MASARYK UNIVERSITY Faculty of Arts Department of Archaeology and Museology

MASTER’S THESIS

2018 Klára Matulová MASARYK UNIVERSITY Faculty of Arts Department of Archaeology and Museology Classical Archaeology

WATER MANAGEMENT ON MT. OXA (CRETE)

Bc. Klára Matulová

Supervisor: Mgr. Věra Klontza, Ph.D. Consultant: Mgr. Dalibor Všianský, Ph.D.

Brno 2018

DECLARATION

I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography. I agree with storing this work in the library of Classical Archaeology at Masaryk University in Brno for study purposes.

…………………………………………… ABSTRACT

Presented master’s thesis focuses on the study of water management system utilized at the hilltop site Oxa, which is located in the western part of Mirabello Bay, Crete. Data collected during three survey prospections on Oxa Mountain were clustered in a database and further transformed in the catalogue. The interpretation of the water supply as a particular settlement strategy is based on a detailed documentation of Oxa’s architectural remains related to water management and their subsequent analysis and interpretation in the context of Crete and eastern Mediterranean region.

Keywords: Crete, water management, cisterns, Middle Ages, rainfall utilization, survey prospection

ABSTRAKT

Předložená magisterská diplomová práce se zabývá vodním hospodářstvím na lokalitě Oxa nacházející se v západní části zálivu Mirabello na Krétě. Cílem práce je zdokumentovat početné kamenné struktury související s vodním hospodářstvím, získaná data zpracovat formou databáze a katalogu, a analyzovat je v kontextu regionu i východního Středomoří. V práci jsou použité údaje získané terénní prospekcí, která proběhla v sezónách 2013-2014 a 2017. Základem pro interpretaci vodního systému jako konkrétní sídelní strategie je podrobný rozbor nálezové situace na lokalitě Oxa, který je srovnán s vybranými lokalitami regionálního i nadregionálního významu.

Klíčová slova: Kréta, vodní hospodářství, cisterny, středověk, terénní prospekce, využití dešťové vody ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would first like to thank my thesis’s supervisor Mgr. Věra Klontza, Ph.D. who has always encouraged students in their research and tried to provide them the study opportunities they desired. I admire the incredible patience and support she has for her students, as well as the positive attitude she passes on people around. My gratitude further goes to Mgr. Dalibor Všianský, Ph.D. (Department of Geological Sciences of Masaryk University in Brno) for providing me the results of plaster analysis and consultations in this regard. I am also grateful for the opportunity to study in the libraries in Knossos, INSTAP and ASCSA where the majority of literature used in this thesis was gathered together.

Moreover, I would like to thank the entire team of The Oxa Project, to all colleagues who were participating in the survey prospections. Without your contribution, this thesis would not be written. I would especially like to thank my archaeological friend, Bc. Lucia Ščasníková, who walked with me along the same path of our Master studies. Thank you for your help during the survey on Oxa Mt., your support, valuable advices and encouragement during my studies.

Deep gratitude goes to all people who were howsoever involved in this thesis. Namely I would like to thank Mgr. Magdaléna Musilová for expert advices and consultations concerning geology, Mgr. Petr Pajdla for his insights, comments, advices with the digitalization of plans and providing me the graphs, Mgr. Vojtěch Nosek for the photos of plaster and mortar samples, and the last but not least, Dr. Patrik Klingborg (Uppsala University, Sweden) for providing me his dissertation and for his comments and advices regarding to the study of cisterns’ features.

Finally, I cannot express how much I am grateful to have my family and closest friends, who always supported me in my studies. My sister, mum, dad, and especially my grandparents, followed by my friends, Ivette, Káťa, Lucka, Magdička, Miško, Monča, Peťa and Honza. Thank you for making this world a better place and for making me laugh the most. LIST OF CONTENT

Introduction ...... 9

Theoretical Basis ...... 11

1.1. Water Management: State of research ...... 11

1.2. A Brief History of the Study Area ...... 15

1.3. Natural Environment of Crete ...... 18 1.3.1. Geology and Hydrogeology ...... 18 1.3.2. Climate ...... 21

1.4. Water Management in the Mediterranean ...... 24 1.4.1. Introduction to Cisterns ...... 27 1.4.1.1. Cisterns on Crete ...... 30 I. Bronze Age ...... 30 II. Iron Age ...... 32 III. Roman Period ...... 34 IV. Byzantine Period ...... 40 V. Venetian and Ottoman Rule ...... 43 1.4.1.2. Interpretation of Cisterns’ Features ...... 45 1.4.1.3. Summary ...... 54 1.4.2. Plasters and mortars ...... 59 1.4.2.1. Case Studies ...... 61

Surveys on Mt. Oxa in 2013-2017 ...... 63

2.1. Oxa Survey Seasons 2013-2014 ...... 64 2.1.1. Objectives ...... 64 2.1.2. Methodology ...... 64 2.1.3. Results ...... 65

2.2. Oxa Survey Season 2017 ...... 67 2.2.1. Objectives ...... 67 2.2.2. Methodology ...... 68 2.3. Documentation ...... 68

2.4. Data Processing ...... 70

2.5. Dating of the Site ...... 72 2.5.1. References to Oxa ...... 72 2.5.2. Results of Pottery Sampling at Oxa ...... 73 2.5.3. Architectural Remains ...... 74 2.5.4. Discussing the Byzantine Period on Crete ...... 75

2.6. A Small Ethnographic Research in the Study Area: Nofalias Village ...... 77

Water Management on Mount Oxa...... 80

3.1. Identification of Water Structures ...... 80

3.2. Criteria for Selecting Particular Water Structures ...... 86

3.3. General Characteristics of Water Structures at Oxa ...... 87 3.3.1. Structure’s Shape ...... 87 3.3.2. Type of Masonry ...... 88 3.3.3. Building Material ...... 90 3.3.4. Position in Terrain ...... 91 3.3.5. Coverage of the Structure ...... 91 3.3.6. Cisterns’ Supply ...... 92 3.3.7. Secondary Usage and Interventions into the Masonry ...... 95 3.3.7. Miscellaneous ...... 97 3.3.8. Possible Surface Channels ...... 99

3.4. General Characteristics of Plasters and Mortars at Oxa ...... 100

3.5. Analysis of Plaster ...... 104 3.5.1. Petrographic and X-ray Diffraction Analysis of Plaster from Cistern OXA0161 ...... 104 3.5.2. Summary ...... 105

Synthesis of Knowledge ...... 106

4.1. Character of Water Management at Oxa ...... 106 4.1.1. Interpretation of Cisterns’ Features ...... 107

4.2. Settlement Strategies of Oxa site based on the Study of Water Management .... 110

4.3. Future research ...... 112 Conclusion ...... 114

Resumé ...... 117

List of Figures, Tables and Graphs...... 120

Bibliography ...... 125

Appendix A ...... 138

Appendix B ...... 140

Appendix C ...... 146 INTRODUCTION

The aim of presented thesis is the study of architectural remains located at the hilltop site Oxa on Crete, which were identified as cisterns. All possible data, which are used as a primary source in this thesis, were gathered during three seasons of systematic survey prospections conducted by research team from Masaryk University in Brno throughout the years 2013 - 2017.

Since Oxa site was never systematically excavated before, it bears a great study perspective for several different research questions. The initial theory based on the evaluation of the architectural features and study of pottery sherds found on the surface claims that the site went through several inhabitation phases, including the Late Minoan, Hellenistic and Byzantine periods. About five dozens of cisterns and possible surface water channels have been recognized as the Byzantine remains and therefore the main focus for now is to understand the site’s role in time and space and compare it with relevant sites on Crete and from the eastern Mediterranean.

Individual topics concerning Oxa have been already handled in Master’s theses by other students from Masaryk University in Brno, i.e. the first assessment of the site focused mainly on the Byzantine fortification systems (Adam Geisler 2016) or rock engravings and the Minoan activities at Oxa (Lucia Ščasníková 2018). For that reason, some of the subchapters in the following thesis will only refer to these studies to avoid duplication.

In total 31 structures related to water management system at Oxa are evaluated in this thesis. In the survey season 2017, 14 representative were chosen to be examined in detail. Collected data were clustered in the database and its output is presented in the Catalogue (Appendix C). Besides the detail documentation of selected structures, season 2017 involved a small ethnographic research in the mountainous village Nofalias to collect additional information regarding to the cisterns’ features. Finally yet importantly, the cisterns’ inner lining (i.e. plasters and mortars) was sampled during the last survey season. The samples from 12 structures were carefully removed to be later

9 analyzed at Department of Geological Sciences of Masaryk University in Brno in order to find out their composition and properties.

The theoretical part of the thesis was divided into four subchapters. The state of research on water management opens a discussion about the urge to study less prominent hydraulic works, which exist in the archaeological record but are not adequately documented. It was necessary to briefly introduce the history of Crete as well as its natural environments to properly understand the position of the site. This section is complemented with an overview of cisterns’ usage on Crete and from relevant sites of the eastern Mediterranean. The theoretical section of this thesis is finished with a preliminary effort to study the plasters and mortars applied as a waterproof agent in the interior of the cisterns.

The practical part includes the methodological approach preferred for the systematic surveys of the site as well as the analysis of collected data with the critical insights on dating of the site. The following subchapters describe in detail the hydraulic structures from Oxa site and their specific features in order to understand how the system worked. The final passage interprets Oxa’s water management as the possible settlement strategy based on the study of history, natural environments and other relevant water management systems from Crete and eastern Mediterranean.

The presented thesis primarily attempts to answer following questions:

1) Is it possible to characterize water management system at Oxa site according to the survey prospections? 2) What are the settlement strategies of Oxa based on the study of local water management? 3) What is the potential of the site for future research and systematic excavation?

Chapter 1

THEORETICAL BASIS

1.1. WATER MANAGEMENT: STATE OF RESEARCH

Study of water management in the ancient Mediterranean and especially on Crete has its specific research history. For the logic of this thesis, since it mainly examines never- before excavated site Oxa, I am including at the first sight ‘less relevant’ publications related to water management through time in the Mediterranean to show how the state of research is inconsistent either through the periods, geographical range or type of water management. Despite the fact that we consider the last phase of Oxa’s inhabitation to belong to the Byzantine period, the pottery sherds and some fortification structures are dated back to Hellenistic period, and the rock engravings to Minoan Age. Therefore, we cannot exclude the option that some of the assessed water structures (cisterns and possible water channels) might be of earlier date and for this reason, it is necessary to take into account the widest information possible.

From 1975, the international conference on the History of Water Management and Hydraulic Engineering in the Mediterranean Region, also known as ‘Cura Aquarum in…’, is held annually, each time in another city of the Mediterranean countries. Its objective is the awareness of the history of water management and hydraulics. The presented papers are published regularly since 2002 by The German Water History Association (Deutsche Wasserhistorische Gesellschaft, DWhG) and serve as one of the best source of latest research in this field of study. Besides the conference series, DWhG also publishes monographies and other volumes, for example ‘Antike Zisternen’ where a number of contributions on study of cisterns are drawn together (Ohlig 2007).

The website (http://www.itia.ntua.gr/ahw/works/) recently founded by Mamassis and Koutsoyiannis aims to create an online database of hydraulic works of ancient Greece, including their GIS information and location in the map, as well as basic information about the structure (name, region, type, use, period of construction, name of the

11 hydrosystem, brief description and related documents). Currently, structures from Minoan until Roman period could be entered, and the Byzantine period is planned to extent the database in the future (Mamassis – Koutsoyiannis 2010, 105-106). Information about 120 hydraulic works are found on the website today. This seems to be a great platform for the study of water management although the database is not complete yet, however bears a good perspective if the authors will continue with its maintenance.

Back to the general state of research, in its early stages, many archaeologists were exploring predominantly the outstanding and well-preserved constructions from the Roman period like aqueducts (e.g. Angelakis et al. 2007; Hodge 1992), baths (e.g. Aicher 1995; Lucore – Trümper 2013; Yegül 2009) or fountains (e.g. Angelakis 2015; Longfellow 2011; Pulvers 2002; Richard 2012; Shilling - Stephenson 2016). A good deal of studies was dedicated to ancient water technologies and their development (e.g. Mays 2012; Oleson 1984; Wikander 2000).

The research of cisterns and rainwater management has improved in the latest decades, although information was initially included rather in the general studies. ‘The water supply of ancient Athens’ by Camp adequately discusses cisterns among the other water installations (Camp 1977), similarly as Tölle-Kastenbein in ‘Antike Wasserkultur’ (Tölle-Kastenbein 1990). ‘Water Management in Ancient Greek Cities’ published by Crouch sums up the issue of water management in Greece and Italy as a whole and aims for cross-disciplinary research which is essential for field of study (Crouch 1993). Crouch has been addressing this topic for a long time, revising various water systems across different regions (e.g. Crouch 1984, 1987, or 1990) and analyzing them. Her contribution to understanding water management of the past societies was further developed in ‘Geology and Settlements: Greco-Roman Patterns’ where she critically discusses problems in solitary archaeological interpretations based on speculations, and examines water management in relation with geology (Crouch 2003).

The first publication dedicated solely to cisterns was published by Brinker who studied the cisterns in Pergamon (Brinker 1990). Although some of the interpretations should be viewed critically nowadays, his work took a significant part in highlighting the importance of cisterns as an equal part of water supply in the past. He was followed by

Garbrecht who published ‘Die Wasserversorgung von Pergamon’ where a great chapter is dedicated to cisterns and could serve as a study material for further research (Garbrecht 2001).

One of the most recent studies on cistern in the Ancient Mediterranean is the doctoral thesis called ‘Greek Cisterns: Water and risk in ancient Greece, 600–50 BC’ by Klingborg, which focuses on Greek cisterns from 600-50 BC. The monography assesses representative material and available data from a studied region, and opens a discussion about the existence of cisterns within Greek society. The author critically evaluates collected data and suggests improvements, for example in the terminology used by scholars researching the cisterns and other water structures (Klingborg 2017). Furthermore, Klingborg and Finné examine the functionality of the cisterns and water management system’s efficiency and its sustainability (Klingborg – Finné 2018), i.e. modelling, undoubtedly one of the most important parts of contemporary archaeology, which I aim to as well in the future.

Previous research on water management in the Minoan Crete shows that heterogeneous and sophisticated systems have been in use on Crete for relatively long time. For example, Betancourt focused on dams in Minoan Pseira (Betancourt 2012), Flood published an article on water management in Neolapalatial Crete (Flood 2012), or Cadogan studied cisterns from the Middle Bronze Age settlement (Cadogan 2006).

One of the leader researchers of water management in the Aegean region are currently Angelakis, Antoniou and Mays. Their contribution to this field of study is doubtless and I will only mention the most important publications, which were used as a starting point for this thesis. One of the key articles focusing on the development of cisterns is ‘History of Water Cisterns: Legacies and Lessons’ (Mays et al. 2013). The article gives an overview throughout the time and space and briefly comments on all possible usage of cisterns. ‘Evolution of Rainwater Harvesting and Use in Crete’ (Angelakis 2013), ‘A Brief History of Urban Water Supply in Antiquity’ (Mays et al. 2007) or ‘Use of Cisterns during Antiquity in the Mediterranean Region’ (Mays 2014) complement the scope of this topic.

A level of disparity is observed among the publication dedicated to the Byzantine period. Numerous works have been written on Constantinople water supply. Not only studies of the informative character but as well the comprehensive works focusing on the relationship between the state power, legislation, or possible crisis and water supply (e.g. Crow 2012; Crow – Bayliss 2005; Crow et al. 2001; Crow et al. 2008; Emre 2014; Mango 1995; Snyder et al. 2018; Ward 2017a; Ward 2017b). A number of individual articles concerning water supply utilized in the Byzantine period have been published; however, these are not aiming to understand the Byzantine water management as a whole (e.g. Antoniou 2009; Connelly – Wilson 2002; Giorgi 2007; Hill et al. 2007; Saradi 2006; Stewart 2016; Veikou 2012; Yannopoulos et al. 2017). The complex study of the Byzantine water management is still in the preliminary stage, either due to the common problem of unpublished research or for the reason that simple cisterns do not attract the attention as much as other findings.

Therefore, some comprehensive publication dealing with different aspects of water management for urban, rural or peripheral regions of Byzantium is missing in this field of study. The sophisticated systems of water supply in Constantinople and its remarkable constructions could be hardly compared to those water management systems in peripheral areas of Mediterranean.

Last but not least, while understanding the hydraulic installations of the past we should consider the building material as well. Plasters, mortars or generally the building materials are studied and discussed for example in Adam 1989; Kirca 2005; Maravelaki-Kalaitzaki et al. 2005; Morgan 1992; Moropoulou et al. 1998 or Stefanidou et al. 2014.

The importance of the study of water management systems is increasing lately although not all of the excavators reflect the findings related to water supply of the settlements in their publications. Yet the proper identification of water supply of the site helps to understand the settlement strategies and the decisive choices when founding a settlement or adapting on the climate / social conditions. By understanding the fails and achievements of water management from the past societies, we can learn important lessons, which might be applied in contemporary world facing severe problems with water shortage (Kaptijn 2017).

1.2. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE STUDY AREA

The tradition of settling in the Mirabello Bay goes back to the Minoan period and especially to the rise of so called refuge settlements by the end of Late Minoan whereas many coastal sites have been abandoned. Nowicki suggests these were the defensible sites of Cretan Dark Ages (1200 - 800 BC), founded in the favorable locations in times of need. The inhabitation of Oxa site, similarly as Myrsini Kastello and Chamaizi Liopetro, is dated back to the same time as the foundation of the settlements in Vrokastro or Kavousi Kastro, i.e. beginning of LM IIIC (Nowicki 2000, 229). These hilltop sites could be easily supplied with water since in most of them, the closest spring is located 5-10 minutes by walking and even more, some sites had a spring within the settlement. However, the population size increased during the last phases of Late Minoan period, which naturally led to higher demand for water but the springs might not be enough to sufficiently meet the needs of inhabitants. Nowicki therefore suggests that people had to build wells or cisterns for additional supply of the sites with water (Nowicki 2000, 232).

Most of these defensible sites were abandoned at the beginning of the Protogeometric period. Probably in the moment when people could leave the settlement they immediately did, but there is also an evidence that some of the sites continued with inhabitation (Nowicki 2000, 243). The closest sites near Oxa Mountain are Olous (ca. 5 km away), Dreros (ca. 10 km away) and Lato (ca. 7 km away), which managed to transform their settlement patterns from Minoan to Archaic period, relatively peaceful times, and later to Classical and Hellenistic periods when the population of Crete on contrary decreased. These sites eventually got into conflicts concerning their borders and influence areas for the trade routes with other Aegean lands and Egypt. The conflicts culminated in wars (Markonis et al 2016, 146). This is the time when Oxa Mountain could be resettled for the second time as kind of a refuge site.

The unstable political situation got Crete into the interest of Roman Empire already at the beginning of the 2nd century BC but the conquest and the establishment of senatorial province Crete and Cyrenaica with the capital at Gortyn is dated to 67 BC (De Souza 1998, 112). The repopulation of the island and considerable degree of stability was

15 brought in, although the Romanization process remained relatively low (Jouffroy- Bapicot et al. 2016, 4). The province was later separated from Cyrenaica in the 3rd century AD and during the reign of Constantine I, a period of great prosperity, the island became a part of Dioecesis Illyricum, ruled directly from Constantinople (Tsougurakis 1988, 155-157). In 365, Crete and the surrounding Aegean suffered from mega-earthquake and tsunami, which resulted in vertical uplift of western Crete (of about 9 m) and had devastating effect for many of the Cretan cities (Werner et al. 2018, 87). This is also known from the historical sources, which say that a great financial support was sent from Constantinople during the reign of Theodosius I and II to Crete to help rebuilt its cities, especially the capital Gortyn. The fact that Constantinople released extra funds for this purpose is suggesting the importance and strategical position of Crete for the Byzantine Empire (Tsougurakis 1988, 20-21).

The 6th century AD plague waves decreased European population of about 40% but it is said that Crete was not that critically affected by it (Makrakis 2009, 54). In beginning of the 7th century AD, Slavs attacked Crete, as they were very active sea and land raiders known in Europe during this time (Tsougarakis 1988, 29). In the middle of the 7th century AD, coastal strip of Crete has been under several attacks from Arabs. It is assumed that the abandonment of many coastal sites on Crete in this time is the social response on these raids. Crete remained under the Byzantine administration until 827/828 AD when the Emirate of Crete was established and the island became the official part of the Caliphate (Tsougurakis 1988, 164). The phase between 7th to 10th c. AD is often referred as another Dark Age because the historical sources are scarce. New perspective on this period is offered by the archaeologists who can help clarify the historical hiatus with recent excavations. Although the crisis is observed and generally accepted among the scholars, life back then went on and on contrary, a room for development could occur (Hill et al. 2017, 283). The Arab domination over the island ended in 961 when the capital Chandax (nowadays Heraklion) was sieged and pillaged by the general of Byzantine Empire, Nikephoros Phokas (Treadgold 1997, 493 - 495). The second Byzantine period was established on Crete again. This phase is characterized by strengthening the position of Constantinople in the Empire, relatively peaceful times with prosperity until the time of Fourth Crusade, when Crete was sold to Venetian Republic (Treadgold 1997, 710-715).

The Crete was under the Venetian rule from 1204 AD with a capital in Candia (modern day Heraklion), known as the Kingdom of Candia. Cretan people fought against the Venetian rule repeatedly (religion played its role here too, local people identified themselves as Orthodox Greeks and Venetians were Roman Catholic), and Lasithi region became a center for rebels. This led to the ban by Venetian rulers in the 13th century AD for settling in the area, planting crops and herding animals. The ban was probably violated several times as the ban decree was tighten up again in 1341 and another time in 1364 (Watrous 1982, 25-26). The Crete was hit by the Black Death in 1347-48, which extensively reduced Cretan population and caused many problems (Rackham - Moody 1996, 4).

The ban for settling in the Lasithi region was lifted in 1463 in order to gain more of cultivated land to use it in times of the military campaigns against Turks. The land was divided into fields, which were given to people for a rent (rent was paid with a part of the wheat crop). The families who wanted to continue with the regulations could no more pay in wheat crop since the harvest was bad several years in row (wheat disease or heavy winter rains causing the erosion and flooding of the rivers). The cultivation plans were rarely fulfilled and more and more frequent Ottoman attacks led to the economic decline of the Venetian Republic, which was unable to defend Crete anymore (Watrous 1982, 25-28).

In 1669, the Ottoman army conquered Crete after the siege of Candia and established a province of Crete with its own rights. A quarter of population became Muslim and many churches were converted into mosques, but the traditional links with Europe where kept. The prosperity increased during the early stages of Ottoman rule, but the revolts against the Turkish supremacy occurred in the 18th century (Kouvaraki 2014, 10- 16). In 1821, the Greek War of Independence broke out and ended up with the establishment of Kingdom of Greece in 1830, however Crete was not included there. The last years of the Ottoman rule are known for the strong social dissatisfaction and frequent local or widespread rebellions against foreign domination (Markonis et al. 2016, 148). The Great Cretan Revolution (1866-1869) was one of the largest revolts against the Ottoman rule. The series of rebellions ended in 1898 by creation of independent Cretan state. In 1913, Crete was finally united with Greece (Kallivretakis 2006, 11-30).

1.3. NATURAL ENVIRONMENT OF CRETE

Since the local stone was used as a building material for Oxa architectural remains and the character of rock might have been used within the water management, it is necessary to include the chapter on geology and hydrogeology. I am also including a brief subchapter on climate, which would help understand the preferences for the rainwater management in the study area.

1.3.1. Geology and Hydrogeology

Crete, the largest Greek island, is located in tectonically and seismically active part of the eastern Mediterranean with frequent earthquakes as it lies in the Hellenic arc between African and European plates (Walsh 2014, 10-11). It is a karst dominated region which is characterized by pre-alpine and alpine carbonated rocks, i.e. limestone, marble and dolomite (Malago et al. 2016, 64-66; Sarris et al. 2005, 1044). It comprises of five tectonic nappes lying over on the basement of the Talea Ori-Plattenkalk Unit of Permian to Eocene age (Dierckx - Tsikouras 2007, 1769).

Fig. 1 Geological map of Crete (Zachariasse et al. 2011, 681, Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 Geological map of Mirabello Bay with Mt. Oxa marked in the map (Agios Nikolaos sheet from Geological map of Greece 1: 50 000 by Greek Institute Of Geology and Mineral exploration; edited by Adam Geisler).

According to the geological map of Crete (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2), Mirabello Bay of Lasithi prefecture consists primarily of Plattenkalk unit. The study area with Oxa Mountain is characterized by platy limestone which occurs since Middle Jurassic (Sarris et al. 2005, 1044) and its deformation is characterized by folding, both in km-scale and m-scale (Fassoulas et al. 2004, 1628-1630). Platy limestone is thinly-bedded, flat and tabular limestone, consisted of fine-grained lime mud or micrite which has gone through cementation (Swinburne – Hemleben 1994, 313).

Carbonate rocks allow water to penetrate and thus form a karst landscape (Fig. 3a) wherein cracks, caves, sinkholes and springs are formed and lead water from surface to the interior while dissolving the rock underground. Approximately 2000 mm3/y of water discharges out from a karst aquifer in form of springs but it is not evenly distributed on

19 the island. The western part of Crete has a surplus of water resources while the east of the island is low in water availability (Malago et al. 2016, 64-67). The influence of karst landscape on water management in Mediterranean is in detail dealt by Crouch who also mentions one important point – the karst landscapes are not immutable. Water dissolves stone roughly 0,5 cm to 1 cm per year, cutting deeper and deeper holes which might end up with changed system of springs, leaving suddenly a settlement without water supply, which was depending on for centuries (Crouch 1993, 63-82).

(a)

(b)

Fig. 3 (a) Map showing main carbonate rocks (karst regions) on Crete with springs and streamflow gauging stations (A: White Mountainous; B: Idi; C: Dikti; D: Sitia); (b) map of the main river basins (Malago et al. 2016, 66, Fig. 1).

1.3.2. Climate

The climate on Crete is semi-arid Mediterranean type, characterized by dry and hot summers (average maximum 31 ºC) and rainy cold winters (average maximum 13 ºC). Precipitation varies throughout the year and regions, the values range between 300 mm in the coastal areas and 2000 mm in the mountainous region in the west, decreasing to the east and south but increasing with altitude (Malago et al. 2016, 66). The snowfall is common in the mountainous areas during winter too (Markonis et al. 2016, 139).

The main source of water is currently groundwater (95% of all water use), primarily for irrigation (85%) and the rest for domestic needs (Markonis et al. 2016, 141). Therefore, the overexploitation of groundwater becomes a problem, for example in Messara Valley, where a large amount of wells led to extreme reduction of groundwater level in the past decades (Malago et al. 2016, 79). Similarly, many aquifers are today reduced and boreholes are opened. Because of this unsustainable water management strategy, there is a significant decline in quality of water from some aquifer systems dealing with salinization or nitrate pollution (Markonis et al. 2016, 141).

The annual average precipitation for eastern Crete is in present ca. 900 mm (= 7500 hm3), although 65% of volume is lost due to evapotranspiration and 21% due to surface runoff, which results approximately in 2626 hm3 of usable volume of water per year from rainfall. The average winter precipitation makes 85% of annual rainfall creating a large deficit during summer months (Gikas - Angelakis 2009, 1051-1052). It should be also counted with the fact that mountainous character of Crete influences the wind blows, creating the rain shadows on leeward sides of the mountains and on the other hand considerable rain excesses (Rackham – Moody 1996, 36) resulting in wet or on contrary extremely dry areas.

The year 2018 is definitely one of the driest in the last decade. Monthly winter precipitation usually exceeded 100 mm (World weather online ©2018) but according to the current statistics for Elounda region (Fig. 4), the precipitation from last winter (December 2017 - March 2018) made in total only 120 mm in four months (Table 1). The annual rainfall is then about 300 mm, which makes this year unusually weak on precipitation, with zero values for summer months where the demand for water is the

21 highest. This is also evident in Fig. 5, which depicts how average rainfall on Crete decreases from the west to the east. On top of that, as apparent in Fig. 3, there is no significant river basin for the study area, which had to make living in this region depending on winter heavy rains always tough, and proper water management had to be a necessity (Crouch 1993, 123).

Month December January 2018 February 2018 March 2018 2017 Average 31,8 mm 23,7 mm 58,2 mm 6,3 mm rainfall (mm) Rainy days 15 15 17 5

Table 1 Rainfall and rainy days for Elounda region, Crete in 2018.

Fig. 5 Average month precipitation over Crete (Malago et al. 2016, 76, Fig. 9).

The climatic oscillation over Crete are illustrated in Fig. 6. It shows warm/cold or moist/dry variations with regular fluctuations in the past 5000 years (Makronis et al. 2016, 143), which might have resulted in different approaches for water management strategies preferred in each historical period.

Fig. 6 Reconstruction of climate over Crete in the past 10 000 years (Markonis et al. 2016, 143, Fig. 4).

1.4. WATER MANAGEMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN

Water is our basic need and its ensuring was essentially a survival strategy of people based on their skills and local traditions. The potential of innovation in water management was reasonably high since increasing human needs required more water, creating an opportunity for development (Thomas 2000, 3). The characterization of water management also depends on what we consider it to be, from our perspective of view and what we can document archaeologically. Nevertheless, we can also discuss the water utilization without any traces of archaeological record, which is as old as humanity itself (Gebel - Mahasneh 2011, 548). To sum up, productive water management is the manipulation of the natural water cycle by people in order to profit from it (Wellbrock et al. 2012, 29).

The water supply was essential for the Mediterranean cities. The observation of nature cycles and knowledge of finding water, its storage, control, transport from one place to another, its use and disposal, together with considering health and environmental risks, was passed from one generation to another. It is assumed that the advanced water management system could be one of the evidences of developed societies of the past (Crouch 1987, 125-127) although all of these civilizations eventually collapsed and the long-term knowledge of sophisticated water management was lost for another centuries when it was reinvented again. Therefore, the scholars nowadays discuss to what extent the water sustainability could affect such crisis rather than the impact of water management on the development of civilizations (Angelakis – Zheng 2015, 457).

Several studies have been written on the evolution of water supply throughout the history and space (e.g. Angelakis – Zheng 2015; Antoniou et al. 2006; Betancourt 2012; Crouch 1993; De Feo et al. 2014; Gebel - Mahasneh 2011; Kamash 2010; Mays et al. 2013; Wellbrock et al. 2012; Wikander 2000) and therefore this brief section only summarizes existing information in order to present how complex this issue is. However, the subject of this thesis – cisterns – is in detail discussed in the subchapter 1.4.1. Cistern Water Management.

Certainly, the study of hydraulic installations meets the needs for multidisciplinary cooperation, especially with hydrology, and leads to the emergence of an individual discipline, which “aims for the reconstruction of human / cultural water utilization and drainage of past periods” (Wellbrock – Grottker – Gebel 2017, 28). Water research should follow clear working steps, which are essential for the interpretation of water management strategies. Wellbrock, Grottker and Gebel suggest three steps of proper water research: (1) identification, (2) quantification and (3) utilization. Even though they study prehistoric sites of NW Arabia, I think that it is possible to get inspired by this scheme (see Fig. 1 in Wellbrock – Grottker – Gebel 2017, 29) regardless of the region and time, as I will try to analyze site Oxa and its water management system based on such proposal.

For the general idea although I am aware there might be overlap for some systems and structures since they could be combined, I simplified the water management systems and categorized them according to the primary water source and architectural remains which might be found within these categories (for the overview of chronology of water knowledge see Crouch 2001, 22):

Source of water Architectural remains Surface water Rivers, springs, lakes Canals, tunnels, pipelines, aqueducts, management dams, dykes, water mills, fountains…

Groundwater Groundwater Wells, qanats management

Rainwater Rains, storms, snow Cisterns, basins, filter tanks, management reservoirs, surface channels… Wastewater Disposal of used water, Latrines, drainage, sewage systems management re-use of water Table 2 Simplified types of water management and their use according to the availability of primary water source.

Or the water management could be defined according to its major purpose: 1. Potable water 2. Service water 3. Waste water (and possible reuse)

These might be further divided into more specific categories of water usage for: drinking cooking personal hygiene domestic use (e.g. laundry, washing dishes, cleaning of house etc.) agriculture / gardening complex irrigation watering animals crafts and industry control of floods and flood protection and regulation sanctuaries and sacred places (e.g. lustral basin etc.) aesthetics (e.g. nymphaea etc.) recreation

Apparently, other subjective approaches for identifying of particular water management system may be taken into account: a) small-scale or large-scale hydraulic projects b) simple or sophisticated structures / systems c) individual or communal involvement in construction d) private or public utilization e) planning (engineering and logistics) f) storing water for a period of time or its immediate consumption g) risks and health (cleansing and filtering water) h) controlled (state administration) or independent systems

Although the water systems might share the same tradition of development, we should study each water system in detail and separately since they might evolve independently according to the local environmental possibilities and needs of population, in spite of the ‘rules’. Understanding the water supply system of each site, its geology, hydrogeology and other nature factors would also clarify the changing settlements patterns and the ability of human kind to survive in the least probable environments.

1.4.1. Introduction to Cisterns

Cistern water management is considered as a sustainable method of water utilization, an alternative method of freshwater source. The possibility to supply settlements even in times of drought is generally appreciated today although this knowledge is still not fully exploited, especially in the developed parts of the world or just not practiced anymore in the regions where it was a tradition for centuries (Mays 2014, 38).

According to some literary sources, it was allegedly Justinian the Great who came with an idea to store water in cisterns to provide sustainable water supply to Byzantine Constantinople so that people did not have to suffer from water shortage during dry summer months ever again (Brinker 1990, 5-6). Although in the centers of Eastern Roman Empire there was indisputably sophisticated and complex system of water management, the usage of cistern has a much longer tradition, as far as we know from Crete (and with the archaeological evidence), from the late Neolithic Period (Mays et al. 2013, 1917) but commonly from the Bronze Age. Most likely, the inspirations came from Egypt and Mesopotamia, ditto from Indus valley; the similarities among their hydro-technologies should not be overlooked (Angelakis – Zheng 2015, 457), however this is a task for other studies.

Cistern is an artificial water reservoir for collecting and storing water. There have been some efforts to create a uniform classification for cisterns, nevertheless the researchers did not agree to accept only one system since its relevance is debatable. The definition of a cistern varies according to the researcher’s point of view and study area (e.g. Antoniou et al. 2006, 456; Brinker 1990, 3-4; Crouch 1993, 23; Hodge 2000a, 21; Klingborg 2017, 16-17; Lang 1968, 10; or Mays et al. 2013, 1917). More important in the study of cisterns should be the specific descriptors (i.e. shape, size, location at the site, coverage, type of construction etc.). These features might show different development among the regions, meeting the needs of the site or various uses of water by its collectors (Klingborg 2017, 52).

It is a question why the cisterns became such an integral part of water management in Ancient Greece. Several explanations could be discussed, as the one from the historical sources, which is orthodoxly accepted by scholars, claims that cisterns were built in

27 case of war and subsequent siege (Mays 2014, 41). This would be reasonably an advantage but when we think about the amount of water one person uses in one day, more likely scenarios are suggested as well. For drinking and cooking, we approximately need 2-3 liters per day. Walking to the spring every day for this amount of water is not a problem and actually as a bonus, you meet your friends and neighbors, having a chance for some social interaction. However, the demand for service water was always much higher: washing the dishes, laundry, hygiene, industry or crafts, cleaning the house - walking several times a day to the spring for water to meet the needs of a house and its inhabitants was quite challenging and people would not do anything else (Crouch 1993, 33).

As Crouch further assumes, the principles of water supply for ancient cities were based on the combination of many different sources in order to sufficiently meet the current water requirements and at the same time to make the smallest amount of physical effort. She also comments on another important fact - the Mediterranean dry climate and summer without any rains forced people to choose a sustainable approach to collect every drop of water they could (Crouch 1993, 22). Even if the settlement was built around a stream, it could be only a seasonal source of water hence combining it with cistern (or well) was very conscious behavior. One thing with another, there were many reasons why cisterns became such a characteristic feature of ancient water supply. However, there are still some open questions, which we do not understand completely. Were there people in the city who were not using the cistern water supply option, and then, how these people obtained water for domestic use and from which source? Was it a choice? If there were a number of domestic cisterns, who was using water from the central water reservoir? What if one cistern dried up, did any water-sharing concept among the neighbors exist?

Cisterns are sometimes compared to other hydraulic structures, described as simple to build and easy to manage, as one family would be able to ensure water supply in times of poor weather conditions or war (Lang 1968, 10). On the other hand, sophisticated methods such as connected pressure pipelines to lead water on a long distance is according to some researchers a symbol of developed societies, which required human labor and advanced engineering. When there was a crisis and engineers could no more take care of these systems, they ceased to be used and the knowledge was lost (Crouch

1993, 124). The proper identification of cisterns is necessary since they might be a part of bigger water management system (including other elements like channels, pipes, aqueducts, baths etc.) or working as the independent water management system.

In the following subchapter, I try to give an overview of cistern water management throughout the time in the study area and its contribution for each period. The next subchapter presents possible interpretations and discussion concerning cistern water management. It is necessary to understand the cistern water management from the beginning of their usage in order to compare it with Oxa site, which bears traces of human activities from the Minoan period. If there were not enough sufficient examples of cisterns found on Crete, I use relevant information from other Greek regions.

1.4.1.1. Cisterns on Crete

I. BRONZE AGE

The study of the pre-palace house complexes and later Minoan palaces has revealed the existence of a well-developed water management system (with aqueducts, channels, wells, sewerage and drainage) including water catchment structures (i.e. cisterns), which were identified in Chamaizi, Myrtos-Pyrgos, Knossos, Malia, Zakros, Archanes or Phaistos. Although there is discussion weather these structures are rather granaries or not, some scholars claim that since some of them are located under the hill of the site, it would be difficult to protect stored grains from running water in times of flash rains (Cadogan 2007, 103-104, 108; Mays et al. 2013, 1918; Mays 2014, 39). The option that some of these architectural units are water catchment elements should be therefore considered even at some other sites.

It is supposed that water tanks in this period were mainly used for crafts (pottery making or metallurgy), domestic activities and gardening. Special care had to be given to cisterns in case they were used for drinking water. Not only to the collecting area (roofs, pavements) but some kind of filtering device (sandy filters?) is expected to be in use for this purpose (Angelakis 2013, 4).

CHAMAIZI It is assumed that the earliest cistern on Crete is the one located in a house complex of Chamaizi from Early Minoan period. It is situated in the courtyard, surrounded by domestic units. The structure is circular, cut in the rock and lined with stones in the upper part (Mays et al. 2013, 1918). It is a small-scale cistern, ca. 3,5x1,5 m (Angelakis 2013, 3).

MYRTOS-PYRGOS Two cisterns at a hilltop settlement Myrtos-Pyrgos (Fig. 7a) from the Middle Minoan period were circular stone structures with vertical walls and rounded bottom, coated with white lime plaster (2 cm thick). The upper and smaller cistern lies directly within the settlement on the top of the hill. The bottom of this cistern was made out of river

30 pebbles and there is no evidence for roofing or pillars (to prevent evaporation). The archaeologists suggest that a presence of awnings could be possible for this purpose (Cadogan 2007, 105). The second larger cistern is located in the slope, some 12 m below the top of the hill. It is presumed that water from storm rain run towards cisterns naturally, as the cistern lies in the slope of the hill or could be supplied from roofs of surrounding houses. The excavators as well documented one rectangular terracotta pipe, which was leading water into the cistern (Angelakis 2013, 2). Together both cisterns could hold about 80 m3 of water (Mays et al. 2013, 1918). The suppling of cisterns through flat roofs and open courtyards is generally suggested according to the style of the Minoan architecture (Mays 2014, 39).

LATE MINOAN SITES The cisterns known from late Minoan sites in Phaistos or Malia were connected to a system of terracotta pipes or small canals, which were collecting rainwater from surface as well as from natural streams (Mays et al. 2013, 1919).

Other round structures (Ø 5 m in diameter, with plastered walls) were found in Late Minoan sites in Archanes, Zakros and Tylissos. Unlike the others, they all have steps leading into the interior of the cistern (Fig. 7b) which led to the opinion that they might have served as well as a private palace swimming pools (Cadogan 2007, 109). Most likely, these cisterns had several purposes, as it is assumed that they might be used as a central feature of particular space or in addition, similarly like Egyptian nilometers, as a precipitation measurement tool to estimate suitable part of agricultural products provided to the storage areas of the palace (Angelakis 2013, 3).

Fig. 7 Minoan cisterns from (a) Myrtos-Pyrgos and (b) Zakro (Mays 2014, 40, Fig. 1).

II. IRON AGE

Through the Iron Age, the variability of cisterns has increased and many new shapes and types have occurred. The cistern’s development peaked during the Hellenistic period (Mays et al. 2013, 1919) as it became the main method of water supply. At this time, many Greek settlements and cities depended entirely on the rainfall (Antoniou et al. 2006, 458). It is assumed that water tanks were supplied again from rain falling on roofs and pavements, further distributed through gutters, eaves and canals into the cisterns. A variety of new cistern’s shapes is known, the most common are rectangular or flask-shaped (also referred as ‘pear’ or ‘bottle’) cisterns (Mays 2014, 41). The cistern water management was not only a survival plan in order to supply the settlement with additional amount of water but as well the intentional land cultivation strategy. The winter heavy rains could cause an erosion of the soil and flooding, which might destroy the crop. It was protected with several laws, for example ordering not to build structures in a way of the natural flow of runoff, which would therefore damage cultivated land (Bruun 2000a, 568). In general, managing the heavy rains was simply advantageous, both for conscious water management and for effective agriculture.

LATO AND DREROS Two important sites on Crete, Dreros and Lato, are significant in the study of cisterns in the Hellenistic period. Both are located in the Lasithi region in the western part of the Mirabello Bay. They are both situated on the hilltop in the saddle between two peaks and several cisterns of private and public character were identified there. In Dreros, the central cistern located in Agora of the city is rectangular, open-air, ca. 13x5x6 m with a bottom depression. This cistern served as a supply to the whole city. It is supposed that Lato was depending only on water from winter rains because there is no spring or permanent surface water supply around. Central square cistern (Fig. 8a) of ca. 5x5x6 m was originally covered with a roof, which was supported by two columns. The cistern coated with waterproof plaster and has stairway on a side. Another 15 private smaller cisterns were found in a domestic context (Antoniou et al. 2006, 458-459).

Fig. 8 Hellenistic cisterns located in (a) Lato and (b) rock-cut cistern in Polyrrhenia (Mays et al. 2013, 1922, Fig. 6).

ELEUTHERNA Eleutherna, located some 25 km SE from Rethymno, was inhabited from the Geometric to the Byzantine periods. Several cisterns have been identified within the site. They are flask-shaped (Fig. 9a), measuring 2-3 m in the widest part, coated with a waterproof plaster (Guy - Matheron 1994, 33). There are also two rock-cut cisterns (Fig. 9b) connected to aqueduct (Dialynas - Angelakis ©2017).

POLYRRHENIA In Polyrrhenia, an ancient city located on the western coast of Crete at some 400 m a.s.l., cisterns (Fig. 8b) were cut into the rock and have capacity of about 10 m3 (Mays et al. 2013, 1923).

III. ROMAN PERIOD

Several improvements came with the Roman period and although they were built on previous knowledge, it was brought to the perfection, which enabled Romans to inhabit new lands by introducing irrigation and to concentrate much more people in the cities where otherwise the natural sources of water would not be enough to supply the whole population (Wilson 2012, 2-3). Since the standards for hygiene and water usage were gradually increasing, it was necessary to provide a large amount of fresh water to the urban areas (Angelakis 2013, 6) as well as to the rural areas for irrigation. At this point, the complexity of water management led to the development of the legislation in order to define the usage of water and its consumers (Bruun 2000b, 576-577). This control of water supply was a result of centralized power, a tool for politicians and elite to ‘possess’ water, which might led to control of the population itself by Roman Empire (Al Karaimeh 2012, 41). However, it is noted that there were differences in legislation between large-scale and small-scale water systems, which might run on the local administration schemes (Wilson 2012, 2).

After 67 BC when Crete became part of Roman Empire, many new construction have been built and incorporated into daily life, including toilets, sewers, drains, as well as large engineering works such as aqueducts, cisterns and baths. One of the biggest Roman contributions was undoubtedly the invention of concrete and hydraulic lime plasters, which allowed building bridges, tunnels, canals and other large hydraulic construction on a ground level (Markonis et al. 2016, 147).

The variability of cisterns in the Roman period is even more diverse, slightly changing its philosophy. Cisterns became a part of complex water management system, closely connected to other structures like aqueducts, baths and fountains. Their investigation would therefore require complex study of the water management to understand them accurately. Except the traditional conception of cisterns fed by rains, numerous cisterns in this period were supplied with aqueducts and their capacity could be counted in thousands of cubic meters. The purpose of these structures could vary a lot; from domestic use and craftsmanship over suppling of public baths to fighting fires (Mays 2014, 42-43).

Cisterns supplied from rainwater remained one of the options of sufficient urban water management surviving from previous tradition (similarly like well water management) because not every city had an aqueduct (Adam 1994, 235). Nevertheless, cisterns supplied from aqueducts were undoubtedly predominant in the Roman period. These usually outstanding constructions spread largely in Roman North Africa and are dealt with in several studies (Adam 1994, 249; Mays et al. 2013, 1925-1927). The cisterns on Crete from the Roman period were partly dealt with in the dissertation thesis devoted to the aqueducts and bathhouses on Crete by Kelly (Kelly 2004a). Although the cisterns were not the main focus of the thesis, the author incorporated them in the study, as they were the essential part of the water management system, either because they were supplied by aqueducts or because they further supplied the baths.

As a minimum 17 public aqueducts of Roman age are located on Crete (Fig. 10), and the most preserved structures are located in Polyrhennia, Gortyna, Tarrha, Knossos, Eleutherna and Lyttos (Kelly 2004b, 316-317). Roman cisterns were found for example in Diktynna, Aradena, Lappa, Rhizenia, Eleutherna, Elyros, Knossos, Gortyna, Aptera, Chersonissos, Zaros, Kouphonisi, Kastelliana, Pyloros, Tholos, Fylakes and Minoa (Markonis et al. 2016, 147; Mays et al. 2013, 1923; Giorgi 2007, 287; Kelly 2004a, Fig. 2; Kelly 2004b, 315; Kelly 2018, 165; Galanaki et al. 2006, 267; Gorokhovich et al. 2014, 276). In the following paragraphs, only selected cisterns with different supply method are mentioned to reflect the diversity of water management in the Roman period.

Fig. 10 Distribution of Roman aqueducts on Crete (Kelly 2004b, 316, Fig. 2).

CISTERNS SUPPLIED WITH RAINWATER The most famous Roman cisterns on Crete are those in Aptera, Chania region. Two structures are recognized as water storage units: Three-aisled cistern (Fig. 11) and L- shaped cistern (Fig. 12). The three-aisled cistern is a massive 17x25 m stone construction with a vaulted rood and capacity around 2 900 m3. The interior is divided into three parts with pillars. Partly it was cut into the bedrock and partly it was built from stone and enhanced with another wall from bricks, which is coated with plaster (4 cm thick). The cistern was supplied with rain collected on the roofs and subsequently distributed from the cistern with pipes into the baths (Grizis 2014, 10-11). Very similar cistern was found in Knossos under the Trefoil Basilica (Kelly 2004a, Fig. 33), in Diktynna, where the cistern complex is located west of the temple and have four vaulted chambers (Kelly 2004a, Fig. 50 and Fig. 51) and in Kastelliana (Kelly 2004a, Fig. 55, Plates 11-12).

Fig. 11 Three-aisled cistern from Aptera, interior (Grizis 2014, 10, Fig. 1.8).

The L-shaped cistern (Fig. 12) is another large water construction found in Aptera. Its dimension is 57x34x8 m with a capacity of about 3 050 m3. The roof is not preserved but it is assumed that it was vaulted. There are stairs to reach the bottom of the cistern. The longest part of the structure is divided with a wall, probably to lower the pressure on the walls created with water when the cistern was filled. It was partly built on the bedrock and partly into the slope of the hill (Grizis 2014, 13). This cistern was supplied 36

with surface runoff in rainy season. Gorokhovich et al. measured a potential drainage area and its capacity, based on a hydrologic GIS model, tracking the existence of cut-off ditch, which led water into L-shaped cistern. Authors of the article also noted that this method of water collection is still used in mountainous areas on Crete to reduce the possibility of erosion during the heavy rains (Gorokhowich et al. 2014, 276-277). It is assumed that the cistern was further supplying the nearby baths (Markonis et al. 2016, 147).

Fig. 12 L-shaped Roman cistern from Aptera. (a) photo of the longest part with supporting wall in the middle; middle; (b) drawing of the cistern (Grizis 2014, 14, Fig. 1.13 and 1.14).

CIRCULAR CISTERNS A circular cistern from Roman period is recorded in Minoa (Marathi), western Crete (Fig. 13). It is an underground stone structure with cylindrical cross-section (Markonis et al. 2016, 147). Similar cistern was found in Knossos next to Villa Dionysus (Kelly 2004a, Plate 74c) and in Myrtos (Kelly 2004a, Plate 51).

Fig. 13 Circular cistern from Minoa (Marathi) in western Crete (Markonis et al. 2016, 147, Fig. 8b). 37

CISTERNS SUPPLIED WITH AQUEDUCT This type of cisterns is frequently documented over Crete. For example in Chersonissos, water was distributed via aqueduct and collected in so called ‘central reservoir’, also known as castellum aquae, which was situated about 800 m to the south of the city (Fig. 14a). The dimension of structure is 55 x 18,5 x 5,5 m and the capacity is about 5 500 m3. It is a partly underground structure and the interior is divided into three oblong 5 m wide chambers, parallel to each other. The walls are faced with bricks and covered with waterproof plaster. The roof was made out of concrete and was flat but it is collapsed nowadays. The authors suggest that the cistern was serving as a storage and distribution feature from where water was directed to the urban area. They also claim that the reservoir was used as a settling tank for separating the residues and dirt from water and probably the cistern supplied baths. Other smaller cisterns (of capacity ca. 50 m3) have been documented for both private and public spaces in Chersonissos (Galanaki et al. 2006, 267-268).

Fig. 14 Cistern in (a) Chersonissos (Kelly 2004a, Plate 7a) and (b) Kastelliana (Kelly 2004a, Plate 11b).

Another similar structure was documented for aqueduct, which was supplying Lyttos city. The structure is known as Fylakes, it is a brick-faced mortared rubble cistern with buttresses, which measures 12 x7 m with 1 m thick walls, in design so similar to Aptera L-shaped cistern. It is suggested that it served as a settling tank (Kelly 2018, 165).

Gortyn went through flourishment and prosperity when it became a capital of Roman province Crete and Cyrenaica. From the 2nd century AD, the water management was well organized and centrally managed. The city was supplied mainly by aqueduct and the cistern was a rectangular structure, 37 x 5 m large. It was vaulted and built from a mixture of stones and concrete (opus cementicium). Water was further distributed with pipes into the city (Giorgi 2007, 293).

Another monumental cistern was documented in Kastelliana (Kelly 2004a, Fig. 55, Plates 11-12), Kouphonisi (Kelly 2004a, Fig. 19), Pyloros (Kelly 2004a, Plate 20), Lappa (Kelly 2004a, Plate 33) and in Tholos (Kelly 2004a, Plate 81).

IV. BYZANTINE PERIOD

After the Western Roman Empire declined, many of the centrally administrated water management systems in former Roman territories were not maintained anymore and were left to decay. However, the surviving Byzantine Empire experienced many changes as well. They adopted the Roman technological tradition and kept constructing monumental water works, especially in the central cities such as Constantinople and Thessaloniki of the Early and Middle Byzantine periods (Mays et al. 2013, 1927-1928). On the other hand, the peripheries went through a decline of water management and not many engineering developments took place there. The older hydraulic works were in majority maintained but there is evidence that some of them ceased to be used, for example during the Arab occupation of Crete (Markonis et al. 2016, 150).

The maintenance of the aqueducts eventually became a burden for the state, including also natural catastrophes (e.g. earthquakes), which were substantially destroying the constructions until it was no longer cost-effective to invest money into the repairs. At the end of the Byzantine Empire, cities were relying again rather on the cisterns and wells, especially during the summer months. The end of running water for the cities is often discussed by scholars as it affected the urban development of medieval Europe in a negative way (Saradi 2006, 347-349).

In general, the variability of cisterns’ types seems to settle during this period and the architecture is more standardized. Covered or open-air rectangular cisterns are in operation, which could be supplied both from the maintained aqueducts or rainfall (and subsequently from surface runoff), as well as there are both underground or free standing structures. For example, the Basilica Cistern in Constantinople with 336 marble columns, supplied with aqueduct, is one of the best preserved and impressive cisterns from the Byzantine period (Mays 2014, 45). Obviously, such structures do not characterize the Byzantine water management all over the place but definitely represents top of the technical capabilities, which the Byzantine engineers were able to achieve and apply, primarily in Anatolia. The introduction of Christianity into the cities influenced the water management too. For private purpose, the cisterns were newly built

40 in the monasteries and often were situated under or next to the churches (Mays et al. 2013, 1929).

The lack of information about rural or even urban water supply in the Byzantine period on Crete and other lands except the central metropoles corresponds with the approach for Byzantine monuments by both specialists and local people. It is assumed that 50% of Byzantine remains have been destroyed in the 19th century while building new urban plan in Athens. It took long time to decide, if the Byzantine monuments are the responsibility of Classical Archaeology or historians. When people stopped ignoring these remains, the main focus of newly established Byzantine studies were the Christian related relicts. However, the research situation is improving in the past decades and the new archaeological excavations (if published) will broaden our knowledge about not- religion related topics of Byzantine archaeology (Petridis 2014, 269-272).

I am aware that the presented information about cisterns on Crete dated to the Byzantine period does not match the real archaeological situation. Map (Fig. 14) shows the distribution of Early Byzantine sites on Crete, which undoubtedly calls for publishing of ongoing researches or for new excavations to understand the water supply of that period.

Fig. 15 Distribution of Early Byzantine sites on Crete (Tsigonaki - Sarris 2014, 5, Fig. 4).

Considering Crete, the technology of water supply was built on the previous developments and the usage of water cisterns and wells was preferred over maintaining of the aqueducts. Water was traditionally collected through the roofs and open spaces in

41 the settlements. Cisterns situated next to the churches or monasteries are recorded in Agios Nikolaos or Areti Monastery. The cistern from Areti Monastery is rectangular structure, nowadays roofless. The stairs are still preserved and the interior is coated with pinkish plaster (Fig. 16a) (Markonis et al. 2016, 148). Vaulted cistern is reported from Mochlos (Fig. 16b) although the dating is not clear (referred as ‘Late Antique’) (Kelly 2004a, Plate 80).

Fig. 16 Cisterns from the Byzantine period, (a) Areti Monastery (Markonis et al. 2016, 148, Fig. 9) and (b) Mochlos cistern (Kelly 2004a, Plate 80b).

CISTERN-FOUNTAINS In Gortyn, the most characteristic feature of water management in the Early Byzantine period were so called ‘cistern-fountains’ (Fig. 17). At least 51 such structures have been uncovered. These tanks were supplied directly from aqueduct; they are rectangular structures (capacity ranges between 48-62 m3) with barrel vaults, lined with plaster inside. On the exterior, there were the points of water collection (with taps to regulate water flow). Another three or four larger cisterns (without the ‘fountain’ element) were used probably to store water for emergencies (Giorgi 2007, 303-306).

Fig. 17 Cistern-fountain structures in Gortyn. (a) Cistern from one side and (b) fountain on exterior of the same cistern (Giorgi 2007, 304-305, Fig. 7b and 7c).

V. VENETIAN AND OTTOMAN RULE

The last period of Byzantine rule over Crete did not bring any technological innovations or development. However, Venetians introduced some western improvements to water supply and more important, they were able to repair and reconstruct older hydraulic works. New large-scale constructions have been built: cisterns, fountains and aqueducts. For example, the new aqueduct for Heraklion, connecting minor springs together, brought abundance of good quality water to the city from 15 km distant source (Markonis et al. 2016, 148).

The cistern water management followed the Byzantine tradition but implemented few innovations, for instance the construction of well-articulated cisterns collecting water from run-off or cisterns with sandy filters (Fig. 18). The frequent construction of new cisterns is associated with the increased craft activities, which demanded higher supply of water. Many of the water tanks are found nearby the oil press workshops (Yannopoulos et al. 2017a, 1030). Venetian cisterns on Crete are found largely in Heraklion (more than 500 cisterns), Rethymno, Gramboussa or Viannos Vigla castle. Smaller structures are situated in the villages near Vamos, Chania, Agios Pavlos or Gavalochori (Mays et al. 2013, 1930-1931).

Fig. 18 Scheme of Venetian filtered cisterns (Mays et al. 2013, 1931, Fig. 17a).

During the Ottoman rule, the older hydraulic installations were often maintained. On the other hand, since water had important meaning for Ottomans’ religious beliefs (i.e. cleansing of the body symbolizes cleaning of the soul), a number of new fountains and baths were built (Markonis et al. 2016, 149). The newly built cisterns were more likely circular with domed roof (Fig. 19a) and collected water from runoff from outer surface of the structure (Fig. 19b) (Yannopulous 2017a, 1030; Mays 2014, 45-46).

Fig. 19 Ottoman circular cisterns. (a) Cistern built for military purposes by Ottoman army in Turkey (Mays 2014, 45, Fig. 12) and (b) the scheme of circular cistern and its water supply from rain falling on the roof of the structure (Yannopulous 2017a, 1030, Fig. 9b).

1.4.1.2. Interpretation of Cisterns’ Features

In the following subchapter, information about cisterns is complemented with examples from sites outside of Crete. It mainly includes the interpretations of some specific features found in the water tanks, which might be expected during the excavation of similar water works.

From the beginning of the cistern usage, the most common structures are positioned underground. This is often explained as an advantage while filling the cistern with rainwater as it would easily flow in there. Nonetheless, notes have been made on inconsiderable amount of pressure on the walls of the structure once the cistern was filled with water. The technology known in this time has not yet allowed building robust structures on a ground level to prevent its self-destruction (Klingborg 2017, 16). As well, it is suggested that water stored underground would have rather stable (cooler) temperature. This would ensure better conservation, hence higher quality water with less chance of growing bacteria (Crouch 1993, 25).

The underground cisterns were usually dug into soil or rock (Fig. 8) or built from stone blocks. Most often, there is some kind of roofing against evaporation, bacteria growth and any kind of pollution (or a risk of animals falling inside etc.). If the cistern was too big to be easily covered by lid, the additional walls, columns (Fig. 8a), beams or arches could be added in the structure. However, open-air structures are equally documented; this depended probably on the main usage and its demand for quality of water (e.g. agriculture or industry) or purpose (e.g. sanctuaries). It is suggested that temporary coverage might have been in use as well (brunches and brushwood or awnings) (Klingborg 2017, 16-36; Cadogan 2007, 105). Moreover, the separation walls were documented in some cases. They could serve as a division for cistern in order to clean one part while the other is still in operation. Another explanation says that one part served as a settling tank and the second part was filled with clean water. The last version is that the walls were used to support the roof (Klingborg 2017, 50).

The system of connected cisterns by underground tunnels is also recorded from some sites. Very interesting is the presence of filter tanks (so called prolakkia), a small basin next to the cistern (Fig. 20a) to eliminate dirt by letting it sink before water is led into

45 the cistern. It is also discussed if there were the overflow-mechanisms since there was a high possibility that cistern was filled more than what was its capacity. Unfortunately, not many overflows are reported in the cisterns. Holes or niches in the interior were interpreted as the climbing holes. Ladders or ropes could be also used to enter the tanks. Stairs are documented already for the Minoan cisterns and later they were incorporated again in some structures (Fig. 7b and 8a). It is argued how effective stairs were to enter the cistern to draw water from it, counting with the facts like slippery surface and dimensions of stairs. I would personally turn into the option that the stairs were used for repairs and cleaning when the cistern was empty although it is again argued that some cisterns with stairs had climbing holes as well, thus making the stairs useless for this purpose (Klingborg 2017, 38-46).

Fig. 20 (a) Filter tank located next to the flask-shape cistern in Olynthos (photograph by author) and (b) bottom depression shown in the same cistern (Klingborg 2017, 421, ID 292).

Bottom depressions (Fig. 20b and Fig. 22b) are usually located in the middle of the cistern’s bottom with the floor sloping towards this direction. Most often, these are 40- 80 cm in diameter, with a depth of 10-20 cm. It is interpreted as a silt catcher for dirt or the last spot where water is collected once it touches the bottom (Brinker 1990, 69; Crouch 1993, 25). The recent interpretations rather suggest that the concave surface served as a protection of the lining on the bottom since usually heavy vessels were used to collect water from the cisterns and therefore could destroy it when lower to collect the remaining water or in other case, when fallen inside (Klingborg 2017, 50).

It seems that many shapes and styles of cisterns were in operation at the same time in the Roman period, both of large and small scale. For example the circular cistern on Minoa in western Crete (Markonis et al. 2016, 147), rectangular cisterns with columns to support the roof in Athens or Thera, bottle-shape underground cistern with small opening in Illici, Spain (Mays 2014, 42), or small cistern with vaulted roof from Ostica Antica (Mays et al. 2013, 1923), which is in design similar to the one on Amorgos island (Mays et al. 2013, 1926).

In the Roman period, water was in majority directed towards the cisterns from terracotta pipes (Fig. 21). The lead pipes were used too, although they were not adopted as widely as ceramic pipes (Wilson 2012, 6). Lead pipes were more expensive and were not easily made (the production demands highly-skilled workers). Even wooden pipes could be used in the wooded regions. The trunks were connected with leather or metal, lying on the stone with clay gutter around (Adam 1994, 254).

Fig. 21 Different pipes leading water from aqueduct in Gortyn. The lower are Roman pipes called tubuli and the upper Byzantine spatheia (Giorgi 2007, 310, Fig.10).

The large cisterns complexes supplied with aqueducts are quite impressive and monumental structures, which were used for urban water supply as a storage and distribution feature (Mays et al. 2013, 1925). The well-known constructions of this type could be found in Italy (e.g. Piscina Mirabilis cistern supplied from Augustan aqueduct) or North Roman Africa (e.g. Tuccabor and Djebel M’rabba in Tunisia) (Mays 2014, 43).

The fountains became a favorite mean of water distribution in the Roman period (Juuti et al. 2015, 2327) and thus we have to consider them as another option for water storage, which might be supplementing the cistern water management in the cities during this period. Although the literature usually mentions the beautifully decorated fountains, plain structures were used equally for this purpose (Fig. 22a). Technically, open-air cisterns and fountains are comparable water tanks, which differ in the way they deal with water. While both in its own way contemporary store water, fountains are supplied with constantly flowing fresh water (which therefore need overflow). They could be both lined with plaster (Adam 1994, 256-257) and regarding to their design, they might look quite similar.

Fig. 22 (a) A public fountain from Pompeii; rectangular plain structure. The bottom and especially the edges are bevelled with plaster (Adam 1994, 257, Fig. 599). (b) A small cistern located on Roman forum in Thessaloniki, covered with plaster. The cistern has a bottom depression (photograph by author).

However, we have to consider the state of preservation of these simple fountains in the archaeological record, especially their upper parts. Some of them might not be easily differed from each other and the criteria for the identification could be vague as might be seen on the structure found on the Roman forum in Thessaloniki (Fig. 22b). This was observed as well in the literature where some authors operate with mixed expressions, for example Giorgi studied ‘cistern-fountains’ in Gortyn, which were supposedly a favorite choice of Early Byzantine water management strategies (Giorgi 2007, 287) or Juuti et al. cannot explicitly distinguish between particular structures: “Even in the fourth century, in a deep decline, Rome had 1352 fountains or cisterns.’ (Juuti et al.

2015, 2327). As Giorgi concludes, the state of research for the study of water management in the Late Antiquity is still in its preliminary phase (Giorgi 2007, 290).

Since not many examples of cisterns were found for Byzantine Crete (although a number of the Early Byzantine settlements are known (see Fig. 15)), I am including cisterns reported from other Byzantine sites to complete the overview. For this purpose, the capital Constantinople, Thessaloniki and the Cycladic islands Amorgos and Naxos have been chosen to be presented here.

CONSTANTINOPLE From the newest research, it is reported that ca. 211 cisterns from Byzantine period have been built in Constantinople. Moving from the enormous structures like Basilica cistern, a number of traditional domestic cisterns were documented as well. These small rainwater harvesting tanks are associated with private spaces, however the cisterns supplied with aqueducts predominate in the city. Three extra-large open-air cisterns were located in the city periphery and altogether with the covered cisterns (Basilica and Bindirdirek) could store the majority of the city water. A considerable amount of smaller tanks was spread throughout the city, serving as redistribution systems leading water from aqueducts or larger cisterns to the streets. Although the number of newly built cisterns in the later Byzantine period is smaller, the cisterns were built continuously, adapting on the needs of the population and historical events (Crow 2012, 41; Ward et al. 2017b, 194).

THESSALONIKI Thessaloniki, as a residency of Emperor Constantine the Great, went through a similar development like Constantinople regarding to the water supply. The city was supplied with aqueducts and water was then stored in many large cisterns from where it was distributed to the city fountains and other places. The increasing demand for water led to the rebuilding of regular structures on cisterns, for example the Cryptoporticus in the Roman Forum or the vestibule of Octagon in the Galerian complex. It was also documented that many of the city cisterns were repeatedly repaired and maintained as long as it was possible (Yannopoulos et al. 2017b, 468).

AMORGOS On Amorgos, cistern water management was a traditional way of water utilization since no natural sources have been available to meet the water requirements of local population. In the 7th century AD, the citizens of the island were forced to find safe places to be protected from the sea riders; most likely they preferred naturally fortified hills away from the sea. They found such place and founded a settlement called Chora. The steep rocks offered necessary protection and many cisterns have been built to provide sufficient water amount. Various types of tanks are recorded: open-air, vaulted or carved cisterns into bedrock. Two main communal vaulted constructions supplied the settlement (Fig. 23). They were built on the edge of the site, partly carved in the rock. The expansion of the village led to the construction of other cisterns outside of the settlement in the higher altitude. One roofless cistern is found nearby, and it is assumed that it was supplied with rains but also groundwater. In Potamos, another site on Amorgos, similar cistern (Fig. 24) of irregular shape has been found (Antoniou 2009, 2- 7).

Fig. 23 Vaulted communal cistern in Chora, Amorgos (Antoniou 2009, 5, Fig. 6).

Fig. 24 Vaulted cistern of irregular shape in Pigadia, Amorgos (Antoniou 2009, 7, Fig. 12). 50

KASTRO APALIROU The next comparable cistern water management is documented from Naxos Island. The 7th century AD sea riders threatened the whole Aegean and thus the social responses for this situation were similar. A 2 ha fortified settlement Kastro Apalirou (Fig. 25) was founded in the 7th century AD. It is situated at 435 m a.s.l., ca. 6 km from the coastline. The steep mountain offered natural protection for the hilltop settlement. No natural sources of water are available on the mountain. The best preserved structures are cisterns at a site (about 50 water structures have been documented so far). There are large cisterns (26x5 m and 22x5 m) for communal purpose situated in the lowest part of the site so water could be channeled towards them from the surface of the whole site. Gutters and channels have been recorded on the streets to collect run off water. These large cisterns (Fig. 26a) have been incorporated into the defensive wall so they became the part of fortification. Several small cisterns are found throughout the site (Fig. 26b). The pinkish plaster was covering the interior of the cisterns and the grey mortar was used rather for houses, churches and fortification. The broken pottery sherds have been documented as a fill inside the walls of the cisterns. Interesting notice is that the cisterns have been destroyed intentionally. The holes in the lowest point of the structure were knocked through the masonry. It is explained as the work of Venetians as they occupied the island and built new cities elsewhere; leaving Apalirou left to decay so they had complete control over the island (Hill et al. 2017, 281-287).

Fig. 25 Site plan of Kastro Apalirou. The cisterns are marked in blue color (Hill et al. 2017, 287, Fig. 3).

TO DRINK OR NOT TO DRINK? The quality of water drawn from cisterns is often discussed among the scholars since it is hard to determine today. Therefore is rather claimed that water from cisterns served for domestic purposes as a service water. But what about these sites, which we know that did not have any kind of water supply than water from cisterns (e.g. Lato and Kastro Apalirou, or in case when water from springs was polluted like in Pompeii etc.)? From the literary sources it is known that spring water for drinking was preferred over other sources. However, the rainwater (which has been essentially considered pure since no acid rains were occurring in the Ancient times (Hodge 2000b, 95)) stored in the cisterns was also recommended to drink. And if water was somehow polluted, people knew how to purify it. According to the literary sources, this was done by adding soil or charcoal into the cistern. Charcoal (or carbonized wood) absorbed toxins but water could not be moved a lot otherwise the process of purification had to be repeated (Klingborg 2017, 83-86). Crouch also claims that water could be purified by adding wine to water to kills the germs (Crouch 1993, 25), similarly as Hodge assumes (Hodge 2000b, 97).

Obviously, the standards for drinking water in the past were much lower than what they are now. Some diseases could not be linked with water if water ‘looked’ clean, for example relating cholera with contaminated water took quite a long time to realize in the modern times. If the cistern was maintained and cleaned regularly, it is reasonable to think that cistern water management was equal to water from wells or springs (Klingborg 2017, 86).

CISTERNS AND THE CHRONOLOGY It has been difficult to establish the chronology for cisterns or to generalize their lifespan. Cisterns, if needed, could be maintained for decades and even centuries, as repairs have been reported for many of them. Judged by the huge variability in shapes and other cisterns’ features, it is hard to believe that one can create a chronological typology to be applied overall. In the study of water tanks, it is necessary to consider all possible phases of their usage: the date of construction, the date of primary use, the abandonment and reuse (either again as a cistern or as a refuse pit). The architectural features are usually evaluated as a terminus post quem while the surrounding context as a terminus post or ante quem. However, these data are not exact and only suggest the relative archaeological culture of cistern’s usage. As well, the final conclusion traditionally depends on the quality of the excavation and subjective approach of each archaeologist (Klingborg 2017, 52-53).

1.4.1.3. Summary

Concluding from what has been written above, cistern is fairly flexible term. Essentially, it is an artificial water storage unit of various physical appearance and different purposes. Water might be collected from all possible sources but the most common type is supplied with rainwater, which on Crete firstly occurred in the Minoan period. The following table (Table 3) summarizes the main differences among the cisterns through time and their specifics:

Period Physical features Supply method Minoan period Circular, underground, stone structures, Rainfall (additional water central position within the settlement supply) Iron Age Circular, rectangular, flask-shaped, Rainfall prevails (main underground; stone structures, communal water supply), aqueducts and frequently in domestic contexts begin to occur Roman period Rectangular, flash-shaped, underground, Supply with aqueducts ground level; bricks and concrete are in predominates, rainfall as a use, both communal and private contexts secondary option as well as part of palace or villa (elite) water supply; central administration, ‘control of water’ Byzantine period Rectangular, underground, ground level; Supply depends on local bricks and concrete are in use, communal, circumstances (central cities domestic and elite (monasteries, churches, - aqueduct; peripheries - palaces, villas) contexts; central mainly rainfall), administration, crisis in water supply combinations occurs (rains recorded in many cities; abandonments of + groundwater) aqueducts, responding on situations Venetian rule Underground, shaft shape, sandy filter Rainfall, aqueducts again complex; rectangular; urban water supply Ottoman period Circular, domed; supply of army and elite Rainfall

Table 3 Simplified overview of Cretan cistern development and the specific features for each period.

In conclusion, from the Bronze Age on Crete, it is obvious that people started to be more conscious about the importance of collecting and storing water in case of war or summer water shortage. The settlements could reach many water sources for their needs, i.e. springs, streams or wells, which became complemented by the cistern water management option. It is still not clear whether the presented structures (usually circular, underground and open-air architectural units, supplied from rains falling on the rooftops or surface around) were used as a primary source of water, as a ‘backup plan’ in times of crisis (war or poor climate conditions) or if it was the display of power of local elite. The important point is that since the Minoan period, the usage of cisterns became common part for Cretan water management.

In the Hellenistic period, the development of cisterns was on its peak and their vast usage indicates that water tanks played primary role in water management of the Greek cities. The tradition of cisterns supplied with rainfalls from roofs or surface surrounding the structure is strongly rooted but newly there were cisterns supplied with aqueducts. In the Hellenistic times, the tradition of cistern located in the center of the city was accompanied with the abundance of rectangular or flask-shaped domestic cisterns for the purpose of each individual or family, as well as cisterns built nearby temples or sanctuaries. The gradual progress in technical development allowed building large structures for communal needs too. The advanced technology led to the invention of filter tanks, system of effective coverage to prevent pollution and terracotta pipes to direct water to or from the cistern. It is suggested that the reason why usage of cisterns as the main water management system decreased at the end of the Hellenistic period is the different approach for water supply by dominating Roman Empire throughout the Mediterranean (Klingborg 2017, 138). The water tanks have been still in use but their philosophy has changed.

It is undeniable that Roman period brought many innovations, such as the application of hydraulic plasters and mortars. This contribution enabled to build massive water construction on a ground level. The development of aqueducts (although the technology was already known from previous epochs) supported the development of complex system of cisterns, fountains and baths. The term ‘cistern’ became a little complicated from this time since many various structures in the literature are referred as cistern in the urban water supply (such as a castellum aquae supplied with aqueducts distributing

55 water elsewhere or simple fountains throughout the cities, which, in this period, kind of substituted the function of a cistern). The types of construction widely ranges from circular, over flask-shaped to rectangular shapes and the structures could be underground, partially recessed or free standing. The centrally administrated water management is definitely one of the specifics of this period; nevertheless, the small- scale water works managed by local governments were in operation too. The central administration of water sources could be perceived negatively from a point of view. The control of such essential substance for survival of all living beings might be easily misused for the control of the whole population.

In the Eastern Roman Empire, the Roman innovations have been implemented and applied commonly, and the central cities like Constantinople or Thessaloniki were rightfully proud on their developed water supply including aqueducts, large cisterns, fountains or baths. The still standing and impressive constructions like the Basilica cistern in Istanbul attract the attention even today and serve as an example of what kind of technical possibilities where people in the Byzantine era capable. This was taken over by peripheral areas of the Byzantine Empire and in smaller scales were such structures built elsewhere, especially in Anatolia.

From the Byzantine period, the architecture of hydraulic works became more standardized and the water supply strategies were rather meeting the local needs or adapting on the natural environment. Some of them were linked to the new religious practices - the cisterns were built as a part of church or monastery. In the central cities, the older Roman tradition of urban model for water supply dominating with aqueducts have been applied, whereas the rainfall harvesting methods were used in the regions according to the local tradition, climate possibilities or current problems. The less optimistic historical events (for example the sea raiders in the 7th century AD) could force people in the Aegean islands to response to the situation by building hilltop settlements in areas, which often did not have any natural sources of surface water. Rain was again used as the main source of water for these settlements. It became a survival strategy rather than a ‘choice’. However, the developed technologies enabled as well to combine the diverse water supply methods, and cisterns could be therefore cut into bedrock, which was supplying the cistern with groundwater.

The selected sites with cisterns on Crete, which have been mentioned in the previous subchapters, are shown in the map Fig. 27. It resulted in a summary of relatively small number of examples, especially in the Byzantine period. This clearly demands an update in this regard and publishing of the ongoing researches, which would help us understand the different preferences for water management systems on Crete.

Fig. 27 Distribution of selected cisterns through time on Crete. Yellow: Minoan, Red: Hellenistic, Green: Roman, Black: Byzantine, Purple: Venetian, White: Multiple periods. 1. Chamaizi, 2. Myrtos-Pyrgos, 3. Phaistos, 4. Malia, 5. Archanes, 6. Zakros, 7. Tylissos, 8. Knossos, 9. Lato, 10. Dreros, 11. Eleutherna, 12. Polyrrhenia, 13.Aptera, 14. Gortyna, 15. Chersonissos, 16. Minoa, 17. Diktynna, 18. Lappa, 19. Rhizenia, 20. Elyros, 21. Pyloros, 22. Tholos, 23. Aradena, 24. Kouphonisi, 25. Fylakes, 26. Zaros, 27. Kastelliana, 28. Agios Nikolaos, 29. Areti Monastery, 30. Oxa, 31. Mochlos, 32. Heraklion, 33. Rethymno, 34. Chania, 35. Gramboussa, 36.Viannos Vigla, 37. Vamos, 38. Gavalochori, 39. Agios Pavlos.

1.4.2. Plasters and mortars

The knowledge of limestone burning in order to gain burnt lime (also called quicklime) dates back to 8th millennium BC Pre-Pottery Neolithic societies in southern Levant. It was used for various purposes, from building material to ritual, as the plastered floors and walls are recorded at many sites in the Near East (e.g. Kfar HaHoresh, Çatal Hüyük or Jericho), to remarkable plastered statues and plastered skulls from ‘Ain Ghazal (Griffin et al. 1998, 60; Goren - Goring-Morris 2008, 780; Adam 1994, 65). However the earliest evidence of lime used as a building material is known not only from the Near East but as well from Europe. In former Yugoslavia on the banks of Danube River, a floor in shelter dating back to 5600 BC was covered with mixture of red lime, sand and gravel (Kirca 2005, 88). In Greece, there are several prehistoric sites where burnt lime was documented, for example the Late Neolithic site Makri (Thrace), Drakaina Cave (Kefallonia) or Early Bronze Age site Palamari on Skyros (Karkanas 2007, 778). Similarly, a gypsum plaster began to be used as a bonding agent in constructions during PPNB northern Levant and the technology was adopted rapidly across a wide region over following millennia (Arkun 2003, 13-16). There is an evidence for using a waterproof lime plaster directly in cisterns of the Neolithic period in Levant. The cisterns became quickly an important part of active water management, especially in dry-land farming of Near East and by 4th millennia BC they were common features for water supply (Mays et al. 2013, 1917).

The process of calcination resulting in burnt lime occurs when limestone is heated above 850 ºC although the final product is not stable and would eventually convert to calcium carbonate, unless it is mixed with water (this chemical formula is called slaked lime) creating the lime plaster (Kirca 2005, 88). Approximately 500 kg of limestone needs 1000 kg of fuel to be fired for 24 hours ending up with 250 kg of burnt lime (Goren - Goring-Morris 2008, 779).

As said above, another type of plaster frequently used from prehistory is gypsum plaster. The manufacturing process requires lower temperature for heating this sulfate mineral (about 150-400 ºC) to create the gypsum plaster (Arkun 2003, 13). Significant differences between gypsum and lime plasters could be recognized as following:

59 gypsum plasters are usually easy to form and manipulate with but have limited options of application in architecture. Moreover, it is not resistant to moisture and therefore it is typically used rather for external walls in extremely dry environments (Arkun 2003, 15- 16). On the other hand, lime plaster can be mixed with numerous additives to improve its natural properties for better strength, hardness or lower shrinkage, which results in higher quality material than gypsum plasters are and thus could be used for various purposes, even in structures, which are in direct contact with water (Kingery et al. 1988, 226).

The common use of lime plasters in the Greek architecture dates back to the 3rd century BC (the earliest evidence was documented at the Hellenistic site of Dura Europos in Syria), as well as the Romans started to use lime plasters generally at the same time. The eastern influences probably affected southern and central Italy first since good sources of pozzolana and limestone are naturally occurring there. Roman improvement of lime plasters and mortars as well resulted in the invention of concrete (Adam 1994, 65-79), which is one of the biggest contributions into the world’s architecture.

In the beginning, Greeks used lime as a building material only for stucco and lining of cisterns (Adam 1994, 65). Water structures had always a higher demand for durability and endurance since they are in direct contact with water. Therefore, the composition of inner lining of cisterns and other water constructions differs from the one used on other structures (Stefanidou et al. 2014, 571). The aggregates in the plaster mixture are necessary in order to obtain the plasticity qualities of the material; without it, the lime would crack in the drying process because of shrinkage, which would lead to the loss of its adhesive properties (Adam 1994, 73).

According to Vitruvius, plasters were made from a part of lime with three parts of quarry sand (might be also river or sea sand, but he considers sea sand risky since salt dissolves and makes it crumble). If two parts of sand are completed with one part of crushed tiles, the final mixture is even better. He also suggests adding the volcanic ashes, which make the mixture hard, not only for standing buildings but also for constructions under water, giving the non-hydraulic lime the hydraulic qualities due to the presence of a large amount of silicate of alumina. The similar effect could be

60 achieved with crushed pottery added as the aggregate, which Romans used for waterproof properties. The proportions of sand, crushed ceramics and other aggregates had to be considered according to the intended purpose – different proportions have been used for floors, walls, exterior or interiors (Adam 1994, 74).

In the Roman period, the pozzolana binder in the burnt lime plaster admixture was very often volcanic ash, tuff or spongilite. The reaction of these materials with lime results in the formation of hydrated calcium silicates and calcium aluminates, which is called the pozzolanic reaction (Černý et al. 2006, 850). Crushed ceramics were commonly added as the aggregates and are known as Cocciopesto. The combination of lime and crushed ceramics led to obtain waterproof properties of plasters as well as the possibility to set under water. This advantage enabled Romans to build monumental constructions such as aqueducts, bridges, cisterns or baths (Ugurlu - Böke 2009, 2442).

At this point it should be noted, that inner lining is generally used to define a cistern since it is a feature to make the structure waterproof and hence functional (Hodge 2000a, 21). However, we should bear in mind that some types of cisterns (e.g. those cut into bedrock) don’t necessarily need a lining to fulfill their function and therefore the lining should be only one of the features to define a cistern (Klingborg 2017, 43).

1.4.2.1. Case Studies

During the research conducted by Stefanidou et al., the structural mortars and plasters from baths and cisterns from various periods in Greece (Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman) have been sampled. The methods used in the analysis examined physico- mechanical, chemical and microstructural properties of samples. Microscopic evaluation was done with optical microscope assisted with image analysis and scanning electron microscope (SEM) with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis. As well the wet chemical analysis was performed in a fine fraction of the sample and thermal analysis (DTA-TG) was done in nitrogen environment. Hydraulic properties of the plasters are tested by determining the weight loss of the powdered plaster samples between 200-600 ºC and 600-900 ºC in order to lose chemical bound between water and carbon dioxide. Then, if the ratio of CO2 and H2O is between 1 and 10, plaster is considered as hydraulic. The porosity in hydraulic plasters should vary around 12-20%

61 and the cracks or pores should be mainly of 0,1-1 mm in diameter (Stefanidou et al. 2014, 574).

Only one sampled mortar from a cistern had a brick dust as an aggregate, while other mortar samples from baths did not contain any ceramics in the admixture and they are all of siliceous aggregates type. The plasters are a brick aggregate type and contain brick dust in the admixture (both in cisterns and baths). Mainly CaO (values fluctuate from 16% to 41%) represents the chemical composition in mortars and plasters and other oxides (SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3) form the remaining content. Although the authors do not specify the exact amount of each oxide in the samples they conclude that oxides gave plasters and mortars high degree of hydraulicity (Stefanidou et al. 2014, 573-574).

Binder and aggregate ratio ranges from 1/1 to 1/3. Both mortar and plaster sample from the Byzantine cistern (10th century from Servia castle) has ratio 1/1, and two mortar samples from Ottoman cistern (15th century from Pazar Hamam in Thessaloniki) have 1/2 and 1/1,5 ratio. Porosity of plasters in cisterns and baths is around 26% (these values could be considered altered because of the high amount of hydrophilic bricks), while porosity in mortars varies from 11 - 25%. The ratio CO2/H2O was 3,08 for the structural mortar and 2,88 for the plaster, supporting the higher hydraulic character of the plaster. The researchers conclude that the plaster technology remained almost untouched from Roman until Ottoman period and they point out the main differences between structural mortars and finishing plasters (Stefanidou et al. 2014, 573-579).

Ugurlu and Böke analyzed brick-lime plasters from Ottoman baths from Izmir (Turkey). In their paper, they differ ‘rough plasters’ (highly porous, low dense materials) and ‘finishing layers of plaster’ (thin, low porosity, waterproof). In addition to above mentioned analyses (PXRD, SEM, EDS) which corresponds with accepted values for hydraulic plasters, the researchers were examining the pozzolanic activity of the bricks by measuring the differences between electrical conductivities (mS/cm) before and after the addition of powdered brick into saturated calcium hydroxide solution. Pozzolanic activity values were more than 2mS/cm, which is considered as good pozzolan (Ugurlu - Böke 2009, 2444-2448).

Chapter 2

SURVEYS ON MT. OXA IN 2013-2017

Mt. Oxa represents an orientation point of a wider region. It is part of Dikti mountain range and it is easily recognized from any point in Mirabello Bay (Fig. 28). The hilltop settlement situated on Mount Oxa, runs in SW-NE direction and its top is divided into two main acropoleis with the highest point at 560 m a.s.l. The saddle with the modern Orthodox Chapel is around 525 m a.s.l. (Nowicki 2000, 173-174).

The length of the hill is 0,6 km and maximum width is 50 m; creating a settlement area of about 3 ha. The main entrance to the site is located from the western side, from Kalos-Lakkos Valley. The terrain of the hill is very rocky, highly eroded, covered with lush vegetation and loose stones, and not easily accessible in places. Therefore, some of the structures have not been recognized or properly documented yet and it would be a subject of future research.

Fig. 28 Mirabello Bay, Oxa Mountain, Crete (source of the map: Google maps).

2.1. OXA SURVEY SEASONS 2013-2014

The Oxa site have been systematically surveyed in three seasons throughout 2013-2017 by a small team from Masaryk University in Brno under the leadership of Věra Klontza and Emmanouil Klontzas. The prospection has been divided in two phases. The first phase (conducted in 2013 and 2014) is defined as a quantitative survey with a primary goal: mapping of the entire archaeological site. In order to fulfill this intention, the researchers documented all accessible and visible architectonical structures, recorded their GPS information and provided standard description with measurements in the context sheets. The documentation was complemented with photos and simple sketch plans. Narrative account of fieldwork was kept on a daily basis in the notebook.

2.1.1. Objectives

The main intention of the project in seasons 2013-2014 was to verify the dating of the Byzantine settlement, search for the other phases of inhabitation at the site, conduct an environmental survey, as well as the mapping of settlement and natural settings of the adjacent Kalos Lakkos valley (Klontza-Jaklová et al., in print). Particular focus was given to the study of fortifications, which was conducted by Adam Geisler in his Master’s thesis (Geisler 2016).

2.1.2. Methodology

For the case of Oxa site, the non-destructive archaeological approach (collecting of spatial data) has been chosen to document the visible remains of architecture because the site has never been systematically surveyed or excavated before, and one of the main decisive factors was topography of mount Oxa and terrain permeability. The survey project and its methodology was based on the comprehensive publication by Kuna et al., which summarizes non-destructive archaeology and its theory, methods and goals (Kuna et al. 2004); as well as the fundamental publication on archaeological methods by Neustupný (Neustupný 2007). The importance of the spatial data in non- destructive archaeology is increasing even more since definition of context in space is the main and immediate goal of each survey and should become a starting point for future research (Kuna et al. 2004, 379).

At the moment, the systematic excavation is very ambitious concept since the thread of danger from the steep slopes with imminent erosion and the occurrence of omnipresent large blocks of stones which might collapse anytime is relatively high. This kind of excavation would require:

a) detailed safety plan, b) team of workers prepared for physically demanding tasks, c) great financial support.

Feasible scenarios based on the preliminary results of the survey prospections suggest carrying out the stratigraphy cuts in the selected contexts and excavation of smaller structures or areas.

2.1.3. Results

More than 300 architectural remains (in the project database and reports referred as contexts) have been documented during survey seasons 2013-2014, including water structures, domestic units, fortification features, communications, and rock engravings (for the overview of contexts see Table 4). All data were organized and drawn together in a database (Microsoft Access 2007). GPS data were further sorted out in GIS processing software and simple site maps have been created by Adam Geisler.

The high number of pottery sherds found on the surface has been recorded and interpreted on spot. The preliminary dating of these pottery samples was done by Věra Klontza and the results confirmed the last significant inhabitation phase at Oxa in the Byzantine period. The details of the pottery analyses are included in the subchapter 2.5.2.

The outcome of the first phase of surveying is the presentation of the site in its historical, spatial and environmental background, which was successfully done by Geisler in his Master’s thesis ‘Fortification system of the Byzantine site of Oxa (Crete)’ (Geisler 2016).

Approximately 50 water structures have been identified at the site but only 31 of them have been preserved well to be taken into account at this state of research. The rest needs to be revisited or excavated to confirm their function.

The following table sums up different architectural remains and other features, which have been recognized at Oxa:

Type of context Number of contexts Processed by Water structures 47 Klára Matulová (2018) Surface water channels 4 Klára Matulová (2018) Rock engravings 7 Lucia Ščasníková (2018) Fortification structures 22 Adam Geisler (2016) Domestic units 65 - Terraces 64 Adam Geisler (2016) Church 1 - Unidentified walls 49 - Not specified 45 - Table 4 Different contexts recognized at Oxa site and their quantity.

2.2. OXA SURVEY SEASON 2017

The second phase of surveying allowed prospectors led by Věra Klontza to focus in detail on the specific topics, which are currently dealt with by students from Masaryk University in their Master’s theses. Information gathered in the previous seasons has been completed with drawing and photo documentation, detailed verbal description and sampling of cisterns’ inner lining. Narrative account of fieldwork was kept on a daily basis in the notebook.

2.2.1. Objectives

Season 2017 focused primarily on:

1) the study of rock engravings, their suitable documentation, interpretation and the possible connection with the Minoan period on Crete (Lucia Ščasníková), 2) the investigation of structures related to water management system preliminary dated to the Byzantine period and a small ethnographic research in the nearby village searching for traditional water supplying methods (Klára Matulová).

Since a high quantity of contexts have been recorded at Oxa, it would be impossible to document them properly all. Therefore, it was decided to select1 14 representative structures connected to water management and thoroughly examined them. The catalogue of selected water structures is attached in the Appendix C.

In addition, survey 2017 was extended with sampling of the inner plasters and mortars. We believe that the results of analysis, which was done at Department of Geological Sciences of Masaryk University in Brno, could also serve as a comparative material for the entire Cretan archaeology. The main intention was to find out:

a) what is the composition of inner lining and its features, b) if there are significant differences among the cisterns (since we know that some of them were reused in modern times), c) and to obtain the samples for comparison with other sites for the future research.

1 The criteria for selecting these particular water structures are described in the subchapter 3.2. 67

2.2.2. Methodology

The survey methodology followed up on the previous seasons, which was based on the publication by Kuna et al., and it primarily focused on collection of spatial data and sampling method. The sampling must always be done according to defined criteria and the sample has to be the representative of the whole complex. It was necessary to remove as many samples as possible (Kuna et al. 2004, 407-408).

2.3. DOCUMENTATION

Data have been recorded in the context sheets during the primary documentation in the field work. Except the basic description, interpretation, dimensions and orientation, we tried to notice any peculiarities, such as the presence of staircase, the remains of roof or any type of coverage, the size of stones or bricks in the structures or the relation with other contexts. All the context sheets are stored both in paper and digital form, so data can be edited and managed when needed.

The location and altitude of the structures has been documented with GPS receiver device (a non-professional but sufficient tourist GPS device Garmin Oregon 550 has been used in 2017 to accomplish set tasks). In the previous seasons, geodetic GPS receiver has been used to precisely locate the contexts and to be able to process GPS data in GIS software.

Other simple measurement tools such as long tapes, ranging pole, plumb bob, survey arrows, twine, rulers, scales and north arrow were used in the drawing and photography documentation.

The altimetry measurements of the terrain were carried out with a levelling device and ranging pole as the most of the structures are located in the steep slopes of the Oxa Mountain. Measured data were recorded right in the drawings to track back the exact location of individual point and later were organized in the tables within a field diary. The relative height was then recalculated according to the altitude of the ID point measured with GPS device, as we respected the generally accepted rules for levelling in archaeology (Kuna et al. 2004, 399).

The 14 selected structures in 2017 season have been drawn on a graph paper, size A3, most often in a scale 1:20. If the structure was larger, the scale 1:50 was chosen. Drawings have a standardized format and typically include a top view and a section (side view). Plans were later scanned and digitally processed in a free and open-source vector graphics editor Inkscape. For the overview Oxa site map (Fig. 35) we used Google satellite maps as a background and GPS data to locate individual structures. The final vector plan was as well created in Inkscape vector editor.

An essential part of every survey is the photography documentation. In case of Oxa, we had to consider each structure according to its dimensions, location at a site and density of vegetation to be the decisive factor how to take a picture. Therefore the final photos subordinate to the individual circumstances in order to capture the specific features of each structure. Every day after the fieldwork, the photos were described and assigned to corresponding context (using Microsoft Excel). The editing of photos was done in a free and open-source image editor GIMP.

Similarly as the standardized description of pottery sherds, we described the plasters and mortars of the cisterns; i.e. their fabric, color (Munsell color system), inclusions, density of inclusions and recorded this information in the context sheets. In most cases, two samples from 122 selected cisterns have been removed, usually a sample from coarse bottom mortar and a sample from final pinkish plaster. If the walls of the cistern were constructed from both stones and bricks (or eventually roof tiles), we removed a piece of ceramic as well. The photography documentation of these samples was done then by Vojtěch Nosek. The front and back side of each sample was photographed with a photo scale and proper label.

In all survey seasons, a large amount of pottery sherds found on the surface have been documented in situ due to regulations according to Greek Heritage Authorities. The emphasis was focused on the immediate vicinity of the documented structures; the samples were drawn, photographed and described. Description of pottery respected standards of common documentation of ceramics (Vionis et al. 2010, 433). The fabric, color, macroscopic structure, state of preservation, part and type of the vessel that

2 Two remaining structures - the possible water channels - did not have any kind of inner lining. 69 pottery sherd belongs to was recorded and analyzed (for evaluation of the pottery assemblage, see subchapter 2.5.2).

2.4. DATA PROCESSING

Data collected during prospections are entered in a database (created in Microsoft Access 2007). All different contexts were placed in one form: water structures (cisterns and possible water channels), altogether with fortifications, domestic units and rock engravings, nonetheless we are aware that the future excavation would require more complex database. At this moment, the database is used for statistical evaluation of selected contexts. In the following table (Table 5), the fields of database are described: FIELD DESCRIPTION OF FIELD OPTIONS DATE OF SURVEY AND Date of the first record, date of 2013; 2014; 2017 DESCRIPTION re-documenting the feature DESCRIBED BY Different researchers, in order to In initials (with explanations get back to meaning or when scrolled out) discussion ENTERED INTO DATABASE BY Different researchers, in order to In initials (with explanations get back to meaning or when scrolled out) discussion NUMBER OF CONTEXT ID number given when first Text “OXA” and 0000 (four- documented digit number ) TYPE OF STRUCTURE Labelling the structure Cistern, water channel, domestic unit, rock engraving, fortification, gate, church, pit, other, unidentified STATE OF PRESERVATION Describing the approximate state Collapsed, complete, rebuilt, of preservation fragmentary SHAPE Shape of structure Rectangular, square, round, oval, irregular, linear, unidentified TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION How the structure was built Ground level, partially recessed, underground TYPE OF MASONRY What was used as a building Brick, clay stone masonry, dry material masonry, mixed, mortar stone masonry, plastered stone SIZE OF STONE BLOCKS Averaged size of stones Small (< 30 cm); Medium (30- 50 cm), Large (> 50 cm), mixed SHAPE OF STONE BLOCKS Method of stone processing used Unworked blocks, unworked

as a building material pebbles, worked regular blocks, partly worked, mixed INNER WIDTH (CM) Inner measurements In cm INNER LENGTH (CM) Inner measurements In cm HEIGHT (CM) Outer height (if ground level) In cm DEPTH (CM) Maximum depth reached In cm WALL THICKNESS (CM) When possible In cm DIAMETER (CM) At oval/round structures In cm ORIENTATION Orientation of the structure in the Cardinal direction length direction GPS Exact GPS data (one point each Lat Long format structure) ALTITUDE (M A.S.L.) Elevation of the structure Meter above the sea level SLOPE (%) Slope of the structure % MIN VOLUME (M3) Minimal possible volume of the In m3 structure (preliminary estimated without excavation) MAX VOLUME (M3) Maximum possible volume of the In m3 structure (preliminary estimated without excavation) DATING Age of the structure according to the excavators PHOTOS TAKEN? Photos available Yes / no PHOTO ID # ID of photo regarding to the particular context PLAN TAKEN? Plan available Yes / no PLAN # ID of plan RELEVANT FINDINGS If occurred SAMPLES TAKEN? Samples removed Yes / no SAMPLE # ID of sample PLASTER / MORTAR Verbal description DESCRIPTION MUNSELL COLOR SYSTEM Color of plasters / mortars Accordingly BIBLIOGRAPHY WHERE If mentioned in publications MENTIONED RELATION TO OTHER Relation to other contexts CONTEXTS VERBAL DESCRIPTION Verbal description Table 5 Description of the database of Oxa archaeological remains.

The secondary documentation sorts collected data and statistically evaluates them in a form of graphs or tables in the subsequent chapters. The technical aspects are complemented with the narrative description.

2.5. DATING OF THE SITE

There are several issues concerning the chronological sequences of settlement situated on top of Oxa Mountain. The preliminary dating was based on the results of survey prospections and thus might be considered problematic. According to these surveys, it is presumed that the last inhabitation phase of Oxa with the utilization of cisterns dates back to the Early Byzantine period (phase 2). Nonetheless, I am including following subchapters, which present the different assessments of the site by various researchers in the past as well as the criteria, which has been assessed by our research team in order to date the site.

2.5.1. References to Oxa

As it was already summarized in the Master’s thesis by Geisler, Oxa was not ignored or overlooked in the past. Both travelers and archaeologists frequently mentioned the archaeological remains of Oxa in their reports or diaries and therefore we cannot pretend that this site was discovered just in the recent times. For example Thomas Spratt described the region of Mirabello Bay already in 1851 while undertaking topographical prospection of Crete and dated Oxa (referring it as a fortress of Oxah or Axos) back to Venetian period although he never personally visited the site. He described two towers, cisterns and other buildings. In 1894 Arthur Evans mentions the site of “Oxo” located south from Elounda in his diaries and dates the site to the Hellenistic and Roman period (Geisler 2016, 18). In the 20th century, Pendlebury searched the entire Crete Island for the archaeological remains since Prehistoric to Roman period (Pendlebury 1939, xxiii) and mentions Oxa as Naxos, Greco-Roman large walled settlement on Oxa Mountain, with the abundance of pottery sherds and some coins (Pendlebury 1939, 364-365).

In the last decades, the region of Mirabello Bay was frequently researched by Nowicki, who described Oxa as a fortified settlement with pottery sherds dating from Minoan to Byzantine period. Nowicki listed Oxa among refugee settlements from 1200 - 800 BC

72 on Crete (Nowicki 2000, 173-174), similarly as Wallace refers to ‘Elounda Oxa’ as LM IIIC settlement (without further details) (Wallace 2000, 63). Moreover, Oxa was marked on the map of Early Byzantine settlements on Crete by Tsigonaki - Sarris, but again without any additional information (Tsigonaki - Sarris 2014, 5, Fig.4).

Last but not least, nowadays is Oxa described by local people from Elounda on their webpage as ‘Naxos’, Minoan city, which was inhabited in LM period after a catastrophe in the ancient city Olous (Oxa ©2005).

Although the site of Oxa was noticed and mentioned for several times in the literature, no systematic efforts have been done to understand the site’s role in time and space until The Oxa Project has been established in 2013. After the precise documentation and study of Oxa’s architectural remains and pottery assemblage, there is a need to explore the surrounding region and possibly find other sites. The character and density of human activities in the region is limited by the existing bibliography, which is still not sufficient enough to make applicable conclusions.

2.5.2. Results of Pottery Sampling at Oxa

The abundance of pottery sherds covering basically the whole surface of Oxa Mountain was documented and assessed in situ by Věra Klontza. The emphasis was focused on the immediate vicinity of the documented structures and recorded in the context sheets. The preliminary analysis matches with the previous work done by Nowicki who described mainly LM and PG pottery sherds (Nowicki 2000, 174).

In conclusion, Klontza assumes that the majority of the samples covering the surface of the site belong to 7th - 10th century AD pottery, which characterizes the main phases of the inhabitation activities on Oxa Mt., however pottery fragments from different periods were recognized as well according to the survey prospection. Table 6 sums up the results of pottery analysis:

Recognized period Description Notes Middle Minoan period (MM) Dark-on-light style Few fragments. Late Minoan period (LM IIIC) Coarse pottery (local clay, Sherds concentrated mainly tempered by large pieces of in the eastern sector and the phylite and quartzite) saddle. Except from pottery, Fine buff pottery of table few kernoi typical for Minoan wares, painted by dark brown period were found as well. – black colors Orientalizing period Fragments of pithoi, Scattered over the eastern decorated by applied bands sector. with stamps Archaic period Painted pottery Very rare Hellenistic period Sherds from kylixes, bowls The third most numerous and pithoi group of sherds at site. Byzantine period Fragments of transport The abundance of Byzantine pottery (Aegean globular pottery, throughout the whole amphorae, LRA1 survivors), site; characteristic mainly for Constantinople white second phase of Early wares and other early Byzantine period and also glazed wares, cooking fragments of Constantinople pottery ware (10th c.). Venetian period Glazed pottery Very rare - around the chapel only. Table 6 Summary of documented pottery fragments and their description (Klontza-Jaklová et al., in press). 2.5.3. Architectural Remains

Over 300 architectural remains have been recognized at Oxa site. The most of the structures corresponds with Roman / Byzantine building techniques (e.g. vaulted roofs, free standing massive constructions, bricks facing the interior walls etc.). Dating of each unit was established typologically and technologically, post quem after material built into the walls, and ante quem after material spread on the surface around. Some of the structures were visibly reused and rebuilt in the modern times (for example cisterns OXA0001, OXA0018 or OXA0214). In some cases it was impossible to establish correct dating (no chronologically sensitive features) or difficult to assume if the unit was surviving from previous phases. The systematic excavation and stratigraphy cuts are necessary to confirm these theories.

2.5.4. Discussing the Byzantine Period on Crete

The relative general chronology based on cultural approach might not work for specific regions on Crete. Obviously the study of Minoan Crete and its state of research would quite differ from what we have for Byzantine Crete and it is also different than chronological sequences which works for example for Byzantine phases in large cities, e.g. Constantinople or Thessaloniki. Both historical and archaeological approaches need to be taken into account for the most precise dating concerning Crete. Several terminological discrepancies (for example naming the transition period between Roman and early medieval phase as ‘Late Roman’, ‘Late Antique’ or ‘Early Byzantine’) and the inconsistent perception of the Byzantine world make the proper dating even harder. Some scholars mark the beginning of the Byzantine period as early as the 4th c. AD, some as late as 9th c. AD; obviously this depends on the subjective point of view, archaeological approach and continuity/discontinuity of material culture or presence of Christianity (Klontza-Jaklová 2015, 138; Klontza-Jaklová et al. 2016, 543-545).

The Byzantine period is the expression describing the Roman Empire continuing in the east during the Middle Ages with Constantinople as capital city, influencing mainly North Africa and Near East (Mays et al. 2013, 1927). Usually three phases are used to distinguish the Byzantine period: Early, Middle and Late Byzantine. In the absolute dates, Early period is dated from 650 - 842 AD, Middle period from 842 - 1204 AD, and Late period from 1204 - 1400 AD (Bintliff 2012, 6), which is rather general and would work only for some sites in the Aegean region. For Crete, the beginning of the Byzantine period is defined by different dates, summarized by Klontza-Jaklová (see Table 1 in Klontza-Jaklová 2015, 138-139). The dates range from 4th century AD to 8th and 9th centuries.

As can be seen from the paragraphs above, the chronological frame for the Byzantine period is very inconsistent. With the contribution of studying the multicultural Cretan site Priniatikos Pyrgos in Mirabello Bay for more than a decade now, its excavators were able to establish the chronological scale working for East Crete (Table 7), which was also used for dating of Oxa site. Anyhow, much work still needs to be done in this regard therefore no final conclusions are made for Oxa without systematic excavation and stratigraphy cuts.

Late Roman period 4th c. AD - end of 6th c. AD Early Byzantine period - phase 1 end of 6th - mid 7th c. AD Early Byzantine period - phase 2 mid 7th c. - beginning of 9th c. AD Arab occupation beginning of 9th c. - 961 AD Late Byzantine period 961 - 1204 AD Venetian period 1204 - 1669 AD Ottoman period 1669 AD - end of 19th c. AD Table 7 Chronological scale for Mirabello Bay, Crete, according to the results of Priniatikos Pyrgos stratigraphies (Klontza-Jaklová 2015, 139, Tab. 2).

2.6. A SMALL ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH IN THE STUDY

AREA: NOFALIAS VILLAGE

For the ethnographic comparison of cistern use in Crete, we decided to conduct a small ethnographic research in the almost abandoned village Nofalias during the last survey season in 2017. The village is located some 10 km NW from the Oxa Mountain at 540 m a.s.l. This village was already studied by Arakadaki not only for its historical interest and ethnography but as well for the environmental and ecologic lessons, which might be learned from studying the traditional ways of life. The author as well points out the vast usage of cisterns and windmills in the village (Arakadaki 2006, 13).

Almost all of the houses in Nofalias have a private cistern as well as there are cisterns located in the public spaces. The typology varies from underground to partially-recessed structures with different openings. The partially recessed structure, lying in the slope, has a filter tank attached to it and vaulted roof (Fig. 29 and Fig. 30). The underground structure (Fig. 31) has circular opening and stone basin for amphora. The most of the cistern were supplied from rains falling on rooftops (Fig. 32) by gutters leading water into the opening of the cistern. This was also recorded by Gikas and Angelakis (Gikas - Angelakis 2009, 1054) on other Aegean islands. Channels leading water to cisterns have been observed as well (Fig. 33).

Fig. 29 Nofalias. Partially recessed cistern located on the street, with filter tank and vaulted roof (photograph by author).

Fig. 30 Nofalias. Cistern located on the street. Detail of filter tank leading water to the cistern and opening on the top of the roof to reach water (photograph by author).

Fig. 31: Nofalias. Channel leading water to the large cistern. Photograph by author.

Fig. 31 Nofalias. Underground cistern with circular opening and stone basin for amphorae (photograph by author).

Fig. 32 Collection of water through rooftops leading into underground cistern (a) Nofalias (photograph by author); (b) Aegean islands (Gikas - Angelakis 2009, 1054, Fig. 3).

Fig. 33 Nofalias. Channel leading water to the large cistern (photograph by author).

Chapter 3

WATER MANAGEMENT ON MOUNT OXA

3.1. IDENTIFICATION OF WATER STRUCTURES

In order to manage and sort the collected data from Oxa site for the purposes of this thesis, selected metric and spatial data from database are presented in the table (Table 8) and schematic site map (Fig. 35). The schematic site map depicts documented cisterns. For the location of kernoi, see Master’s thesis by Lucia Ščasníková (Ščasníková 2018). The map (Fig. 34) shows the satellite image of Oxa with depiction of the borders of the site, which have been partly created naturally (steep edges of the mountain) and partly artificially (fortification, one bastion is still preserved in the NE side near cistern OXA0001). The entry path is clearly visible in the satellite image as well (in the middle of the northern side of the hill), beginning in the Kalos Lakkos valley.

The classification of cisterns was carried out according to the dimensions (width, length or diameter) and shapes (rectangular, rounded), and the output of this categorizing is depicted in form of graphs (Graph 1 and 3). Other descriptors either could not be recorded for every structure or were common to all of them and thus could not be taken for now as information useful to create a category. Nevertheless, additional data recorded in the database have been used in a detailed description of water structures. All of the collected information is essential for the synthesis of knowledge in order to find analogies in the Ancient and the Middle Age Mediterranean.

Fig. 34 Oxa Mountain. White line defines the settlement borders (source of the map: Google maps, edited by author). 81

Fig. 35 Schematic site map of Oxa site with depiction of 31 structures related to water management (created by author). 82

Following table draws together data used for the classification of Oxa water structures:

Context number Shape Width (cm) Lenght (cm) Diameter (cm) 1 OXA0001 Rectangular 220 340 2 OXA0018 Rectangular 210 270 3 OXA0040 Rectangular 200 270 4 OXA0053 Rectangular 260 390 5 OXA0080 Rectangular 210 240 6 OXA0082 Rectangular 260 440 7 OXA0089 Rectangular 210 310 8 OXA0093 Round 180 9 OXA0099 Rectangular 125 170 10 OXA0149 A Linear 30 190 11 OXA0149 B Linear 40 360 12 OXA0161 Rectangular 180 190 13 OXA0179 Rectangular 200 350 14 OXA0184 Rectangular 200 210 15 OXA0186 Rectangular 230 530 16 OXA0192 Rectangular 370 750 17 OXA0193 Rectangular 160 180 18 OXA0206 Rectangular 370 1060 19 OXA0208 Rectangular 440 570 20 OXA0212 Rectangular 160 300 21 OXA0214 Rectangular 240 360 22 OXA0215 Rectangular 420 820 23 OXA0220 Round 270 24 OXA0221 Round 160 25 OXA0222 Rectangular 370 1000 26 OXA0224 Rectangular 190 410 27 OXA0250 Rectangular 240 490 28 OXA0253 Rectangular 410 710 29 OXA0259 Round 850 30 OXA0348 Rectangular 215 298 31 OXA0362 Rectangular 345 400 Table 8 Dimensions and shapes of 31 water structures documented at Oxa throughout the seasons 2013-2017.

According to these data, Oxa water structures have been divided into following groups based on their shape (Graph 1):

1. Rectangular structures 2. Rounded structures 3. Linear structures (i.e. channel-like)

TYPES OF WATER STRUCTURES AT OXA SITE ACCORDING TO THEIR SHAPE 6%

13%

Rectangular Rounded Channel-like 81%

Graph 1 Representation of water structures at Oxa in % according to their shape.

As seen from a chart above, the majority of present structures at Oxa are of rectangular shape. Graph 2 shows their scatter that creates another two subgroups: small and large rectangular structures. Graph 3 represents the final classification of water structures into four groups (described in detail in the subchapter 3.3.) according to both shape and size:

1. Large rectangular (OXA0192, 206, 208, 215, 222, 253, 362) 2. Small rectangular (OXA0001, 18, 40, 53, 80, 82, 89, 99, 161, 179, 184, 186, 193, 212, 214, 224, 250, 348) 3. Rounded (OXA0093, 220, 221, 259) 4. Linear (i.e. channel-like) (OXA0149A, 149B)

Graph 2 The scatter of rectangular water structures at Oxa according to their shape and size creates two groups - small (red) and large (green) rectangular structures (graph by Petr Pajdla).

TYPES OF WATER STRUCTURES AT OXA SITE ACCORDING TO THEIR SHAPE AND SIZE

13% 23% Large rectangular Small rectangular Rounded Channel-like

58%

Graph 3 Representation of water structures at Oxa in % according to their shape and size.

3.2. CRITERIA FOR SELECTING PARTICULAR WATER

STRUCTURES

The preliminary classification based on the shape and size became the decisive factor while selecting 14 structures prospected during season 2017. The criteria included:

1. the structure is in a good state of preservation, 2. there is a representative of a large / small / round / linear structure, 3. the inner lining is preserved and can be sampled, 4. the bottom of at least few structures might be reached without the excavation.

Following table shows the structures, which have been selected as the representatives of water management system on Mt. Oxa:

Context number Type of Structure Size and Shape 1 OXA0001 Cistern Small rectangular 2 OXA0018 Cistern Small rectangular 3 OXA0040 Cistern Small rectangular 4 OXA0080 Cistern Small rectangular 5 OXA0093 Cistern Rounded 6 OXA0149 A Water channel? Linear 7 OXA0149 B Water channel? Linear 8 OXA0161 Cistern Small rectangular 9 OXA0184 Cistern Small rectangular 10 OXA0186 Cistern Large rectangular 11 OXA0206 Cistern Large rectangular 12 OXA0250 Cistern Large rectangular 13 OXA0253 Cistern Large rectangular 14 OXA0259 Cistern Rounded Table 9 The selected water structures documented in 2017 season.

3.3. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER STRUCTURES AT

OXA

Stone architectural remains define the water management system at Oxa, which is in majority represented by rectangular structures. Compared with the other archaeological remains located at Oxa site, the cisterns are well-preserved structures of various sizes and shapes with inner lining to prevent water seepage. It is not uncommon for the structures related to water management to be preserved well, however the surface context around might be completely lost, which makes the final interpretation of the structure reasonably difficult (Klingborg 2017, 16).

In the most cases, hydraulic structures at Oxa are located in the central part of the site, in both N and S slopes and the highest points of the mountain (see the site map, Fig. 35). The majority of the cisterns at Oxa were left to decay when abandoned. Some structures are therefore filled with material from collapsing cistern, but some of them were cleaned and reused in the modern period. The following subchapter sums up the main features documented for the cisterns at Oxa. For description of individual cisterns selected in 2017 season, see Catalogue (Appendix C).

3.3.1. Structure’s Shape

Regarding to the shapes of the structures, we simplified the categories on rectangular, rounded and linear (channel-like). Nonetheless, few irregular shapes are occurring at the site (OXA0186, OXA0253 and OXA0259). Since they partly lie on the bedrock, we believe that the irregular shape is rather a result of building the structure into the terrain and for this reason we did not categorize them as a separate group.

The small rectangular cisterns are predominant at Oxa site. They are evenly distributed throughout the hill. Some of them are quite small (< 3 m in length) and might be attached (Fig. 36) to larger structures. Building material varies, most often these are built from stone and in some cases the interior is lined with brick layer (Fig. 37 and Fig. 39a). In majority, the small rectangular structures are positioned underground or are partly recessed. Only few have been located on a ground level. In conclusion, no pattern

87 has been observed and it seems that small cisterns were built according to the current needs of the site.

Fig. 36 OXA0161: Smaller water structure attached to a larger one (photo copyright by The Oxa Project). The large rectangular structures (Fig. 38) represent the second most numerous type of cisterns at Oxa. In all cases, they are located in the steep slopes (Fig. 41) of the contour line of the hill, facing both N and S side. Some structures are massively reinforced with stone and some are partly built into the bedrock or lie on the bedrock with one side. In OXA0222, as in the single case, we recorded the brick lining of the interior wall.

Few oval or rounded structures (Fig. 40) were documented but since they are quite rare at a site (only four structures have been recorded), it is hard to generalize them. OXA0259 (Fig. 49) is the largest structure (ca. 9 m in diameter), has a division wall and lies with one side on the bedrock. The other three round structures are rather small, situated on the terrace edges where they are attached to the rock.

3.3.2. Type of Masonry

Three types of masonry have been documented at Oxa: the majority of structures were built in a stone masonry (Fig. 38), less structures in stone and brick masonry (OXA0040, OXA0184, OXA0259) (Fig. 39a), and the rest are partially lying on the rock, which use as the wall of the cistern (OXA0040, OXA0093, OXA0186, OXA0250,

OXA0253, OXA0259). In the most cases, mixed techniques were engaged (Fig. 37). So far, we have not recorded any cistern completely dug in the bedrock.

Fig. 37 OXA0040: The combination of stone, brick and bedrock wall in the small cistern (photo copyright by The Oxa Project).

Fig. 38 OXA0206: Massive stone reinforcement of the large structure (photo copyright by The Oxa Project). 89

3.3.3. Building Material

Stone blocks used as a building material for the cisterns are of local origin (limestone). The size of stone blocks differs from structure to structure; we have not observed any pattern regarding to this matter. Even the large structures might have been built from small - medium size stones (Fig. 38 or Fig. 39b), and some smaller structures were built from larger stones. As well, we did not see any rules while documenting if the stones were unworked, partially worked or worked regular blocks. It seems that any of these were the decisive factors when building the structures.

Fig. 39 (a) OXA0040: A detail of brick layer in the interior of the cistern. (b) OXA0208: The ceramic material interlacing the stones in the mortar (photo copyright by The Oxa Project).

Bricks (or reused roof tiles) were used to enhance the stone walls in the interior of predominantly small structures at Oxa. This technique was observed in three small cisterns (Fig. 37 and Fig. 39a). In a case of OXA0259 (Fig. 49), the bricks were used for the vaulted opening in the middle of the division wall. For OXA0208, the stone layers were interlaced with small pieces of bricks, roof tiles and broken pottery (Fig. 39b). The exception from the large cisterns is OXA0222, which as well has the interior lined with brick layer.

3.3.4. Position in Terrain

Only in few cases the position of the structure was obvious - three underground structures were recorded at a site (OXA0018, OXA0040, and OXA0161). The rest of the structures were identified either as partially recessed (Fig. 40) or ground level (Fig. 41). We have determined that the structure is position on a ground level if we could see the base of the cistern on its exterior. However, all structures were completely or partly built in the steep slopes of the hill so at least with one side they are always built into the terrain.

3.3.5. Coverage of the Structure

In seven cases we have observed remains of coverage (Fig. 39), from preserved domed roof (OXA0001) over remains of vault (OXA0184, OXA0186, OXA0250, or OXA0259) (Fig. 40). For the remaining structures, we did not record any kind of coverage although we are aware that it could be due to the state of preservation of those cisterns (Fig. 34 or Fig. 38).

Fig. 40 OXA0093: Rounded, partially recessed open-air structure (photo copyright by The Oxa Project).

Fig. 41 OXA0250: Large structure position in the steep slope of the hill. The remains of domed roof are still visible (photo copyright by The Oxa Project). 3.3.6. Cisterns’ Supply

In four structures, a possible supply channel was recorded. In OXA0186 and OXA0259 it seems that a channel, which is an integral part of the cistern, comes straight from bedrock or the slope of the hill (Fig. 42 and Fig.43). For OXA0080, a channel is an exterior extension of the structure (Fig. 44). The rest of the cistern could be supplied with surface runoff as we believe that some linear structures (Fig. 53) found on the surface are channels (OXA0149A and OXA0149B). Cistern OXA0161 (small structure attached to the larger one) was probably supplied from a rooftop, as a plastered corner suggests (Fig. 45).

Fig. 42 OXA0186: Detail of possible supply channel in the back of the cistern and the remains of the dome roof (photo copyright by The Oxa Project).

Fig. 43 OXA0259: Detail of possible supply channel in the back of the cistern (photo copyright by The Oxa Project).

Fig. 44 OXA0080: Exterior supply channel (photo copyright by The Oxa Project).

Fig. 45 OXA0161: Plastered corner probably to lead water from the rooftop towards cistern (photo copyright by The Oxa Project).

3.3.7. Secondary Usage and Interventions into the Masonry

Some of the cisterns have been clearly rebuilt in the modern period (two of them actually bear Greek inscription with the date 1926). One of them is an underground cistern OXA0018 (which is still in operation and holds water even in July). Other structures have been cleaned, repaired and reused as cisterns (OXA0208, OXA0214, Fig. 48 and Fig. 51). Two ground level structures OXA0001 and OXA0186 were rebuilt as shepherd huts (Fig. 46). Some structures bear traces of interventions into the masonry, for example a dry stone extension of the walls (OXA0253 or OXA0186, Fig. 46b). We have also noticed that some of the large rectangular cisterns have holes in the lower part of the structure (OXA0206, OXA0208, OXA0215, and OXA0222) (Fig. 47 and Fig. 48). The hole in OXA0208 was fixed later and the cistern was operated again.

Fig. 46 Cisterns rebuilt as a shepherd hut: (a) OXA0001 and (b) OXA0186 with door opening and dry masonry wall extension (photo copyright by The Oxa Project).

Fig. 47 OXA0215: A hole in the lower part of the cistern (photo copyright by The Oxa Project).

Fig. 48 OXA0208: A hole in the lower part of the cistern, which has been repaired later (photo copyright by The Oxa Project).

3.3.7. Miscellaneous

Several anomalies have been recorded for individual structures. OXA0259 has a division wall (Fig. 49) in the middle of the structure, with holes probably for wooden beams and vaulted opening in the central part of the wall. This cistern is remarkable because it is the single oval structure of such dimension (ca. 9 m in diameter) documented at a site. Unfortunately, it is abundantly filled with debris, only the upper part is visible and the N side is highly eroded since it is positioned in the slope of the hill.

Fig. 49 OXA0259: Division wall with a vaulted opening in the middle and beam holes (photo copyright by The Oxa Project ). Another interesting structure is the large rectangular cistern OXA0206 that as the only one bears remains of staircase (or bench) (Fig. 50). There is also a small filter/floatation tank attached to the structure. This smaller tank was observed in other cases at Oxa, for example OXA0214 (Fig. 51). OXA0206 is undoubtedly one of the largest at a site and similarly as OXA0259, it has beam holes in the upper part, which suggest that there used to be some kind of coverage. It is quite a massive structure; the total height is more than 5 m, and it has a three level stone support on the exterior (Fig. 38), as it was also documented for OXA0214, OXA0215, OXA0222, OXA0250 (Fig. 41), or OXA0253.

Fig. 50 OXA0206: Detail of staircase or bench inside of the cistern (photo copyright by The Oxa Project).

Fig. 51 OXA0214: Another example of filter tank attached to the larger structure (photo copyright by The Oxa Project ).

3.3.8. Possible Surface Channels

The last two structures (OXA0149 A and 149 B) which have not been mentioned yet are considered to be possible water surface channels (Fig. 53) controlling, directing or regulating the flow of surface runoff at a site. Other possible channels structures have been recorded in the previous seasons but we did not revisit them in 2017. The evidence of the channels varies from stray parallel stones (Fig. 52) to larger structure (Fig. 53). However, their revision is the prior task for another survey season.

Fig. 52 Two parallel stones, which might serve as a surface channel (photo copyright by The Oxa Project).

Fig. 53 OXA0149A: Possible surface channel (photo copyright by The Oxa Project). 99

3.4. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PLASTERS AND MORTARS

AT OXA

The inner lining3 of the cisterns was recorded in situ (Fig. 54 and Fig. 55), it was photographed and the macroscopically observable fabric and color of the lining was described in the documentation. Eventually, two samples from each structure (usually coarse and fine sample) were removed in order to analyze them later at Department of Geological Sciences of Masaryk University in Brno. The photography documentation was used to record the sample’s properties before they were analyzed (Fig. 56).

Fig. 54 OXA0184: Plaster documented in situ from a section (photo copyright by The Oxa Project).

3 Some researchers suggest to use rather neutral term ‘lining‘ because other terms (such as plasters, mortars, stucco, cement etc.) are rarely specified in text why they have been used even though they might differ in their properties. The word ‘lining’ should include all of the substances of above mentioned terms and refers to waterproof coating in the cistern (Klingborg 2017, 43). In the case of this thesis, we defined both terms in the Glossary (Appendix A) and thus we use these terms to refer to particular material. However, the word ‘lining’ is still used when we refer to the interior coating of cisterns in general. 100

Fig. 55 OXA0184: Plaster documented in situ (front view) (photo copyright by The Oxa Project).

Fig. 56 OXA0184: Samples of plaster and mortar removed for analyses (photograph by Vojtěch Nosek).

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In the majority of the structures, the coarse mortar (also filling and holding stones or bricks together) is the first layer applied directly on the building material (i.e. stones or bricks). The thickness of the layer varies according to the each structure in order to flatten the wall. Over this coarse mortar, the thin layer of pinkish plaster was applied.

This final pinkish plaster could have been restored for many times and at this point of research we are able to document only the last phase of usage. The fine layer is usually thinner (1-2 cm thick), well or poorly mixed, tempered with inclusions (< or > 50%), and the thickness varies according to the unevenness of the wall. Macroscopically observed, the inclusions are of different sizes and origin (i.e. pieces of ceramics or stones or minerals). The density and size of inclusions in the inner lining were described for each structure. The color of the final layer most often ranges from 7.5 YR 7/6 reddish yellow or 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow, over 7.5 YR / 7.4 pink to 2,5 YR 7/4 light reddish brown (according to the Munsell color system).

There were few common features observed in all structures, for example the rounded plaster corners (Fig. 57 and Fig. 58) of the cisterns (and if we could reach the bottom, its edges have been rounded as well). On the other hand, we have documented exceptionality as well - the bottom depression (OXA0184) which was recorded only in one structure (Fig. 58) so far.

Fig. 57 OXA0184: Plaster covering the bottom, the bottom depression and rounded corners (photo copyright by The Oxa Project). 102

Fig. 58 OXA0184: Enhanced corners and bottom edges with plaster (photo copyright by The Oxa Project).

For 5 structures we can sum up that the final pinkish plaster was very well-mixed with fine fabric and for the remaining 7 structures the final plaster is rather of coarse fabric, usually poorly mixed. The bottom of the structures could be reached in 5 cases (OXA0018, OXA0040, OXA0093, OXA0161, and OXA0184). The bottom was never flat and it was sloping towards one point.

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3.5. ANALYSIS OF PLASTER

3.5.1. Petrographic and X-ray Diffraction Analysis of Plaster from Cistern OXA0161

Petrographic and X-ray Diffraction analysis of representative samples from Oxa cisterns’ plasters and mortars has been done at Department of Geological Sciences of Masaryk University in Brno by Mgr. Dalibor Všianský, Ph.D. In total 26 samples were removed from the cisterns’ interiors to be analyzed in order to determine their composition. For the purposes of this thesis, the results of analysis of one representative sample (final pinkish plaster) from cistern OXA0161 (Fig. 57) are discussed below (for specific terminology see Glossary in Appendix A). For the methodology and microphotographs see Appendix B.

Fig. 59 Analyzed sample from cistern OXA0161 (photograph by Vojtěch Nosek).

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3.5.2. Summary

As an initial analysis, PXRD and petrographic analyses were applied on our samples although in the future additional methods will be engaged to test the chemical and hydraulic properties and pozzolanic activity of the plasters. Based on the results of the powder X-ray diffraction analysis, a dominant material in the presented sample is calcite, which is a part of both, aggregate (limestone) and lime-based binder. Quartz, plagioclase and mica may come from both rock aggregate and crushed ceramics. The content of pyroxene with diopside structure is relatively high (5.1 %). It comes from ceramics that is a part of aggregate and indicates that the raw material of the ceramics was calcium-rich and firing temperature was relatively high. Hematite comes from the ceramics as well (for percentage summary see Appendix B, Table 1).

According to the petrographic analysis, the ration between binder (lime based) and aggregate (formed mainly by crushed ceramics in this case) is ca. 2/3. The porosity is ca. 10%, pores are rounded, and some of them are lined with secondary carbonate crystals (presented in the binder). Two fractions of aggregate are distinguished in the material: a) sandy (>0,063-2 mm) and b) dusty (0,004-0,063 mm). The pinkish color of the final plasters is caused by the dusty fraction. The ratio between binder and aggregate corresponds with usual values for historic plasters but the porosity (10%) is quite low as compared with other examples giver in the subchapter 1.4.2.1.

In the ceramics fragments, micas (both biotite and muscovite) are abundant. Biotite is thermally altered. Fine fragments of quartz and laths of micas occurring in the sample come from rushed ceramics. Larger fragments of quartz and other minerals, e.g. plagioclase and tourmaline and kyanite are present there as well. The content of hematite is variable. Some of the fragments are red-greenish and display partial melting, which correspond to a calcium – rich raw material (limy clay) and a relatively high firing temperature exceeding 1 000 °C. Rock temper is represented by sparry calcite, volcanic rocks (andesite), chert and sandstone. Isolated fragments of pumice are present in the binder. However, its deliberate addition as a pozzolanic material is hard to proof because pumice was found in the ceramic fragments as well. Therefore it is rather suggested, that it was originally a part of the ceramic raw material.

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Chapter 4

SYNTHESIS OF KNOWLEDGE

In this chapter I try to answer the questions, which were asked in the beginning of this thesis and consequently suggest questions for further research.

4.1. CHARACTER OF WATER MANAGEMENT AT OXA

Water management at Oxa site could be characterized as a self-sufficient rainwater management system with water stored in cisterns. There is no natural surface source of water (i.e. spring or river) in the surrounding, and the higher altitude of the settlement did not allow digging wells, which make the rainwater management as the only strategy of water supply at Oxa site. At least 31 cisterns of various sizes and shapes have been identified during the past three survey seasons. These cisterns were further categorized in four groups:

a) Large rectangular structures b) Small rectangular structures c) Rounded structures d) Linear (channel-like) structures

The predominant type of cisterns at Oxa is a small rectangular structure (18 cisterns). The large rectangular structures are second most numerous (7 cisterns) and the rounded structures are quite rare (4 cisterns). The linear (surface channels) structures occurred sporadically but it is expected that more will be documented in the future research since the last seasons were not focusing on their location or documentation.

The large cisterns are pretty standardized structures positioned in the contour line of the hill, facing both N and S sides at the lowest altitude of the settlement borders. These structures were probably incorporated into the fortification wall, partly built in the steep

106 slope of the hill. Together they could hold minimally4 530 m3 of water. The large cisterns are massive stone structures, often with vaulted roof and enhanced with another level of stone masonry. We noticed that some of these large structures could be intentionally destroyed by making a hole in their lower part.

The small rectangular cisterns were built regardless of any pattern or rule throughout the site, although predominantly in the central part. Their minimum capacity is in total about 207 m3. Usually, they are underground or partially recessed stone or stone and brick structures. Some of them bear the remains of coverage but some were found without any traces of roof.

Three of four round structures are the smallest cisterns (less than 3 m in diameter) located in the natural terraces of the hill, lying on the rock wall. The fourth round structure is on the contrary one of the largest structure at a site (ca. 9 m in diameter) with division wall, partly built into the bedrock and its function remains unclear to us.

4.1.1. Interpretation of Cisterns’ Features

PLASTERS As stated above, the interior of tanks was lined with hydraulic plaster (with the enhanced corners and bottom edges) to prevent seepage. The lining was documented in all cisterns at Oxa regardless the size and shape of the structures. It could mean that all of the presented structures have been in operation during the last occupation phase of Oxa even though they might have been originally built in a different period. According to the survey, it seems that cisterns have not been used as refuse pits (the investigated structures were filled only with the remains of roofs or walls from the collapse of the structures). These observations indicate that the entire site was abandoned at one point while the cisterns were still functional. The sudden abandonment of the site could be explained with the end of Arab occupation of Crete in the 10th century when the inhabitants of Oxa could safely move back to the coastal zones. The rapid end of the site shows as well that the cistern water management utilized there was not the reason of the settlement’s existence but rather its result - the adaptation to unfavorable condition in order to survive.

4 The maximum depth could not be counted for each cistern because some of them were filled with collapsed stones. In these cases, we counted the minimum depth we could reach. 107

FILLING OF THE CISTERN The estimated minimal capacity of the rectangular cisterns is around 750 m3 and the anticipated annual precipitation on Crete is on average 900 mm. If we take into account only 10% of the amount of rainfall, the cisterns could be undoubtedly filled during the winter heavy rains. Unfortunately no closer reconstructions could be done at this point of research as we do not know the area for water catchment. The question is then how the cisterns at Oxa were filled.

The most effective method includes managing the surface runoff and using the natural slope of the hill, similarly as it was recorded in Aptera for L-shaped cistern. The large cisterns at Oxa are situated in the slope of the hill at the lowest point of the settlement borders. If there was a working system of channels throughout the site (for example like the remains of structure OXA0149A), it would be able to direct water collected on the roofs of the houses, from the surrounding surface or from the flat plattenkalk units on the highest part of the mountain into the cisterns. Filter tanks attached to OXA0214 and OXA0206 would settle the dirt from runoff before water reached the cisterns to ensure that it was not polluted. Stone channel structures (as known from Nofalias, Fig. 33) could direct water towards the cistern if there was no filter tank attached to the structure (for example in OXA0080, Fig. 44).

Cisterns OXA0259 and OXA0186 have possible supply channels leading water either from bedrock or from slope of the hill, suggesting that the cistern could be supplied directly from bedrock (although this theory requires the hydrogeological investigation) or from underground channels, whose existence could be confirmed only with a proper excavation. Smaller cisterns could be filled with a traditional way (as it is still done even today in the Mediterranean, for instance in Nofalias village, Fig. 33a) from rain collected on the rooftop directly led into the water tank located next or under the building. This is suggested for the cistern OXA0161 (Fig. 36) since it is situated under the remains of large structure and has plastered gutter (Fig. 45) in the corner to lead water inside. However, the supply method of other cisterns remains unclear and only study of other structures at Oxa will help understand this matter.

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CISTERNS AS A PREVENTION OF THE CROP DESTRUCTION? The successful utilization of surface runoff would be beneficial even if the main reason for the existence of Oxa site was the agriculture done on the slopes of the hill. The heavy winter rains are rather destructive for the countryside, resulting in erosion of the soil and extensive flooding (Bruun 2000a, 568). The effort to capture destructive rains to protect the crop and in the same time use the collected water in the times of summer water shortage for irrigation indicates a considerable level of awareness.

CISTERNS AS THE ONLY WATER SUPPLY? On the other hand, if we go back to the original assumption that the site was inhabited during the times of danger, the water from cisterns was the only option for the settlement’s supply and survival. This means that water from cisterns was used for all various needs, starting with drinking water, which demanded higher criteria for its purity. As stated in the subchapter 1.4.1.2., water from cisterns could be perfectly drinkable if treated carefully, for example with attaching of the filter tanks to the cistern. The structures should be as well cleaned and repaired regularly. The stairs documented in OXA0206 could be used for cleaning the structure when it was empty, and the bottom depression in OXA0184 could be explained as a silt catcher. Unfortunately we could reach the bottoms only in some of the small structures since the majority of cisterns are filled with collapsed roofs and requires excavation, which could eventually show other specific features regarding to the cleaning and maintaining of the cisterns.

SHAPE OF THE CISTERNS Both small and large rectangular structures correspond with what is expected in the Byzantine architecture, although some of the small structures do not bear any specific architectural features recognized for this period (i.e. OXA0080, OXA0018 or OXA0093). The purpose of the circular cisterns at Oxa site was not fully understood yet. Only three small and one large structure are documented. These are not very typical cisterns for Roman or Byzantine period. The small open-air cisterns could work as public water tanks situated along the road, for example to supply animals. The large oval cistern (OXA0259) is so far the biggest mystery for us (although in the Roman period the circular cisterns are not that rare). The division wall in the middle of the structure could be used as a support for the roof. However, this has to be verified with 109 the proper excavation. It is also a question whether the large structures were used only in the summer time of water shortage, while the smaller tanks could be utilized continuously during the whole year.

CISTERN’S OPENING AND OVERFLOW It remains unclear how water was drawn from the cisterns at Oxa. It is supposed that the small cisterns could be reached from the pavement level but different method had to be designed for the large structures. Usually a small closable opening was made in the roof of the structure to reach water (as we known it e.g. from Nofalias, Fig. 30). Similarly, no overflow mechanism was recognized although it is expected as an inseparable part of every cistern.

4.2. SETTLEMENT STRATEGIES OF OXA SITE BASED ON THE

STUDY OF WATER MANAGEMENT

Due to the absence of absolute data, cisterns are dated to the Byzantine period according to the pottery analysis on the surface around and typical architectural features. Dominating rectangular cisterns with vaulted roofs and hydraulic plaster coating cisterns’ interior corresponds with a tradition of Roman building techniques, reminding for example the L-shape cistern from Aptera, Kastro Apalirou, Mochlos or Areti Monastery. The majority of the pottery sherds found on the surface of Oxa Mountain are assigned with the Early Byzantine period (phase 2), which therefore suggests that the cisterns were in operation during this era. Although there is the evidence of Late Minoan and Hellenistic activities at the site (several kernoi and pottery sherds on the surface), any of the studied cisterns could be linked with these periods according to their physical appearance. However, the Hellenistic cistern could be expected in the saddle between two highest peaks (as it is a tradition in other Hellenistic sites on Crete, e.g. in Dreros or Lato) where the Orthodox Church is built today but unfortunately no real evidence exists for this theory without the excavation (which is impossible due to the position of the church).

The chronological issues could be further clarified with understanding of the historical development of the study area. The constant attacks from Slavs and Arabs in the

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7th century AD could force people living in the coastal regions of Mirabello Bay to search for safer places to live. The Oxa Mountain, an orientation point for the whole region with strategical position could be preferred as the refuge for another time (the Late Minoan site located on top of the mountain was chosen as a defensible site from 1200 to 800 BC). We do not exclude the possibility of resettling Oxa in the Hellenistic period because of the hostilities existing in the region although it is hard to prove without the proper excavation. The site could be resettled once again when Venetians took over Crete in 1204 AD. A number of rebellions have been reported against the newly established rule and the Lasithi region was a center for rebels. The Venetians in fact banned settling in the eastern Crete to avoid the congregation of protestors and might even destroy selected sites, which Oxa as an independent site with sufficient water management definitely represented. Hence we can interpret the holes in the large cisterns as the intentional destruction interventions in order to prevent settling at this site.

Following this regard, Oxa could be compared with another sites located on the Aegean islands, for example Chora on Amorgos or Kastro Apalirou on Naxos. Their settlement strategy seems particularly similar with Oxa site. Chora and Kastro were founded during the times of danger coming from sea riders in the 7th century AD. They are both located on the naturally fortified hilltops without any source of surface water, which led the inhabitants to build effective cistern water management system to survive. About 50 rectangular cisterns have been identified in Kastro Apalirou, including large communal cisterns situated at the lowest part of the site and incorporated into the fortification wall. The demise of the settlement is linked with the Venetian rule over the island in order to control all cities; they intentionally destroyed the cisterns by cutting a hole into the masonry.

According to the survey prospections at Oxa, the most probable scenario explaining the existence of its inhabitation during the Early Byzantine period is linked with the historical events taking place in the Mediterranean in the same time. The cistern water management, existing within the same inhabitation phase, is the result of adaptation on the natural environment including no surface water sources, dry summers with zero precipitation and steep slopes of the hill directing water from rains to the point of selection.

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4.3. FUTURE RESEARCH

Although so much can be concluded based on the results of the survey prospection, it is evident from the previous paragraphs that we are at the same time limited in the understanding of individual cisterns and their function. Therefore the proper excavation of the site is required, altogether with interdisciplinary cooperation with other field of studies. The excavation at a site could consequently answer questions like:

1. Is it possible to establish the archaeological stratigraphy at Oxa?  When the cisterns were built?  Is it possible to determine whether they were in use at the same time?  How many construction phases the cisterns have (or: is there any Hellenistic or Minoan cistern)?  Were the cisterns intentionally destroyed at the end of the inhabitation phase?  Can we identify other contexts like houses, paved roads or squares?

2. What are the other architectural structures at Oxa?  What was their relation with cisterns?  Is it possible to distinguish between private and public space at Oxa, if there was any?  Could the roofs of the houses or paved roads be used as a catchment area for rain in order to supply the cisterns?  Can we differentiate between large and small structures and consider different possibilities of their usage?

3. How were the individual cisterns supplied?  Is it possible to track the surface water channels or cut-off ditches?  Are there any underground channels / pipes to supply cisterns from another source of water?  Was it possible to supply cisterns directly from bedrock5?

5 This requires cooperation with hydrogeologists. 112

 Is it also possible to reconstruct the water management system, i.e. to find out how many people could use the cisterns, how much water could be captured from rains, how long water lasted in the cistern and what purposes they serve for?  Was there any kind of overflow mechanism in the cisterns?

4. The study of the plasters and mortars bears a great potential and could answer following questions:  Is it possible to compare samples from historic and modern plasters at Oxa?  What is different in their composition?  Where is the material contained in the plasters coming from?  Is it possible to do other analysis (e.g. hydraulic properties, ratio between

CO2 and H2O, or determining the pozzolanic activity)?  Could it be further compared with other plaster samples from the cisterns on Crete (and from other regions)?

5. To confirm the theory that people moved into the mountains for safety reasons during the times of danger, it could be expected that:  Are there similar sites like Oxa on Crete?  What was the status of Oxa in context of this wider region (i.e. was Oxa special or ‘one of many’)?

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Chapter 5

CONCLUSION

The Oxa Project has been established to explore very interesting settlement located on the top of Oxa Mountain on Crete. It was not any secret that there is an archaeological site on the hill since its architectural remains were visible far and wide as the mountain is a good orientation point in the western part of Mirabello Bay. However, it seems that no one showed deeper interest to examine this settlement systematically.

The first effort to characterize the site in the context of wider region was done by Nowicki who listed Oxa among the so called defensible sites of LM IIIC, according to the study of pottery sherds densely covering the site’s surface. Nevertheless, the plentiful architectural remains found throughout the entire site are more prominent features to be study. The best preserved structures were identified as cisterns. Based on the evaluation of their construction technique, the rectangular structures with the remains of vaulted roofs could be hardly related with the Late Minoan architecture. Thus the major attempt to understand the multiple settlement phases was done in 2012 within the frame of project searching for potential Byzantine fortified sites on Crete. After the preliminary survey conducted by Věra Klontza and her team, it was decided that this site bears a good study perspective to clarify poorly understood phases of the Byzantine period on Crete.

In 2013, the first systematic research at Oxa site conducted by Masaryk University began. The aim was to document all visible archaeological remains and demonstrate how much can be concluded just with ‘simple’ survey prospections.

I joined the The Oxa Project team in 2017 and focused in detail on the cisterns. It was necessary to start with the basic identification of cisterns’ physical features and therefore all possible data collected in the previous survey seasons (2013-2014) were drawn together in a database in order to classify them in some way. The spatial data for each cistern were visualized in form of a site map (Fig. 35).Moreover, in the last season

114 of prospection, 14 structures were carefully selected to represent Oxa water management system. Additional information was noted (e.g. the structure’s altitude, orientation, or the observation of any kind of peculiarities) and the structures were properly photographed and drawn. The samples of inner lining of the cisterns were removed to be analyzed later in order to find out their composition and properties. The investigated cisterns were classified according to their physical features into four groups. The output of season 2017 is the catalogue of selected structures related to water management (Appendix C).

However, the aim of this thesis was to understand the settlement strategies of Oxa site based on the study of local water management. In order to accomplish this task, it was essential to understand the history and natural environments of the region. Therefore the opening chapters briefly introduce the historical background of the Mirabello Bay as well as its geology, hydrogeology and climate condition. These subchapters are followed with the characterization of water management and further with the analysis of cisterns on Crete and other comparable sites in the Mediterranean. The thesis includes a small ethnographic research on cisterns conducted as well in 2017 in order to find out additional information about the cisterns’ function to understand them correctly.

Due to the lack of absolute data, it is difficult to establish the exact year of construction of the cisterns. But together with the results of the pottery analysis, it was possible to present that inhabitation phase at Oxa site when the cisterns were in operation. Concluding the chapter 4, all of the assessed cisterns were in use during the last stage of settlement’s existence. The site was abandoned at one point and the cisterns were left to decay. This indicates that no matter how the water management was developed and functional, the inhabitants had significant reasons to leave the site immediately they could. Although it is generally accepted that cistern water management is one of the most sufficient and renewable water supply (especially in the Mediterranean climate condition with dry summers and without the abundance of surface water sources), the Oxa site rather served as a temporary refuge for people in times of need.

In the scope of the history, the danger coming from the sea raiders in the 7th century to Arab occupation of Crete during the 9th to 10th centuries AD could be most likely related to our assumption about the existence of the site on top of Oxa Mountain during

115 the Early Byzantine period. From this point of view, the population living in the coastal zones moved for safety reasons to the mountains, choosing strategical positions and naturally defensible sites, adapting on the nature condition (by building effective rainwater supply) in order to survive. When the times of danger passed, nothing forced people to continue living in tough conditions and they returned back to the coastal regions.

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Chapter 6

RESUMÉ

Projekt Oxa byl založen, aby bylo možné prozkoumat obzvláště zajímavou lokalitu nacházející se na vrcholku hory Oxa v zálivu Mirabello na Krétě. Existence této lokality nebyla nikdy žádným tajemstvím, ať už pro archeology nebo pro místní obyvatele. Architektonických reliktů si bylo možné všimnout pouhým okem, neboť hora Oxa slouží jako dobrý orientační bod pro celou oblast, a nepřehlédnutelné masivní kamenné struktury jsou na lokalitě dobře zachovány. Nicméně se zdá, že po dlouhou dobu nikdo nejevil zájem lokalitu systematicky prozkoumat a pochopit tak důvod její existence.

Existuje řada zmínek o existenci této už od 19. století v cestovatelských denících i archeologických publikacích, ale první relativně řádný povrchový průzkum proběhl až v roce 2000, kdy Krzysztof Nowicki označil Oxu jako pozdně minojskou lokalitu defenzivního charakteru, a předběžně prozkoumal keramické střepy, které hojně pokrývají povrch lokality. I přesto ale neprojevil zájem o pozůstatky kamenných staveb, které lokalitě přeci jen dominují. Ty nejlépe dochované stavby byly identifikovány jako cisterny. Na základě architektonických stylů se zdá nepravděpodobné, že by tyto obdélné stavby se zbytky klenutých střech souvisely s pozdně minojským obdobím. A tak první opravdový pokus o pochopení existence této lokality přišel až v roce 2012. V rámci nového projektu zkoumající potencionální byzantské fortifikace na Krétě byla lokalita znovu navštívena. Tato předběžná prospekce provedená Věrou Klontzou a jejím malým týmem vyústila v rozhodnutí, že je Oxa velice perspektivní lokalitou, jejíž studium by mohlo primárně vést k pochopení některých málo prozkoumaných fází byzantského období na Krétě.

V roce 2013 začaly první systematické prospekce provedené týmem odborníků i studentů z Masarykovy univerzity v Brně. Hlavním cílem bylo zdokumentovat všechny viditelné archeologické pozůstatky a demonstrovat tak, že i pouhou povrchovou prospekcí se dá objasnit mnoho otázek. Osobně jsem se připojila k tomuto projektu až v roce 2017 s cílem věnovat se čistě cisternám a vodnímu hospodářství. Z počátku bylo

117 důležité charakterizovat kamenné struktury a nějakým způsobem je identifikovat. Data, která byla posbíraná v předchozích sezónách, bylo třeba utřídit v databázi, aby se s nimi dalo dále pracovat. Prostorová data byla následně vizualizována formou schematického plánu lokality (Fig. 35). Cisterny a kanály byly následně klasifikovány do 4 skupin na základě jejich fyzických rysů. V roce 2017 bylo z celkového počtu nálezů pečlivě vybráno 14 struktur, které reprezentují vodní hospodářství lokality Oxa. V poslední prospekční sezóně byly následně zaznamenány jejich doplňující informace (např. nadmořská výška, orientace nebo sledování jakýchkoliv výjimečností), a zároveň byly vybrané stavby řádně vyfotografovány a zakresleny. Byly odebrány vzorky vnitřních výmazů cisteren, které byly později analyzovány za účelem zjištění jejich složení a hydraulických vlastností. Výsledkem sezóny 2017 je přehledný katalog, který je přiložen na konci této práce (Appendix C).

Podstatným cílem této práce bylo pochopení sídlištních strategií lokality Oxa založené na studiu vodního hospodářství. Aby bylo možné splnit zadání, bylo třeba zabývat se i na první pohled méně relevantními záležitostmi, jako je např. historický vývoj zkoumané oblasti nebo její přírodní prostředí. Počáteční kapitoly se stručně věnují právě těmto okruhům. Pro zařazení lokality Oxa do kontextu Středomoří bylo nutné vyhledat relevantní analogie. Proto jsou další kapitoly věnované všeobecné charakterizaci vodního hospodářství, stejně jako podrobnému rozboru cisteren na Krétě. V případě, že nebylo možné najít uspokojivé paralely na Krétě, byly uvedeny příklady z jiných oblastí Egejského moře. Tato diplomová práce také obsahuje velice stručný etnografický průzkum za účelem doplnění informací o fungování cisteren, abychom je mohli správně pochopit.

Z důvodu chybějících absolutních dat je těžké určit přesnou dataci cisteren. Společně s výsledky rozboru keramických střepů bylo ale možné představit základní chronologický rámec osídlení Oxy, kdy byly cisterny v provozu. Závěrem bylo konstatováno, že cisterny byly s největší pravděpodobností stále v provozu, když byla lokalita opuštěna a teprve poté byly ponechány osudu. To naznačuje, že ať už byl systém vodního hospodaření na Oxe jakkoliv efektivní, lidé měli jiný důvod, proč své sídliště opustit. Charakter této lokality je tedy spíše jednofázový. Sídliště bylo sice osídlené v několika obdobích, vždy ale výlučně jako krátkodobé útočiště pro lidi v době nouze.

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Z historického hlediska tato tvrzení odpovídají časům, kdy bylo Egejské moře pleněno mořskými piráty v 7. století n. l., a následně době, kdy byla Kréta pod správou Arabů. Kvůli těmto nepříznivým okolnostem se lidé žijící v pobřežních oblastech stáhli do relativně bezpečnějších hor, kde se ale zároveň museli podřídit těžším životním podmínkám, protože tato lokalita neměla žádné přirozené vodní zdroje. Když Arabové byli z Kréty v 10. století n. l. vyhnáni, lidé už neměli žádný důvod na lokalitě sestávat a vrátili se zpět do pobřežních oblastí.

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LIST OF FIGURES, TABLES AND GRAPHS

FIGURES Fig. 1 Geological map of Crete (Zachariasse et al. 2011, 681, Fig. 2)...... 18 Fig. 2 Geological map of Mirabello Bay with Mt. Oxa marked in the map (Agios Nikolaos sheet from Geological map of Greece 1: 50 000 by Greek Institute Of Geology and Mineral exploration; edited by Adam Geisler)...... 19 Fig. 3 (a) Map showing main carbonate rocks (karst regions) on Crete with springs and streamflow gauging stations (A: White Mountainous; B: Idi; C: Dikti; D: Sitia); (b) map of the main river basins (Malago et al. 2016, 66, Fig. 1)...... 20 Fig. 4 Average precipitation amount and rainy days in Elounda region, Crete (World weather online ©2018)...... 22 Fig. 5 Average month precipitation over Crete (Malago et al. 2016, 76, Fig. 9)...... 23 Fig. 6 Reconstruction of climate over Crete in the past 10 000 years (Markonis et al. 2016, 143, Fig. 4)...... 23 Fig. 7 Minoan cisterns from (a) Myrtos-Pyrgos and (b) Zakro (Mays 2014, 40, Fig. 1)...... 31 Fig. 8 Hellenistic cisterns located in (a) Lato and (b) rock-cut cistern in Polyrrhenia (Mays et al. 2013, 1922, Fig. 6)...... 33 Fig. 9 Hellenistic cisterns in Eleutherna. (a) Flask-shaped (Guy - Matheron 1994, 33, Tab. 1-3, Fig. 1) and (b) rock cut cisterns (Dialynas - Angelakis ©2017, Fig. 2)...... 33 Fig. 10 Distribution of Roman aqueducts on Crete (Kelly 2004b, 316, Fig. 2)...... 35 Fig. 11 Three-aisled cistern from Aptera, interior (Grizis 2014, 10, Fig. 1.8)...... 36 Fig. 12 L-shaped Roman cistern from Aptera. (a) photo of the longest part with supporting wall in the middle; (b) drawing of the cistern (Grizis 2014, 14, Fig. 1.13 and 1.14)...... 37 Fig. 13 Circular cistern from Minoa (Marathi) in western Crete (Markonis et al. 2016, 147, Fig. 8b)...... 37 Fig. 14 Cistern in (a) Chersonissos (Kelly 2004a, Plate 7a) and (b) Kastelliana (Kelly 2004a, Plate 11b)...... 38 Fig. 15 Distribution of Early Byzantine sites on Crete (Tsigonaki - Sarris 2014, 5, Fig. 4)...... 41

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Fig. 16 Cisterns from the Byzantine period, (a) Areti Monastery (Markonis et al. 2016, 148, Fig. 9) and (b) Mochlos cistern (Kelly 2004a, Plate 80b)...... 42 Fig. 17 Cistern-fountain structures in Gortyn. (a) Cistern from one side and (b) fountain on exterior of the same cistern (Giorgi 2007, 304-305, Fig. 7b and 7c)...... 42 Fig. 18 Scheme of Venetian filtered cisterns (Mays et al. 2013, 1931, Fig. 17a)...... 43 Fig. 19 Ottoman circular cisterns. (a) Cistern built for military purposes by Ottoman army in Turkey (Mays 2014, 45, Fig. 12) and (b) the scheme of circular cistern and its water supply from rain falling on the roof of the structure (Yannopulous 2017a, 1030, Fig. 9b)...... 44 Fig. 20 (a) Filter tank located next to the flask-shape cistern in Olynthos (photograph by author) and (b) bottom depression shown in the same cistern (Klingborg 2017, 421, ID 292)...... 46 Fig. 21 Different pipes leading water from aqueduct in Gortyn. The lower are Roman pipes called tubuli and the upper Byzantine spatheia (Giorgi 2007, 310, Fig.10)...... 47 Fig. 22 (a) A public fountain from Pompeii; rectangular plain structure. The bottom and especially the edges are bevelled with plaster (Adam 1994, 257, Fig. 599). (b) A small cistern located on Roman forum in Thessaloniki, covered with plaster. The cistern has a bottom depression (photograph by author)...... 48 Fig. 23 Vaulted communal cistern in Chora, Amorgos (Antoniou 2009, 5, Fig. 6)...... 50 Fig. 24 Vaulted cistern of irregular shape in Pigadia, Amorgos (Antoniou 2009, 7, Fig. 12)...... 50 Fig. 25 Site plan of Kastro Apalirou. The cisterns are marked in blue color (Hill et al. 2017, 287, Fig. 3)...... 51 Fig. 26 Examples of cisterns at Kastro Apalirou: (a) large cistern situated within the fortification wall, (b) small vaulted cistern (after Hydria Project ©2009)...... 52 Fig. 27 Distribution of selected cisterns through time on Crete. Yellow: Minoan, Red: Hellenistic, Green: Roman, Black: Byzantine, Purple: Venetian, White: Multiple periods...... 58 Fig. 28 Mirabello Bay, Oxa Mountain, Crete (source of the map: Google maps)...... 63 Fig. 29 Nofalias. Partially recessed cistern located on the street, with filter tank and vaulted roof (photograph by author)...... 77 Fig. 30 Nofalias. Cistern located on the street. Detail of filter tank leading water to the cistern and opening on the top of the roof to reach water (photograph by author)...... 78

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Fig. 31 Nofalias. Underground cistern with circular opening and stone basin for amphorae (photograph by author)...... 78 Fig. 32 Collection of water through rooftops leading into underground cistern (a) Nofalias (photograph by author); (b) Aegean islands (Gikas - Angelakis 2009, 1054, Fig. 3)...... 79 Fig. 33 Nofalias. Channel leading water to the large cistern (photograph by author). .. 79 Fig. 34 Oxa Mountain. White line defines the settlement borders (source of the map: Google maps, edited by author)...... 81 Fig. 35 Schematic site map of Oxa site with depiction of 31 structures related to water management (created by author)...... 82 Fig. 36 OXA0161: Smaller water structure attached to a larger one (photo copyright by The Oxa Project)...... 88 Fig. 37 OXA0040: The combination of stone, brick and bedrock wall in the small cistern (photo copyright by The Oxa Project)...... 89 Fig. 38 OXA0206: Massive stone reinforcement of the large structure (photo copyright by The Oxa Project)...... 89 Fig. 39 (a) OXA0040: A detail of brick layer in the interior of the cistern. (b) OXA0208: The ceramic material interlacing the stones in the mortar (photo copyright by The Oxa Project)...... 90 Fig. 40 OXA0093: Rounded, partially recessed open-air structure (photo copyright by The Oxa Project)...... 91 Fig. 41 OXA0250: Large structure position in the steep slope of the hill. The remains of domed roof are still visible (photo copyright by The Oxa Project)...... 92 Fig. 42 OXA0186: Detail of possible supply channel in the back of the cistern and the remains of the dome roof (photo copyright by The Oxa Project)...... 93 Fig. 43 OXA0259: Detail of possible supply channel in the back of the cistern (photo copyright by The Oxa Project)...... 93 Fig. 44 OXA0080: Exterior supply channel (photo copyright by The Oxa Project)...... 94 Fig. 45 OXA0161: Plastered corner probably to lead water from the rooftop towards cistern (photo copyright by The Oxa Project)...... 94 Fig. 46 Cisterns rebuilt as a shepherd hut: (a) OXA0001 and (b) OXA0186 with door opening and dry masonry wall extension (photo copyright by The Oxa Project)...... 95 Fig. 47 OXA0215: A hole in the lower part of the cistern (photo copyright by The Oxa Project)...... 96

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Fig. 48 OXA0208: A hole in the lower part of the cistern, which has been repaired later (photo copyright by The Oxa Project)...... 96 Fig. 49 OXA0259: Division wall with a vaulted opening in the middle and beam holes (photo copyright by The Oxa Project)...... 97 Fig. 50 OXA0206: Detail of staircase or bench inside of the cistern (photo copyright by The Oxa Project)...... 98 Fig. 51 OXA0214: Another example of filter tank attached to the larger structure (photo copyright by The Oxa Project)...... 98 Fig. 52 Two parallel stones, which might serve as a surface channel (photo copyright by The Oxa Project)...... 99 Fig. 53 OXA0149A: Possible surface channel (photo copyright by The Oxa Project). . 99 Fig. 54 OXA0184: Plaster documented in situ from a section (photo copyright by The Oxa Project)...... 100 Fig. 55 OXA0184: Plaster documented in situ (front view) (photo copyright by The Oxa Project)...... 101 Fig. 56 OXA0184: Samples of plaster and mortar removed for analyses (photograph by Vojtěch Nosek)...... 101 Fig. 57 OXA0184: Plaster covering the bottom, the bottom depression and rounded corners (photo copyright by The Oxa Project)...... 102 Fig. 58 OXA0184: Enhanced corners and bottom edges with plaster (photo copyright by The Oxa Project)...... 103 Fig. 59 Analyzed sample from cistern OXA0161 (photograph by Vojtěch Nosek). .... 104

TABLES Table 1 Rainfall and rainy days for Elounda region, Crete in 2018...... 22 Table 2 Simplified types of water management and their use according to the availability of primary water source...... 25 Table 3 Simplified overview of Cretan cistern development and the specific features for each period...... 54 Table 4 Different contexts recognized at Oxa site and their quantity...... 66 Table 5 Description of the database of Oxa archaeological remains...... 71 Table 6 Summary of documented pottery fragments and their description (Klontza- Jaklová et al., in press)...... 74

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Table 7 Chronological scale for Mirabello Bay, Crete, according to the results of Priniatikos Pyrgos stratigraphies (Klontza-Jaklová 2015, 139, Tab. 2)...... 76 Table 8 Dimensions and shapes of 31 water structures documented at Oxa throughout the seasons 2013-2017...... 83 Table 9 The selected water structures documented in 2017 season...... 86

GRAPHS Graph 1 Representation of water structures at Oxa in % according to their shape...... 84 Graph 2 The scatter of rectangular water structures at Oxa according to their shape and size creates two groups - small (red) and large (green) rectangular structures (graph by Petr Pajdla)...... 85 Graph 3 Representation of water structures at Oxa in % according to their shape and size...... 85

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APPENDIX A

Glossary

Presented thesis deals with an amount of specific terms to describe and discuss plasters and mortars of the building constructions in the Ancient and Middle Age Mediterranean in order to find the key aspects of their functionality. Therefore, I am including a brief glossary of specific terms used in this thesis:

Aggregate – “Granular material used in construction. Aggregates may be, either processed from natural materials such as rock, gravel, sand, or recycled materials or manufactured materials such as slag” (Smith and Collis 1993).

Binder – “Any soil or aggregate cementing agent, e.g. water, clay, cement, lime, bitumen, synthetic resins” (Smith and Collis 1993).

Biotite – “A dark-coloured iron-bearing member of the mica group of rock forming minerals. Biotite occurs as an original constituent of many igneous and metamorphic rocks” (Smith and Collis 1993).

Carbonate rocks – “A generic term for rocks formed predominantly from the carbonates of calcium, magnesium, iron etc., occurring either singly or in combination. Limestone (calcium carbonate) is the most familiar example” (Smith and Collis 1993).

Clast – “A rock fragment; commonly applied to a fragment of pre-existing rock included in a younger sediment” (Smith and Collis 1993).

Fabric – “The physical arrangement and orientation of particles or minerals in a rock which characterizes its texture and structure either on a visible or microscopic scale” (Smith and Collis 1993).

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Hydraulic plaster – „In the context of mortar and plaster this term refers to the nature of the lime produced by burning limestone containing quantities of silica and alumina, which can set under water and or have water resisting properties” (Morgan 1992).

Lime – “Quick lime is calcium oxide made by heating limestone above 900ºC. Slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) is the product of the reaction between quick lime and water” (Smith and Collis 1993).

Mica – “A member of the layered-lattice silicate (including muscovite and biotite) group characterized by very strong cleavage” (Smith and Collis 1993).

Mortar – “A cementitious material of lime and cement and mineral or rock particles used to bond bricks or stones together” (Jackson – Oleson 2014). In case of Oxa, we define ‘mortar’ as the coarse layer of inner lining on the walls and as well between the stones and/or bricks, i.e. as the structural mortar.

Muscovite – “A light coloured member of the mica (q.v.) group of rock forming minerals” (Smith and Collis 1993).

Non-hydraulic limes – “Derived from limestone which does not contain clay or other reactive silicates. The best and purest forms of non-hydraulic limes are made from limestone containing very high proportions of calcium carbonate (Edwards 2005).

Plaster – “A lime (or gypsum) based material used to provide a smooth surface to the wall” (Jackson – Oleson 2014). In case of Oxa, we define ‘plaster’ as the fine pinkish layer of inner lining of the cistern.

Pozzolana – “Naturally occurring deposits which, when finely ground, combine chemically with hydrated limes at normal temperatures and so can be used in mortars” (Smith and Collis 1993). “In the archaeological literature, a type of powdery, pumiceous, incoherent volcanic ash erupted” (Jackson – Oleson 2014).

Pumice – “A light-coloured highly vesicular glassy volcanic rock commonly of rhyolitic composition” (Smith and Collis 1993).

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