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Mtui Devolent R.Pdf EVALUATING LANDSCAPE AND WILDLIFE CHANGES OVER TIME IN TANZANIA’S PROTECTED AREAS A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI‘I AT MĀNOA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN NATURAL RESOURCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT DECEMBER 2014 By Devolent Tomas Mtui Dissertation committee: Christopher A. Lepczyk, Chairperson Qi Chen Linda Cox Tomoaki Miura Norman Owen-Smith Andrew Taylor Keywords: Wildlife, Protected areas, National Park Dedication: To my beloved mother Maria Aminiel Mrai for showing me the light of the world. It is sad that you didn’t live long enough to witness my education and life achievements. To my loving and caring father, Tomas Kirimia Mtui, for encouraging me to pursue graduate studies, and supporting me throughout this dissertation journey. My step-mother Subira Njaala, and my siblings Norah, Hazel, Hellen, Onasia, Engerasia, Nancy, Kirimia and Anderson, for your love and prayers. Luc Leblanc, my husband and best friend for your love and caring. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to all the good people who provided me with genuine support throughout the time of writing this dissertation. In addition to members of my dissertation committee, I am grateful to the following people at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, who were not members of the dissertation committee, but gave their priceless time to help me: Dr. Travis Idol (Department of Natural Resource and Environmental Management) who kindly provided access to the FLAASH software, used for atmospheric correction of the satellite images used in this research; Dr. Orou Gaoe (Department of Botany), Dr. Russell Yost (Department of Tropical Plant and Soil Sciences), and Dr. Ronald Heck (Department of Educational Administration) for support with statistical analysis, and advice on various analytical approaches; Dr. Luc Leblanc (Department of Plant and Environmental Protection Sciences) for huge assistance in the field and grammatical edits of my drafts of this dissertation. I am thankful to the following institutions who without them I wouldn’t have been able to achieve this work: USGS Earth Resources Observation and Science Center for providing Landsat satellite images used for analysis of land cover; Tanzania National Parks Headquarters in Arusha Tanzania, for granting a research permit to obtain ground Truthing data for the analysis of the satellite images at Tarangire, Ruaha and Katavi National Parks; the management teams and ecology department of the three national parks, and particularly James Wakibara and Abel Mtui (Tarangire), Houston Njamasi and Davis Mushi (Katavi), and Stephano Qolli and Paul Banga (Ruaha), who kindly provided logistic information and accommodation. Joseph Mhina (Game Ranger, KNP) and iii Samuel Mareju (Game Ranger, Ruaha) provided safety keeping from wild animals during the course of field work; Richard Ndaskoi (Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (TAWIRI) and Yusuff Mkwanga (Morogoro) who safely drove us around during the field work. I am grateful to the management teams of Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute - Tanzania Wildlife Conservation Monitoring (TAWIRI-CIMU) for providing the wildlife count survey data used in this study. Particularly, I thank TAWIRI-CIMU’s Director General, Dr. Simon Mduma, the Head of CIMU Mr. H. Maliti, and CIMU’s database manager, Mr. Machoke Mwita, for their support during the process of securing the data. I am grateful to Richard Ogoshi and Richard Kablan (Department of Tropical Plant and Soil Sciences) for providing me with a part time job, under the Jatropha project. I would like to thanks my great friends and family friends for their support, encouragement and cheering me up all the time I was down: Kiran Sagoo, Hang Nguyen, Louise Lo, Ilse Layau, Bonnie Tolson, Gaoussou Diarra, Angela Nyaki, the Harris family particularly Betty-Jo, Ernest and Tanya Harris, Nancy Wond and Charles Huxel, Rudolph Putoa, Aubert Ruzigandekwe and Faïna Iligoga, Roger Vargas, Fr. Leonard Ssempija, Mark and Joan Helbling, and the family of Lutheran Church of Honolulu. My colleagues at the University of Dar es Salaam: Kim Howell, Wirlik Ngalason, and Henry Ndangalasi for their support with advice, and field equipment, and identification of types of vegetation cover respectively. I am indebted to my father, step mother, siblings (to whom this dissertation is dedicated) for the love and prayers all these years of being away from the family. My new family: Monique Desroches, Laure Leblanc, Lorne Ross, Pierre Leblanc, Francois iv Leblanc, Marie DeBrienne, Christina Lavergne-Leblanc, Jean-Philippe, Violette and William Labelle for their love and kindness. Luc Leblanc, thank you for who you are to me! This study would not have been achieved without financial support from the International Ford Foundation Fellowship Program Tanzania (IFP-Tanzania), in collaboration with the East-West Centre (EWC) at Honolulu, Hawai‘i in United States of America. v ABSTRACT Declines in wildlife and their habitats associated with land cover changes are documented worldwide. Wildlife protected areas are established as a strategy to maintain and protect viable wildlife populations. International and national policies and regulations are set-forth in countries across the globe to emphasize wildlife species protection. Tanzania has allocated 26.5% (250,425 km2) of its total land area for wildlife protection, and its government established in 1998 a National Wildlife Policy to ensure the maintenance of viable protected areas and survival of important species, habitat and ecosystems. After more than a decade of its implementation, the level and rate of anthropogenic activities experienced in and around protected areas, and the consequent declines of wildlife species, was expected to be reduced to a minimum. Yet, recent studies show that degradation and isolation of wildlife habitats and declines in species populations continue to occur in Tanzanian protected areas. I evaluated changes in landscape and wildlife in three protected areas in Tanzania from the 1980s to the 2010s. Specifically, we investigated changes in land cover and species abundance over time, inside and outside the protected areas, and determined the effects of changes in the types of land cover on wildlife abundance. First, I used Maximum Likelihood classification procedure to derive land cover classes from Landsat TM and ETM+ satellite images of the 1980s, 1990s and 2010s, and to detect changes using post-classification comparison technique and landscape metrics approach. Second, I analysed animal density data for six species or groups of large herbivores, from 1991 to 2012. Thirdly, I evaluated the effect of land cover change on three species of large herbivores. vi The results show evidence of loss and degradation of types of land covers utilized by large herbivores. Habitats for large herbivores species have shrunken, inside and outside protected areas, resulting in declines of large herbivore populations. Wildlife protected areas in Tanzania appear not effective in protecting and maintaining wildlife populations and their habitats. As a result, revision of the existing wildlife policy is needed in order to come up with techniques that could assist protected areas achieve their intended goal. vii LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1. Definition of land cover classes as identified at the Tarangire (TNP) and Katavi (KNP) National Parks. Table 2.2. Error matrix of the classification map derived from the 2009 and 2011 Landsat TM images of TNP and KNP and adjacent areas. Table 2.3. Determining land cover trends over the past 20 years in KNP and TNP. Table 2.4. Overall estimates for open shrubland and barren land which was observed to have significant change in amount of coverage over time. Table 2.5. Land covers change (km2) inside TNP from 1988 to 1999 and from 1999 to 2009. Table 2.6. Land covers change (km2) outside TNP from 1988 to 1999 and from 1999 to 2009. Table 2.7. Land covers change (km2) inside the KNP from 1984 to 1999 from 1999 to 2011. Table 2.8. Land cover change (km2) outside the KNP from 1984 to 1999 from 1999 to 2011. Table 3.1: Large herbivore species recorded in Ruaha-Rungwa, Katavi-Rukwa and Tarangire protected areas. Table 3.2: General Linear Model (GLM) analysis of results on temporal changes on average densities of large herbivores in Katavi, Ruaha and Tarangire protected areas. Table 3.3: Estimates of changes in mean density (Indiv/km2) for species observed to have changed significantly over time in Table 2 above. viii Table 3.4: General Linear Model (GLM) analysis results on temporal changes on number of cells occupied by large herbivores in Katavi, Ruaha and Tarangire protected areas. Table 3.5: Estimates of changes in mean number of cells occupied by large herbivores observed to have changed significantly over time in Table 4 above. Table 4.1: Large herbivore species recorded by TAWIRI in KNP and TNP. ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1. The map of Tanzania showing location of the study sites KNP and TNP. Figure 2.2. Total annual rainfall and average annual recorded in KNP and TNP. Figure 2.3. Land cover maps of TNP and KNP and their adjacent areas. Figure 3.1. The three wildlife protected areas covered in this study: Katavi-Rukwa (A) Ruaha- Rungwa (B) and Tarangire (C) protected areas. Figure 3.2. Annual rainfall for Katavi (A) Ruaha (B) and Tarangire (C) wildlife ecosystems. Figure 3.3: Scatter plots showing Log10 (n+1) transformed density of large herbivores over time in Katavi, Ruaha and Tarangire protected areas. Figure 3.4: Scatter plots showing number of grid cells occupied by large herbivores over time, in Katavi, Ruaha and Tarangire protected areas. Figure 3.5: Bar chart showing average densities of elephant from 1991 to 2012 in Katavi, Ruaha and Tarangire protected areas. Figure 4.3. Land cover change detection in Tarangire National park using class area metric. Figure 4.4. Land cover change detection in Katavi National park using class area metric.
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