialist Approach

Capitalist: Freedom to act in whatever ways maximises personal profit → some can do better → inequality poor - rich Socialist: Limits the choices of individuals, so everyone gets the same

Economical globalisation, therefore political globalisation? No: United Nations were first small step (1945), but political role is limited Yes: Politics has become a global process Yes: NGOs (nongovernmental organizations) seek to advance global issues (OECD, Greepeace...)

3 competing models: 1 Pluralist model: The people rule 2 Power-elite model: A few people rule 3 Marxist model: The system is biased

Source: Macionis, 2007

Revolution: Overthrow of one political system to establish another. Traits of revolution: 1 Rising expections: Rising expections, rather than bitterness and despair make revolutions more likely 2 Unresponsive governement: Revolution is more likely, if governement is unwilling to reform itself 3 Radical leadership by intellectuals: Thomas Hobbes claimed, that intellectuals provide the justification for the revolution 4 Establishing a new legitimacy: Revolutionaries must also guard against counterrevolutionary drives led by overthrown leaders 5 Terrorism: Acts of violence or the threat of violence used as a political strategy by an individual or a group

Tasks:

1 Democratic ideal vs. low turnout at the polls, the current high-level of apathy indicates that significant political reform is needed 2 Global rethinking of political models: Promoting the broadest democratic participation 3 Hope (and vote) for leaders who will find nonviolent solutions to the age-old problems that provoke war

Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology: Social Institutions Prof. Dr. Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 6, 2008 56 / 96 The Social Institutions - Definitions Families Families: Basic Concepts expressions: Family: “social institution found in all societies that unites people in cooperative groups to care for another, including any children“ Kinship: “a social bond based on common ancestry, marriage or adoption“ Marriage: “a legal relationship, usually involving economic cooperation, sexual activity and childbearing“ The definitions, who belongs to a familiy and who does not, is ambiguous. Definition by US Census Bureau: family are people living together, linked by blood, marriage or adoptionthe trend is towards a broader definition, including e.g. homosexual partners or unmarried couples

Marriage patterns (endogamy, exogamy, monogamy, polygamy...) Residential patterns (patrilocality, matrilocality, neolocality) Patterns of descent (patrilineal, matrilineal, bilateral) Patterns of authority

Socialization Regulation of sexual activity Social placement Material and emotional security Critical review: Approach explains why society is built on families but it ignores how other social institutions (e.g. government) could meet some of the same human needs. The approach also overlooks negative aspects, e.g. patriarchy and family violence

Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology: Social Institutions Prof. Dr. Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 6, 2008 60 / 96 The Social Institutions - Definitions Families Inequality in the Families: Social-conflict and Feminist Analysis

Approach focuses on how families pertubate social inequality Property and inheritance: Engels: Men could hand property to their sons, family thus concentrate wealth and reproduce the class structure in each new generation Patriarchy: Feminists say: Families transform women into the sexual and economic property of men. A century ago, most wife’s earnings belonged to their husband. Today: Women still bear most of the responsibility for child rearing and housework Racial and ethnic inequality: Most people marry others like themselves (endogamous marriage), therefore racial and ethnic categories persist over generations

Critical Review: Engels says that family support capitalism, but even non-capitalist societies have families. The family carries out also societal functions not easily accomplished by other means.

Micro-level analysis explores, how individuals shape and experience family life Symbolic-interaction analysis: Family members share many activities over time, so they build emotional bonds parents are quthority figures, this limits their closeness with younger children Social-exchange analysis: There is a marriage marketplace where men and women try to find the best deal dating is a kind of ”shopping around” for partners...Patriarchal society: Gender role dictates the elements of exchange (men: wealth and power, women: beauty) As women have joined laborforce, they are less dependant on men to support them

Critical Review: Micro-level analysis misses the big picture: family life is similar for people in the same social and economic categories

Source: Macionis, 2007

Family life changes and with change women controversy traditional family values against greater personal choice 5 future trends: divorce rate is likely to remain high family life will be more diverse than ever men will play a limited role in child rearing families will continue to feel the effects of economic change the importance of new reproductive technology will increase

Education: ”The social institution through which society provides its members with important knowledege, including basic facts, job skills and cultural norms and values”. Education is largely a matter of schooling: ”formal instruction under the direction of specially trained teachers”

Schooling supports the operation and stability of society in five ways. Structural-functional analysis socialization cultural innovation social integration social placement latent functions of schooling

I child care for one-parent or two-career families I occupies young people who would otherwise be competing in the job market I high-schools bring together people of marriagable age I establish networks

use symbolic-interaction approach (people create the reality they experienve in their day-to-day interaction) the self-fulfilling prophecy: experiment by teacher after dr. martin luther king was shot: she told their students that chilrden with brown eyes are better than children with blue eyes. pretty soon the children behaved in this manner, brown eyed children performed better, while the blue-eyed children performed worse. the brown-eyed children were ”arrogant, ugly and domineering” towards the blue-eyed children → stereotypes which are estabished in a society highly influence the behaviour of people

Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology: Social Institutions Prof. Dr. Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 6, 2008 69 / 96 The Social Institutions Education Schooling and Social Inequality Use social-conflict analysis to explain how schooling causes and perturbates social inequality Social Control: Schooling is a way of controlling people and reinforce the acceptance of the status quo. E.g. England: Factory owners needed obedient and disciplined workforce → in school immigrants learnt not only english but also the importance of following orders Standardized Testing: To answer a question, you also need (beside the tested logical skills) to understand every word. this results in a bias based on class, race or ethnicity, because questions always reflect a society’s dominant culture School Tracking: Tracking: ”assigning students to different types of educational programs” tracking is often based on standardized testings Inequality Among Schools:Chair of Sociology,Just in particular as students of Modeling andare Simulation treated http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ differently within schools, there is also a difference among different schools (e.g. public and private schools) Introduction to Sociology: Social Institutions Prof. Dr. Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 6, 2008 70 / 96 The Social Institutions Education Schooling and Social Inequality 2 Access to higher education: Schooling is the main path to good jobs. Family income is crucial factor affecting access to US higher education → leads to social inequalities: Whites are more likely to have a high-school degree than minorities people with high-school degrees get higher wages. Greater opportunity, expanding higher education: Government makes money available to help certain categories of people pay the costs of college, military offers college money to enlistees privileged and personal merit: schooling transforms social privilege into personal merit: people with privileged backgrounds are more likely to get into college and then more likely to complete their degree. Companies hire job applicants with best education → process ends up helping people with advantages and harming those who are already disadvantaged. Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology: Social Institutions Prof. Dr. Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 6, 2008 71 / 96 The Social Institutions Education

Source: Macionis, 2007

Many problems in the schooling system have their roots in the society → no simple solutions

What is health? ”a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being”. Health is not just a matter of personal choice nor is it only a biological issue: Is’t rooted in the organization of society.

Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology: Social Institutions Prof. Dr. Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 6, 2008 74 / 96 The Social Institutions Health and Medicine Health and Society Society shapes people’s health in four major ways: Cultural patterns define health: ”health is sometimes a matter of having the same diseases as your neighbor” Cultural standards of health change over time: E.g. in the early twentieth, a doctor said: Women shouldn’t go to college because higher education strains the female brain, or that masturbation is a threat to health. A society’s technology affect people’s health: In former times, the three leading causes of death were all contagiouse diseases. Because of improved living standard and advances in medical technology, the number of theses death were sharpely reduced. Nowadays there are new health problems, coming from pollution (created by overtaxing the world’s ressources)

Social inequality affects people’s health: Ressources are disributed unequally: richs are much more healthy

Structural-functional analysis: Role theory: Views medicine as society’s strategy to keep its members healty. Illness is a dysfunction because it undermines people’s ability to perform their roles The sick role: ”pattern of behaviour for people who are ill” Releases people from obligations such as working or attending classes patient must want to get better and must do whatever it needs to regain good health The physician’s role: Evaluate people’s claim of sickness. Help restore the sick to normal routines. Use specialized knowledge expect patients to cooperate.

Critical Review: Applies better to acute conditions than to chronical illnesses, which may not be reversible. Patient’s ability to assume sick role depends on patient’s resources (can one afford not to work?) illness is not entirely dysfunctional: It can have some positive consequences (e.g. reevaluate your life and gain a better sense on what is really important). Doctors rather than patients have the primary responsibility for health.

Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology: Social Institutions Prof. Dr. Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 6, 2008 78 / 96 The Social Institutions Health and Medicine Symbolic-interaction Analysis: The Meaning of Health: Society is less a grand system than a comply and changing reality. Health and medicine care are socially constructed by people in everyday interaction. The social construction of illness: People in poor society may view hunger ans malnutrition as normal health is less an objective fact than a negotiated outcome psychosomatic disorders: State of mind guides physical sensation The social construct of treatment: Constructiong reality in the examination room is as important as mastering the medical skills required for treatment. Example: male gynecologist: Wears uniform, room furnished only with medical equipment, Female nurse is always present this should show:it’s not a sexual situation, just an act of medical treatment Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology: Social Institutions Prof. Dr. Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 6, 2008 79 / 96 The Social Institutions Health and Medicine

Critical Review: Shows that subjective health depends on many factors, which are not all of medical nature. Critics say, that there are conditions which cause definite changes in people, regardless of how we view those conditions (e.g. malnutrition)

Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology: Social Institutions Prof. Dr. Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 6, 2008 80 / 96 The Social Institutions Health and Medicine Social-conflict Analysis: Health and Inequality: points-out the connection between health and social inequality. Reviewers focused on three topics: Access to care: Health is important to everyone, but rich people can have the better medical care → capitalist medical care provides excellent medical care for the rich but not for the rest of the population The profit motive: Physicians, hospital, pharmaceutical industry have a financial interest. This leads to unnecessary surgical operations and test. Medical care should rather be motivated by a concern for people, not by profits Medicine as politics: Medicine declares itself politically neutral, but it nevertheless takes side on social issues recial and sexual discriminations by ”scientific” opinions e.g. inferiority of women. Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology: Social Institutions Prof. Dr. Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 6, 2008 81 / 96 The Social Institutions Health and Medicine

Critical Review: This theory does not consider, that the medical care standard rose for everyone. Even poor people profit nowadays from better medical care than some years ago.

Source: Macionis, 2007

Advances in medical science: Penicillin, increased life expectancy People take more responsibility for their health (or have at least the possibilities to): avoid tobacco, exercise regularly, eat healthful meals in moderation Biggest problem: inequality rich vs. poor Problems are bigger in low-income nations: To improve the health of these people is a critical challange.

Expressions: Profane: ”an ordinary element of everyday life” Sacred: ”set apart as extraordinary, inspiring awe and reverence” Religion: ”a social institution involving beliefs and practices based on recognizing the sacred” Ritual: ”formal, ceremonial behaviour”

Religion is a matter of faith: ”belief based on conviction rather than scientific evidence” → religious doctrine can neither be proved nor disproved. Goal of sociology is to understand religious experience around the world and how religion is tied to other social institutions.

Functions of religion: Structural-functional analysis: 3 major functions of religion that contribute to the operation of society: Social Cohesion: Defining god as judge to encourage people to obey cultural norms. Use religion to back up the power of a political system (divine right) Social Control: Evaluate people’s claim of sickness. Help restore the sick to normal routines. Use specialized knowledge. Expect patients to cooperate Providing Meaning and Purpose: Our short lives serve some greater purpose. Strengthened by such beliefs, people are less likely to despair in the face of change or tragedy

Critical Review: Downplays religion’s dysfuctions, e.g. that strongly held beliefs can generate social conflict and lead to war or terrorism

Religion is socially constructed. People use religion to give everyday life sacred meaning through various rituals. People sharpen the destinction between the sacred and the profane. Example marriage: Whether one sees marriage just as a contract or as a holy matrimony has a big influence on the propability of a divorce → divorce rate is lower among people with strong religious belief. Whenever human beings face uncertainity or life-threatening situations, they turn to their sacred symbols Critical Review: Analysis ignores religion’s link to social inequality.

Karl Marx claimed that religion serves ruling elites by legitimizing the status quo and diverting people’s attention from social inequalities Example Great Britan: The British monarch is the formal head of the Church of England → Close tie between religious and political elites → Working for political change means opposing the church and god religion encourages people to maintain social problems in this world, while they look hopefully to a ”better world to come”

Critical Review: Religion also promotes change towards equality. E.g. religious movements played an important part in: the movement to abolish slavery the civil rights movement opposing the Vietnam war supporting progressive causes such as feminism and gay rights

Source: Macionis, 2007

Max Weber(1864-1924): Protestantism and Capitalism: The rise of industrial capitalism was encouraged by Calvinism. Religious conviction and a rigid devotion duty led Calvinists to work all the time and many accumulated great wealth as agents of god’s work on earth. Calvinists believed that they best fulfilled their calling by reinvesting profits and achieving ever-greater success in the process. This laid the groundwork for the rise of capitalism

Liberation theology: ”the combination of Christian principles with poliitical activism, often marxist in character”. Christian activists help people in poor nations to liberate themselves from poverty. Message: Social oppression runs counter to Christian morality. So, as a matter of faith and justice, christians must promote greater social equality.

church sect cult

Christianity Islam Judaism Hinduism Buddhism

Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/