Index

alchemists, 11, 296 • A • alkali metals (IA family) absolute zero, 24, 335 defi ned, 335 absorption spectra, 193 determining ion charge, 204 accuracy, defi ned, 27–29 electron confi gurations, 84 acetic acid, 170, 175 overview, 82–83 acetylsalicylic acid, 170 alkaline earth metals (IIA family) acid ionization constant, 175 defi ned, 335 acid rain (deposition) determining ion charge, 204 causes of, 186 electron confi gurations, 84 content, 275–277 overview, 82–83 defi ned, 268, 335 alkalosis, 186 electrostatic precipitators, 277–278 allotropes, 159 scrubbers, 278 allowed energy state, electrons, 193 water pollution, 286 alloys, 138, 218 acidic solution, 182, 335 alpha particle emission, 297–298 acidosis, 186 alpha particles, 297, 335 acids aluminum, 57 controlling pH with buffers, 185 aluminum hydroxide, 171, 290–291 defi ned, 335 aluminum sulfate, 126 distinguishing between strong and weak, americium, 57 ammonia (NH ) 173–178 3 identifying with indicators, 179–182 formula and common name and use, 170 macroscopic view, 169–171 Haber process, 120–122 microscopic view, 171–173 overview, 333 pH scale, 182–185 pH value, 185 actinide series, periodic table, 76, 78 reaction with water, 177 actinium, 57 amorphous solids (glasses), 259–260, 335 activated carbon canisters, 275 amphoteric activated charcoal fi ltration, 291–292 defi ned, 335 activation energy, 111, 310, 335 water, 178 activity series COPYRIGHTEDamplitude, MATERIAL 190, 335 common metals, 114 amu (atomic mass units), 54–55, 126, 335 defi ned, 335 anaerobic bacteria, 289, 291 actual yield, 135, 335 analytical chemistry, 15 aerobic bacteria, 289, 291 angular momentum quantum number (l), agricultural pollution, 287 63–65, 196, 335 air pollution. See also acid rain (deposition) anions atmosphere, 267–269 defi ned, 73, 202, 335 colloids, 153 general discussion, 204–206 greenhouse effect, 272–273 tendencies of ionic radii, 249 ozone layer, 269–271 antacids, 184 photochemical smog, 273–275 antibonding molecular orbital, 244

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antilog relationship, 184 Avogadro, Amedeo, 100, 127, 319 antimatter, 299 Avogadro’s law, 100–101, 336 antimony, 57 Avogadro’s number, 127, 336 applied chemistry, 17–18 aqueous solutions blood cells, 152 • B • defi ned, 140, 335 balancing by inspection, 121 aquifers, 281 balancing nuclear reaction, 295 Archimedes, 315 barium, 57 Archimedes’ principle, 46–47 barometer, 90–92, 336 argon, 57 Bartlett, Neil, 82 Arrhenius theory, 171–172 bases arsenic, 57 controlling pH with buffers, 185 artifi cial dye, 316–317 defi ned, 336 artifi cial sweeteners, 318 distinguishing between strong and weak, aspartame, 318 173–178 aspirin, pH value, 185 identifying with indicators, 179–182 astatine, 57 macroscopic view, 169–171 atmosphere microscopic view, 171–173 civilization’s effect on, 267–268 pH scale, 182–185 stratosphere, 269 basic research, defi ned, 17 troposphere, 268–269 basic solution, pH scale, 182 atmospheres (atm), 91 Becquerel, Henri, 317, 320 atmospheric pressure, 90–92 bent molecular shape, 241 atomic bombs, 306 benzene, 286 atomic mass, 78 berkelium, 57 atomic mass units (amu), 54–55, 126, 335 beryllium, 57 atomic number (Z) beta particle emission, 298 basic atomic structure, 294 beta particles, 336 defi ned, 56, 248, 335 bicarbonates, 184 location in periodic table, 78 binary compound atomic orbital, 336 covalent, 220 atomic radii, changes in, 248–249 defi ned, 336 atomic solids, 261 biochemistry, 16 atomic structure biological concentration, 285 confi guring electrons, 66–70 biological oxygen demand (BOD), 289, 336 ions, 72–73 biotechnology, 16 isotopes, 71–72 bismuth (Bi-204), 57, 300 locating electrons in atom, 60–66 blanketing gas, 330 nucleus, 55–60 blood cells, osmotic pressure, 152 overview, 294 blue litmus, 180 subatomic particles, 54–55 BOD (biological oxygen demand), 289, 336 atomic weight, 78 body-centered units, 261 atoms Bohr, Niels, 61, 193, 319–320 central, 223 bohrium, 57 defi ned, 43, 335 Bohr’s atomic model aufbau principle, 67–68, 336 de Broglie relationship, 194–195 auto battery acid, pH value, 185 Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 195 auto emissions, 275 overview, 61–62

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boiling, 40–41, 336 SI Measurement System, 21–25 boiling point (bp) signifi cant fi gures, 32–35 atmospheric pressure, 40–41 using unit conversion method to solve boiling-point elevation and, 148 problems, 27–32 defi ned, 41, 336 calculator, relying on, 27 water, 231, 282 californium, 57 boiling-point elevation, 148 calorie (cal), 24, 51, 157, 336 bomb (constant-volume) calorimeter, calorimeters, 159 161–162 calorimetry bond order, 336 constant-pressure, 158–160 bond strength, 218 constant-volume (bomb), 161–162 bonding. See covalent bonding; ionic bond defi ned, 336 bonding electrons, 225 capillary action bonding molecular orbital, 244 defi ned, 336 boric acid, 170 liquids, 259–260 boron, 57 carbon, 16, 57 Boyle, Robert, 93 carbon dioxide Boyle’s law, 93–95, 336 double bond, 219 bp. See boiling point role in greenhouse effect, 272 brass, 138 carbon tetrachloride, 286 break-even point, 311 carbon-12 scale, 55 breeder reactors, 309 carbon-14 (C-14) British thermal unit (BTU), 157 dating, 304 bromine, 57, 208–209 half-life, 303 Bronsted-Lowry acid-base theory, 172–173, carbonates, 184 177–178 carbonic acid, 170, 179 BTU (British thermal unit), 157 carbon-to-carbon double bond, 218 buffers, 185, 336 carbon-to-carbon triple bond, 244 buret, 180 catalysts, 337 burning, 119 catalytic converter, 275 butane lighter, 122–123 cations defi ned, 73, 202, 337 general discussion, 204–206 • C • tendencies of ionic radii, 249 cadmium, 57 Celsius temperature, 50–51, 158 cal (calorie), 24, 51, 157, 336 centi- prefi x, 22 calcium, 57 central atoms, 223 calcium carbonate, 171 CFCs (chlorofl uorocarbons) calculations, chemical defi ned, 270 adding and subtracting, 26 effect on ozone layer, 271 deciphering difference between accuracy chain reactions, 305–306 and precision, 27–29 changing states of matter exponential notation, 25 boiling point, 40–41 multiplying and dividing, 26–27 freezing point, 41–42 raising number to power, 27 melting point, 40 relying on calculator, 27 sublimation, 42 scientifi c notation, 25 Charles, Jacques, 95–96 Charles’s law, 95–97, 337

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chemical bonds osmotic pressure, 150–152 defi ned, 203 vapor-pressure lowering, 147 potential energy and, 49 collision theory chemical calculations. See calculations, endothermic, 113–114 chemical exothermic, 112–113 chemical change. See chemical reactions one-step collision, 111–112 chemical educator, 19 colloids, 337 chemical equations, 110 combination reactions, 115 chemical equilibrium, 337 combined gas law, 99–100, 337 chemical reactions combustion reaction, 119, 337 balancing, 120–123 compounds, 43–44 collision theory, 111–114 concentrated solutions reactants and products, 109–111 acids, 145 role of moles in, 130–136 defi ned, 139, 337 types of, 114–119 concentration, 173, 337 Chemical Rubber Company (CRC) concentration units Handbook, 103 molality, 145–146 chemistry molarity, 142–145 branches of, 15–18 proof, 142 Chem I, tips for passing, 323–327 condensation defi ned, 9–10 defi ned, 41 science versus technology, 10–11 versus vaporization, 168 scientifi c method, 11–15 water cycle, 280–281 Chernobyl, 308 condensed states chloride ions, 256 liquids, 258–260 chlorinated hydrocarbons, 286 phase diagrams, 262–264 chlorine bleach, pH value, 185 solids, 260–261

chlorine (Cl2), 200, 292, 332 condensed structural formulas, 227 chlorofl uorocarbon. See CFCs conductivity tester, 212 chromium confi guring electrons, 66–70 as contaminant, 285 confi ned gas pressure, 92 oxidation states, 206 conjugate acid-base pairs, 186, 337 classifi cation, 42, 75 constant-pressure calorimeter, 158–160 Clean Air Act of 1990, 275 constant-volume (bomb) calorimeter, 161–162 Clean Water Action Plan of 1998, 284 contaminants, water, 283–284 clothing fi bers, 14 continuous spectrum, 192, 337 cobalt-60 (Co-60) control rods, nuclear reactor core, 307 half-life, 303 cooking, 130 oxidation states, 206 coordinate-covalent bond, 172, 337 radiation treatments, 299 copper, 206 coeffi cients, 110, 120 counted numbers, 32–33 coffee, pH value, 185 covalent (network) solids, 261 coffee cup calorimeter, 159–160 covalent bonding cold fi nger, 42 binary covalent compounds, 220 colligative properties, solutions comparing with other bonds, 217–218 boiling-point elevation, 148 defi ned, 337 defi ned, 337 formulas, 221–227 freezing-point depression, 149–150 hydrogen example, 216–217

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multiple bonds, 218–219 direct relationship, gases, 96 overview, 215–216 disinfecting wastewater, 292 sharing electron pairs, 227–233 dispersion (London) forces, 232, 257–258 CRC (Chemical Rubber Company) disposal issues, nuclear power plants, Handbook, 103 308–309 crenation process, 152 dissociating bases, 174 crisscross rule, ionic compounds, 209–210 dissolved oxygen (DO), 289 critical mass, 305–306 distillation, 292 critical point, 263, 337 dividing critical pressure, 263 chemical calculations, 26–27 critical temperature, 263 signifi cant fi gures, 34 crystal lattice, 39, 260, 337 DO (dissolved oxygen), 289 crystal structure, sodium chloride, 203 double bond, 218 crystalline solids, 260, 338 double-displacement reaction. crystallization (solidifi cation), 168 See also metathesis cubic meters, 23 defi ned, 338 Curie, Marie, 320 neutralization reactions, 118–119 precipitation reactions, 117–118 drinking water, treating, 292 • D • dry ice, 42 Dalton, John, 320 ductile metals, 78–79 Dalton’s law, 104–105, 338 de Broglie, Louis, 194–195 deci- prefi x, 22 decomposition reaction, 115, 338 • E • deka- prefi x, 22 effective nuclear charge, 248, 338 density Einstein, Albert, 192 defi ned, 31 electrolytes, 212–213, 338 ice, 282 electromagnetic radiation, 190–191 identifying substances by, 45–46 electromagnetic spectrum, 61, 191, 338 measuring, 46–48 electron affi nity, 253–254, 338 water, 146 electron capture deposition, 42, 168 defi ned, 338 deposition. See acid rain radioactive decay, 299–300 detergents, 14 electron cloud, 197, 216, 257, 338 deuterium (H-2), 71, 310 electron confi gurations, 69–70, 338 diabetes, 186 IA family, periodic table, 84 diatomic element, 216 IIA family, periodic table, 84 diatomic molecule, 216 magnesium and bromine, 209 dilute solution, 139, 338 stability, 251–252 dimethyl ether compound, 222 VIIA family, periodic table, 84 dipole moment, 238 VIIIA family, periodic table, 84 dipole-dipole interaction, 232, 338 electron spin quantum number, 196 dipoles electron-dot formula, 217, 223–225 defi ned, 230, 238, 338 electronegativity, 227–229, 281, 338 ions and, 256 electron-pair geometry (electron- mutually attracting, 256–257 group geometry) water, 231 defi ned, 239 diprotic acids, 174 predicting molecular shape, 240

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electrons. See also quantum theory eutrophication, 288 atomic structure, 294 evaporation, water cycle, 280–281 confi guring, 66–70 exact numbers, 32–33 defi ned, 54, 338 excited state, electrons, 61, 194 locating in atom, 60–66 exergonic reaction, 113 electrostatic attraction, 203 exothermic reaction electrostatic precipitators, 273 collision theory, 112–113 elements defi ned, 155, 339 defi ned, 43 heat and, 156 diatomic, 216 reactants and products, 110 inner transition, 340 trends in electron affi nities, 253 list of, 57–59 EXP key, calculator, 27 main-group, 341 experimentation, scientifi c method, 12 transition, 347 exponential decay, 301 transuranium, 322 exponential notation, 25 unreactive, 201 extensive properties, 45, 156 emission spectra, 191–192 empirical formula calculating with moles, 129–130 • F • defi ned, 221, 339 face-centered units, 261 endergonic reaction, 114 factor label method, 29 endothermic reaction Fahlberg, Constantin, 318 collision theory, 113–114 Fahrenheit scale, 50–51 cooking, 110 families defi ned, 155, 339 defi ned, 339 heat and, 156 general discussion, 82–83 trends in electron affi nities, 253 valence electrons and, 83–86 endpoint, titration, 181, 339 Faraday, Michael, 320 end-to-end overlapping, p orbitals, 245 farm pollutants, 287–288 energy fecal coliform bacteria, 286 kinetic, 48–49 ferric ion, 211 measuring, 49–51 fertilizers, 287–288 potential energy, 49 Fiedler-Weiss, Virginia, 318 units, SI measurement system, 24–25 fi lled (complete) valence energy level, 201 energy states, electrons, 193–194 fi ltration, 44 energy-level diagram, 67–69, 201 fi sh kills, 277 enthalpy fi ssion defi ned, 162 calculating chain reactions and critical standard, of formation, 166–167 mass, 305–306 uncovering, 167–168 nuclear power plants, 306–309 enthalpy change (ΔH), 162–164, 339 overview, 304–305 environmental chemist, 19 producing plutonium with breeder enzymes, 236 reactors, 309 EPA (Environmental Protection Agency), 284 fi ssionable isotopes, 306, 307 equilibrium reaction, 178 fl occulate (fl oc), 292 Erlenmeyer fl ask, 180 fl uoride, 292 ethyl alcohol, 142, 222 fl uorine, 254 ethylene (C2H4), 244, 330 food additives, 332 ethylene dichloride (C2H2Cl2), 332 forensic chemist, 19

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formula masses, 126 glasses (amorphous solids), 259–260, 335 formula unit, defi ned, 219 global climate change, 272 formulas global warming, 272 empirical, 221 gold, 47, 58 molecular or true, 221 Goodyear, Charles, 316 structural, 223–227 Graham, Thomas, 105 fossil fuels, 268, 272 Graham’s law, 105–106, 339 fragmenting cells, 312 grams, 54 freezing point (fp), 41–42, 231, 282 greenhouse effect, 272–273, 339 freezing-point depression, 149–150 greenhouse gases, 272 frequency (v) ground state, electrons, 61, 194 defi ned, 339 groundwater, 281 electromagnetic radiation, 190 groups. See families Frey, Art, 318 fusion control issues, 310–311 • H • future of, 311–312 Haber process, 120, 130–132 overview, 309–310 hafnium, 58 fusion torch concept, 312 hair, growing, 318 hair remover, pH value, 185 half-life • G • defi ned, 339 gamma emission determining, 301–303 defi ned, 339 radioactive dating, 303–304 radioactive decay, 298–299 safe handling, 303 gas laws halogens (VIIA family) applying to stoichiometry, 103–104 defi ned, 339 Avogadro’s law, 100–101 determining ion charge, 204 Boyle’s law, 93–95 electron confi gurations, 84 Charles’s law, 95–97 overview, 82–83 combined gas law, 99–100 halons, 271 Gay-Lussac’s law, 97–98 hardness property, 45 ideal gas equation, 102–103 hassium, 58 van der Waals equation, 103 H-bond (hydrogen bond), 232–233, 264, gaseous diffusion, 105 281–282, 340 gaseous effusion, 105 heat, 51, 156 gases heat capacity atmospheric pressure, 90–92 defi ned, 339 Dalton’s law, 104–105 liquids, 260 defi ned, 339 overview, 157–159 gas laws, 93–103 water, 283 Graham’s law, 105–106 heat of vaporization how ozone reacts to, 270 defi ned, 339 kinetic molecular theory, 88–90 water, 283 overview, 39, 87 heats of reaction, fi nding gasoline, density of, 47 doing it yourself, 164 Gay-Lussac, Joseph-Louis, 96–97 referring to tables, 164 Gay-Lussac’s law, 97–98, 339 relying on Hess’s law, 165 giga- prefi x, 22 using standard heats of formation, 166–167

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heavy metal contamination, 285 indium, 58 hecto- prefi x, 22 industrial chemicals

Heisenberg, Werner, 195 ammonia (NH3), 333 helium, 58 chlorine(Cl2), 332 hemolysis process, 152 ethylene(C2H4), 330 Henry’s law, 339 ethylene dichloride (C2H2Cl2), 332 hertz (Hz), 191 nitrogen (N2), 330 Hess’s law, 165–167, 340 oxygen (O2), 330–331 heterogeneous mixtures, 44 phosphoric acid (H3PO4), 332–333 high-level nuclear waste, 308 propylene (C3H6), 331 holmium, 58 sodium hydroxide (NaOH), 333–334

homogeneous mixtures, 44. sulfuric acid (H2SO4), 329–330 See also solutions industrial research chemist, 19 human blood, pH value, 185 inert gaseous chemical compounds, 270 Hund’s rule, 68, 340 inert gases, 330 hybrid orbitals, 242, 340 infectious agents, 286 hybridization, 242–244, 347 inner transition elements, 86, 340 hydrocarbons, 119, 274 inner-shell electrons, 248 hydrochloric acid, 170 inorganic chemistry, 16 hydrogen inorganic compounds, 211 Bohr’s Atomic Model, 193 insulator, 230 covalent bonding, 216–217 intensive properties, 45, 156 intermolecular forces, 257 intermediates, 112 isolating isotope, 71 intermolecular forces overview, 58 bonding temporarily with London hydrogen bond (H-bond), 232–233, 264, (dispersion) forces, 257–258 281–282, 340 defi ned, 340 hydrologic cycle, 280–281 dipoles, 256–257 hydronium ion, 173, 175 hydrogen, 257 hydroxides, 184 overview, 231–232, 255–256 hypertonicity, 152 uniting through electron cloud, 257 hypothesis, scientifi c method, 12, 14 viscosity, 259 hypotonicity, 152 internal combustion engine, 276 Hz (hertz), 191 inverse square law, 251 iodine, 58 iodine-131 (I-131) • I • beta particle emission, 298 IA family. See alkali metals half-life, 303 ice ion exchange, 292 density of, 47 ion-dipole interaction, 340 fl oating property, 282 ionic bond structure of, 233 defi ned, 215, 229, 340 ideal gas, 90, 340 electrolytes and nonelectrolytes, 212–213 ideal gas equation, 102–103, 340 ionic compounds, 208–210 IIA family. See alkaline earth metals overview, 199 incineration, 287 polyatomic ions, 207–208 indicators positive and negative ions, 204–206 defi ned, 340 table salt, 200–204 identifying acids and bases with, 179–182

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ionic compounds kilopascals (kPa), 91 crisscross rule, 209–210 kinetic energy magnesium and bromine, 208–209 collision theory, 111 naming, 211–212 defi ned, 341 ionic equation, 117, 340 overview, 48–49 ionic radii, tendencies of, 249–250 radioactive particles and radiation, 312 ionic solids, 73, 203, 261, 340 kinetic molecular theory, 88–90, 341 ionization energy KISS principle, 222 defi ned, 340 kPa (kilopascals), 91 exceptions to rule, 252–253 Kr-94 radioisotope, 303 noting increase in sequential energy, krypton, 58 250–251 taking stability into consideration, 251–252 ions, 55, 72–73, 202, 256 • L • iridium, 58 landfi lls, 286–287 iron lanthanide series, periodic table, 76, 78 density of, 47 lanthanum, 58 overview, 58 Lavoisier, Antoine, 320 oxidation states, 206 law of conservation of energy, 49 isoelectronic, 250, 340 law of conservation of mass, 120 isoelectronicity, 73, 85, 202, 254 law of conservation of matter, 320, 341 isomers, 222 lawrencium, 58 isotonicity, 152 lead isotopes as contaminant, 285 defi ned, 294, 340 density of, 47 general discussion, 71–72 overview, 58 unstable, 296 oxidation states, 206 leaking underground storage tanks (LUST), 287, 341 • J • least-precise measurement, 34 joule (J), 24, 51, 157, 341 left-handed molecules, 316 lemon juice, pH value, 185 length, SI measurement system, 22–23 • K • Lewis formula

kcal (kilocalorie), 51 C2H4O, 225–227 Kekule, Friedrich, 317 defi ned, 217, 341 Kelvin temperature water, 225, 238 average kinetic energy, 50–51 lichen, 179 defi ned, 24 light gas particles and, 90 general discussion, 189–191 specifi c heat capacity, 158 spectroscopy, 191–193 when working with gas law expressions like-dissolves-like rule, 138 and calculations, 96–97 limiting ingredient (reactant), 135–136, 341 kg (kilogram), 23 line spectrum, 61, 192, 319, 341 kilo- prefi x, 22 linear orientation, 243 kilocalorie (kcal), 51 liquid oxygen (LOX), 331 kilogram (kg), 23 liquid-in-a-gas colloid, 153

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liquids liquids, 39 capillary action, 259–260 mixtures, 44 defi ned, 39, 341 overview, 37–38 heat capacity, 260 properties, 45–48 surface tension, 258 pure substances, 43–44 viscosity, 259 solids, 38–39 lithium, 58 measured numbers litmus paper, 179–180 defi ned, 33 London (dispersion) forces, 232, 257–258 determining number of signifi cant London smog, 341 fi gures in, 33 low-level nuclear waste, 308 measuring LOX (liquid oxygen), 331 atmospheric pressure, 90–92 LUST (leaking underground storage confi ned gas pressure, 92 tanks), 287, 341 density, 46–48 lutetium, 58 energy, 49–51 mechanical model, quantum theory. See also quantum theory • M • angular momentum quantum M (molarity), 139, 142–146, 342 number l, 63–65 macroscopic view general discussion, 195–197 acids and bases, 169–171 magnetic quantum number ml, 65 defi ned, 38 principal quantum number n, 63 versus microscopic view, 16–17 quantum numbers table, 65–66 magnesium, 58, 208–209 spin quantum number ms, 65 magnesium hydroxide, 170 medical tracers, 303 magnetic fi eld, 311 medicine, 14 magnetic induction effect, 320 mega- prefi x, 22 meitnerium, 58 magnetic quantum number (ml ), 63, 65, 196, 341 melting, 40 main-group elements, 341 melting point (mp), 40, 341 malleable metals, 79 Mendeleev, Dmitri, 75, 321 manganese meniscus, 259–260 overview, 58 mercury oxidation states, 206 capillary action, 259 man-made radioactive decay, 295–296 defi ned, 285 manometer, 92, 341 density of, 47 mass (weight) percent, 341 oxidation states, 206 mass (weight)-volume percent, 341 mesosphere, 270 mass, SI measurement system, 23 metallic bonding, 218, 341 mass defect, 304 metallic solids, 261 mass number, 56, 294, 341 metalloids (semimetals), 80–81, 342 mass/mass percentage ratio, 140–141 metals, 78–80, 342 mass/volume percentage ratio, 141 metathesis matter defi ned, 342 changing states of, 40–42 neutralization reactions, 118–119 classifi cation of, 43 precipitation reactions, 117–118 defi ned, 9 meters, 22 gases, 39 methane, 110 light and, 189–193 metric system. See SI measurement system

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micro- prefi x, 22 mp (melting point), 40, 341

microscopic view ms (spin quantum number), 63 acids and bases, 171–173 multiple bonds, 218–219 defi ned, 38 multiplying versus macroscopic viewpoint, 16–17 chemical calculations, 26–27 milk, pH value, 185 signifi cant fi gures, 34 milk of magnesia, pH value, 185 milli- prefi x, 22 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg), 91 • N • mining, metals from, 285 nano- prefi x, 22 Minoxidil, 318 natural logarithm, 302 mixtures, 44 negative charge, 55 mm Hg (millimeters of mercury), 91 negative ions, 204–206 MO (molecular orbital) theory, 244–246, 342 negligible quantity concept, 88 MO bond order, 246 net-ionic equation, 117, 172, 342 model, 12. See also Bohr’s atomic model; network (covalent) solids, 261 mechanical model, quantum theory network solid, 342 mol. See mole neutral litmus, 180 molality (m), 139, 342 neutral solution, 182, 342 molar enthalpy, 168 neutralization reactions, 118–119, 171, 342 molar heat capacity (S), 158, 342 neutron rich isotopes, 297 molarity (M), 139, 142–146, 342 neutron/proton ratio, 297, 298 mole (mol) neutrons calculating empirical formulas, 129–130 calculating, 294 counting particles by massing, 125–126 defi ned, 54 defi ned, 127, 342 newton, 24 making use of, 127–128 nitric oxide (NO), 274, 276 overview, 126–127 nitrogen (N2), 218–219, 330 role in chemical reactions, 130–136 nitrogen dioxide, 274, 276 molecular equation, 342 noble gases (VIIIA family) molecular formula, 221, 342 defi ned, 342 molecular geometry electron confi gurations, 84 defi ned, 238–239 overview, 82–83 molecular orbital (MO) theory, 244–246 valence electrons, 85 overview, 235 non-bonding electrons, 225 predicting molecular shape, 240 nonelectrolytes, 73, 343 shape, 236–238 nonmetals, 80, 343 valence-shell electron-pair repulsion non-Newtonian substance, 52 (VSEPR) theory, 239–242 non-point sources, pollution, 284, 286, 343 molecular masses, 126 nonpolar covalent bond, 229, 343 molecular orbital (MO) theory, 244–246, 342 nonpolar molecules, 236 molecular shapes, 241 nuclear charge, 248 molecular solids, 261 nuclear chemistry molecules atomic structure, 294 defi ned, 219, 342 fi ssion, 304–309 right- and left-handed, 316 fusion, 309–312 mole-to-coeffi cient ratio, 136 identifying effects of radiation, 312 monoatomic ions, 73, 204–205, 249 radioactive decay, 296–300 monoprotic acids, 174 radioactivity, 295–296

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nuclear glue, 56 percent composition, solution nuclear power plants concentration units cost issues, 307–308 mass/mass percentage ratio, 140–141 disposal issues, 308–309 mass/volume percentage ratio, 141 how they make electricity, 307 volume/volume percentage ratio, 141–142 safety issues, 308 percent yield, 134–135 nuclear reaction, 295 percentage composition data, 129 nuclear transmutation, 296 periodic table nucleus, 55–60, 189, 294, 343 arrangement of, 78–86 nutritional calories, 157 periodicity, 75–78 periodic trends electron affi nities, 253–254 • O • ionization energies, 250–253 observations, scientifi c method, 12 size of atom, 247–250 octahedral molecular shape, 241 periodicity, 75–78 octet rule, 85, 202, 222, 343 periods, 81, 343 one-step collision, 111–112 Perkin, William, 316–317 optical isomerism, 316 peroxyacetylnitrates (PANs), 274–275 optically active, 316 pesticides, 288 orbital (wave function), 62, 64, 196, 343, 348 pH organic chemistry, 16 controlling with buffers, 185 organo-phosphorus pesticides, 288 scale, 182–185 osmosis, 151, 343 phase changes, 40, 343 osmotic pressure, 150–152, 343 phase diagrams, 262–264, 343 osteoporosis, 184 phase transitions, uncovering, 167–168 outermost electrons, 248 phenolphthalein, 180–182 oven cleaner, pH value, 185 phosphorescence, 317 oxidation, 206, 343 phosphoric acid (H3PO4), 332–333 oxidation numbers, 343 photochemical smog oxidizing agent, 343 defi ned, 268, 343 London smog, 273 oxygen (O2), 330–331 Photochemical smog, 273–275 ozone (O3), 292 ozone layer photons, 192 effect of CFCs on, 271 photosynthesis, 267 how ozone reacts to gases, 270 physical chemistry, 16 overview, 269–270 physical properties, 45 pi (π) bonds, 244, 343 pico- prefi x, 22 • P • Planck, Max, 191 Pa-234 isotope, 296 plasma, 311 PANs (peroxyacetylnitrates), 274–275 Plunkett, Roy, 317 particulates, 268, 343 plutonium, 309 parts per billion (ppb), 146 plutonium-239 (Pu-239), 308 parts per million (ppm), 146, 289 point sources, pollution, 284, 344 parts per trillion (ppt), 146 polar covalent bond pascal, 24, 91, 343 defi ned, 229, 344 Pasteur, Louis, 316 overview, 230 Pauling, Linus, 321 water, 231

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polar gases, 103 properties, matter polar liquids, 258 identifying substances by density, 45–46 polar molecules, 236, 256 measuring density, 46–48

polarity propylene (C3H6), 331 molecular shape, 236–238 protactinium, 59 solubility and, 138 protons pollutants, 283 atomic structure, 294 pollution. See air pollution; water pollution defi ned, 43, 54 pollution unit, 146 psi (pounds per square inch), 91 polonium-204 (Po-204), 299 pure chemistry, 17–18 polyatomic ions, 73, 207–208 pure substances polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 332 compounds, 43–44 positive charge, 55 elements, 43 positive ions, 204–206 pure water, pH value, 185 positron, 344 PVC (polyvinyl chloride), 332 positron emission, 299 potable water, 279 potassium-40 (K-40), 299 • Q • potential energy, 49, 344 qualitative analysis, 15 pounds per square inch (psi), 91 quality control chemist, 19 ppb (parts per billion), 146 quantitative analysis, 15 ppm (parts per million), 146, 289 quantized, 61, 192, 344 ppt (parts per trillion), 146 quantum numbers, 62, 196, 344. precipitate, 344 quantum theory See also mechanical precipitation, water cycle, 280 model, quantum theory precipitation reactions, 117–118, 344 Bohr’s atomic model, 193–195 precision, 27–29 matter and light concepts, 189–193 predictions, scientifi c method, 12 prefi xes binary covalent compounds, 220 • R • SI measurement system, 22 racemic acid, 316 preservationist of art and historical works, 19 radiant energy, 190–191, 280 pressure radiation, 312 atmospheric, 90–92 radioactive decay defi ned, 89, 344 alpha particle emission, 297–298 osmotic, 150–152, 343 beta particle emission, 298 SI measurement system, 24 electron capture, 299–300 pressure-temperature relationship, gases, 98 gamma radiation emission, 298–299 Priestly, Joseph, 320 half-lives, 300–304 primary sewage treatment, 290–291, 344 man-made, 295–296 primitive unit cells (simple units), 261 positron emission, 299 principal quantum number (n), 63, 196, 344 radioactive isotopes, 303 probabilities, 197 radioactivity, 56, 295–296, 317, 344 products, 109–111, 295 radium, 59 promethium, 59 radon, 59, 312 proof, 142, 344 radon-222 (Rn-222), 298, 303, 312 propane, 119 rainwater, 186

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raising number to power, 27 salts, 73, 203, 261, 340 Re-187 radioisotope, 303 samarium, 59 reactants, 109–111, 135–136, 295, 344 saturated solution, 139, 345 reaction arrow, 295 scandium, 59 reaction intermediate, 344 Schlatter, James, 318 reaction mechanism, 344 Schrödinger, Erwin, 195 reaction stoichiometry, 132–134 science, versus technology, 10–11 reactions, chemical. See chemical reactions scientifi c calculators, 27 reactive site, 112 scientifi c method, 11–15 recycling, 287 scientifi c notation, 25 red blood cells, osmotic pressure, 152 scrubbers, 273 red litmus, 180 sea levels, rising, 273 redox reactions, 119, 344 sea of electrons, 218, 261 reducing agent, 344 Seaborg, Glenn, 322 reduction, 344 seaborgium, 59 reduction-oxidation (redox) reactions, seawater, pH value, 185 119, 344 secondary sewage treatment, 291, 345 replacement (single-displacement) seesaw molecular shape, 241 reactions, 116–117, 345 selenium, 59 reporting correct number, 34 semimetals (metalloids), 80–81, 342 reproducible measurements, 27 semipermeable membrane, 150, 345 resonance, 345 sequential ionization energy, 250–251 reverse osmosis, 151, 292, 345 serendipity, 13 rhenium, 59 sewage treatment rhodium, 59 primary, 290–291 right-handed molecules, 316 secondary, 291 ring structure, 317 tertiary, 291–292 rounding off numbers, 35 sg (specifi c gravity), 46 rubber, stabilizing, 316 shape, molecular, 236–238 rubidium, 59 sharing electron pairs runoff, 281, 285 electronegativity, 227–229 rust remover, 332 polar covalent bonding, 230 ruthenium, 59 water, 230–233 Rutherford, Ernest, 55, 321 shells, 345 rutherfordium, 59 shielding effect, 248–249 Shroud of Turin, 304 SI measurement system • S • defi ned, 345 s (specifi c heat capacity), 157–158, 345 prefi xes, 22 S (molar heat capacity), 158, 342 units of energy, 24–25 saccharin, 318 units of length, 22–23 safety, nuclear power plants, 308 units of mass, 23 sales representative, 19 units of pressure, 24 salt, table units of temperature, 24 chlorine’s role, 202–203 units of volume, 23–24 density of, 47 side-by-side overlapping, p orbitals, 245 ending up with bond, 203–204 sigma (σ) bonds, 244, 345 meeting components, 200–201 sodium’s role, 202

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signifi cant fi gures solution concentration units, 139–146 comparing numbers, 32–33 supersaturated, 139, 346 determining number of in measured unsaturated, 139, 347 number, 33 solvation, 345 reporting correct number of, 34 solvents rounding off numbers, 35 defi ned, 345 silicon, 59 general discussion, 137–139 silver, 59, 72 saturation, 139 simple units (primitive unit cells), 261 solubility, 138 single bond, 218 sp hybridization, 243 single-displacement (replacement) sp2 hybridization, 243 reactions, 116–117, 345 sp3 hybridization, 243 size of atom sp3d hybridization, 243 changes in atomic radii, 248–249 sp3d2 hybridization, 243 effective nuclear charge, 248 specifi c gravity (sg), 46 overview, 247 specifi c heat capacity (s), 157–158, 345 tendencies of ionic radii, 249–250 spectator ions, 117, 119, 345 sludge, 291 spectroscope, 61 soap, 14 spectroscopy, 191–193 sodium, 59, 200 absorption spectra, 193 sodium bicarbonate, 170 emission spectra, 191–192 sodium hydroxide (NaOH), 170, 333–334 spectrum, 192 soft drinks, pH value, 185 speed of light, 346 solidifi cation (crystallization), 168 sphere, surface tension, 258 solids, 38–39, 260–261, 345 spin pairing, 68

solubility, 118, 138 spin quantum number (ms), 63, 65, 346 solutes square planar molecular shape, 241 defi ned, 137, 345 square pyramidal molecular shape, 241 effect on freezing and boiling point stability, ionization energies, 251–252 ° of solvent, 150 standard enthalpy of formation (ΔHf ), 346 saturation, 139 standard temperature and pressure solubility, 138 (STP), 101 solution concentration units state function, 165 molarity (M), 142–146 statistically signifi cant sample size, 300 overview, 139 steam, 39 percent composition, 140–142 sticky notes, 318 pollution unit, 146 stoichiometric ratio, 133 solutions stoichiometry acidic, 182, 335 applying gas laws to, 103–104 aqueous, 140, 152, 335 defi ned, 346 colligative properties, 146–152, 337 reaction, 132–134 colloids, 153 storm surges, 273 concentrated, 139, 145, 337 STP (standard temperature and defi ned, 345 pressure), 101 dilute, 139, 338 straight-line motion, gas particles, 89 neutral, 182, 342 stratosphere, 269 saturated, 139, 345 strong acids, 173–174, 346 solutes and solvents, 137–139 strong bases, 174–175, 346

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strong electrolytes, 346 tertiary sewage treatment, 291–292, 346 strontium, 59 tetraethyl lead, 285 structural formulas tetrahedral electron-pair geometry, 240 electron-dot formula for water, 223–225 tetrahedral molecular shape, 241

Lewis formula for C2H4O, 225–227 Th-234 isotope, 296 Lewis formula for water, 225 theoretical chemistry, 18 structural isomers, 346 theoretical yield, 135, 347 subatomic particles, 43, 54–55 theory, defi ned, 12 subcritical mass, 306 thermal inversion, 274 sublimation, 42, 168, 263, 346 thermal pollution, 138, 288 subshells, 346 thermochemical equation, 163 subtracting thermochemistry chemical calculations, 26 calorimetry, 158 signifi cant fi gures, 34 defi ned, 346 sulfur, 59 enthalpy changes, 162–164 sulfur trioxide, 276 fi nding heats of reaction, 164–167 sulfur-containing compounds, 276 heat, 156

sulfuric acid (H2SO4), 170, 329–330 heat capacities, 157–159 Superfund program, 287 overview, 155 supersaturated solution, 139, 346 surroundings, 156 surface tension systems, 156 defi ned, 346 uncovering enthalpies and phase liquids, 258 transitions, 167–168 water, 264, 282 units of energy, 157 surfactant, 258 thermodynamics, 155, 347 surroundings thermometer, 49–50 defi ned, 346 thermosphere, 270 thermochemistry, 156 Three Mile Island, 308 suspension, 153, 346 tin, oxidation states, 206 sweeteners, artifi cial, 318 tips for passing Chem I, 323–327 synthesis, 18, 109, 125 titrant, 347 system, thermodynamics, 156, 346 titration defi ned, 347 with phenolphthalein, 180–182 • T • toluene, 286 table salt. See salt, table toothpaste, 14 technology, 10–11 torr, atmospheric pressure, 91 tefl on, 317 transition elements temperature defi ned, 86, 347 defi ned, 156 oxidation states, 206 overview, 50–51 transition state, exothermic reaction, 112 solubility and, 138 transmutation, 347 specifi c heat capacity, 158 transmutation, nuclear, 296 units of, SI measurement system, 24 transuranium elements, 322 viscosity and, 259 trichloroethylene, 286 temperature-volume relationship, gases, 95 trigonal bipyramidal molecular shape, 241 tera- prefi x, 22 trigonal pyramidal molecular shape, 241

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triple bond, 218–219 van ’t Hoff factor, 152, 347 triple point, 263, 347 vapor pressure tritium (H-3), 71, 303, 310 defi ned, 347 troposphere, 268–269 lowering, 147 true formula, 221 variables, 15 T-shaped molecular shape, 241 VIIA family. See halogens turbidity, water, 292 VIIIA family. See noble gases Tyndall effect, 153, 347 vinegar, pH value, 185 viscosity defi ned, 347 • U • liquids, 259 U-238 isotope, 296 volatile organic chemicals (VOCs), 286 ultraviolet (UV) radiation, 269 volume uncertainty principle, Heisenberg, determining, 46–47 62, 195–196 measuring, 315 unit cells, 260, 347 units of, SI measurement system, 23–24 unit conversion method, problem volume percent, 347 solving, 27–32 volume/volume percentage ratio, 141–142 units of energy, 24–25, 157 VSEPR (valence-shell electron-pair units of length, 22–23 repulsion) theory, 235, 239–242, 348 units of mass, 23 vulcanization process, 316 units of pressure, 24 units of temperature, 24 units of volume, 23–24 • W • universal solvent (water), 231, 283 wastewater unreactive elements, 201 overview, 289–290 unsaturated solution, 139, 347 primary sewage treatment, 290–291 unstable isotopes, 296 secondary sewage treatment, 291 uranium-235 (U-235) tertiary sewage treatment, 291–292 half-life, 303 water nuclear fi ssion, 304 calculating molecular mass of, 126 UV (ultraviolet) radiation, 269 density of, 47, 146 electron-dot formula for, 223–225 Lewis formula for, 225 • V • reaction with ammonia, 177 valence bond theory, 235, 242–244, 347 sharing electron pairs, 230–233 valence electrons strength of, 264 chlorine, 202 water cycle, 280–281 defi ned, 70, 347 water dissociation constant, 178 families and, 83–86 water pollution hydrogen, 216 common pollutants, 284–289 sodium, 202 examining specifi cs of water, 281–283 valence-shell electron-pair repulsion treating drinking water, 292 (VSEPR) theory, 235, 239–242, 348 wastewater, 289–292 van der Waals, Johannes, 103 water (hydrologic) cycle, 280–281 van der Waals equation, 103, 347

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wave equation, 195 weak electrolytes, 348 wave function (orbital), 62, 64, 196, weighted average, 72, 78 343, 348 wavelength (λ), 190, 348 weak acids, 175–177, 348 • Z • weak bases, 177, 348 Zappacosta, Anthony, 318

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