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Geographies of Hope Amid a Sea of Oil Palms in the Northwest Ecuadorian Pacific Region Julianne A

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Geographies of Hope Amid a Sea of Oil Palms in the Northwest Ecuadorian Pacific Region Julianne A This article was downloaded by: [Julianne Hazlewood] On: 07 February 2012, At: 15:05 Publisher: Taylor & Francis Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Journal of Sustainable Forestry Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wjsf20 CO2lonialism and the “Unintended Consequences” of Commoditizing Climate Change: Geographies of Hope Amid a Sea of Oil Palms in the Northwest Ecuadorian Pacific Region Julianne A. Hazlewood a a Department of Geography, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA Available online: 30 Jan 2012 To cite this article: Julianne A. Hazlewood (2012): CO2lonialism and the “Unintended Consequences” of Commoditizing Climate Change: Geographies of Hope Amid a Sea of Oil Palms in the Northwest Ecuadorian Pacific Region, Journal of Sustainable Forestry, 31:1-2, 120-153 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10549811.2011.566539 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Journal of Sustainable Forestry,31:120–153,2012 Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 1054-9811 print/1540-756X online DOI: 10.1080/10549811.2011.566539 CO2lonialism and the “Unintended Consequences” of Commoditizing Climate Change: Geographies of Hope Amid a Sea of Oil Palms in the Northwest Ecuadorian Pacific Region JULIANNE A. HAZLEWOOD Department of Geography, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA Reduction of greenhouse gases as prescribed by the Kyoto Protocol encourages substituting fossil fuels with biofuels. Ecuador’s engagement with such climate change policy frameworks and sub- sequent biofuel production plans have led to drastic landscape transformation. Since the implementation of the first large-scale oil palm (Elaeis guineensis)plantationintheCantonofSan Lorenzo, Esmeraldas province in 1998, palm monoculture has replaced 22, 242 ha of Ecuador’s coastal Chocó rainforest. The recent and rapid expansion of oil palm plantations has seri- ous and detrimental socio-ecological repercussions for the local This article is the result of collaboration on all levels, for which I am deeply appreciative and would like to express my sincere gratitude. I dedicate this article to the San Lorenzo communities, whose friendship, strength, and positivity I carry with me and to whom I feel Downloaded by [Julianne Hazlewood] at 15:05 07 February 2012 indebted for all they have shared with me over the years. I am also very thankful to my dissertation advisor, Susan M. Roberts, for her inspiration and guidance in organizing my current doctoral research project. Additionally, I extend much appreciation to my colleagues Daniel Ortega-Pacheco, Emily Billo, and especially, Allison Harnish, as well as to my mentors, Morgan M. Robertson, and again, Sue Roberts, for their direction and comments on earlier drafts of this article. I would then like to profoundly thank Chisato Tomimura as well as the anonymous reviewers’ for their hard work and patience during the article’s publication process in the JSF. Furthermore, I would like to acknowledge the Inter-American Foundation, the National Science Foundation, and University of Kentucky’s Geography and Latin American Studies Departments for financial support. Finally, I am grateful to FLACSO-Ecuador and particularly the Altropico Foundation for their institutional support and assistance during my research period in always lively, and most certainly lovely Ecuador. Address correspondence to Julianne A. Hazlewood at [email protected]. 120 Geographies of CO2lonialism and Hope 121 Afro-Ecuadorian and indigenous communities. This article high- lights both the agro-ecological and cultural practices and the inter-ethnic networks through which these communities construct and sustain “geographies of hope” amid landscapes character- ized by fallen forests, poisoned rivers, social conflicts, and a sea of oil palms. Drawing on the theoretical linkages between cli- mate change, colonialism, and capitalism, this study investigates San Lorenzo as an agricultural frontier where “CO2lonialism” is articulated through biofuel (oil palm) production. Expounding on the ecological debt of the Global North to the Global South, this article critically examines actions and discourses that bulldoze rainforests, livelihoods, and constructive discussions regarding the global warning of global warming. KEYWORDS oil palm, Afro-descendents, biofuel, climate change mitigation, Ecuador, Esmeraldas, geographies of hope, indigenous peoples (Chachi and Awá), sumak kawsay (vivir bien living well), rights of Nature INTRODUCTION In 1997, the Canton of San Lorenzo, located in the Northwest Ecuadorian Pacific Region and in the province of Esmeraldas, was accessible merely by a mud and gravel road descending slowly from the Andean city of Ibarra. The road traversed switchbacks that crossed rivers and waterfalls as it cut through jagged mountains and dense tropical forests. The forests stretched from cloud-enveloped highlands and extended all the way into the lowland coastal regions. Today, the Ibarra-San Lorenzo highway is paved with many gravel logging roads branching outward from it. Migrant settlers, trying to eke out a living along the roadsides, have cleared hillside forests in higher elevations for cattle ranching and agriculture. Yet, the most striking change in the landscape is encountered in the lowlands of the Canton of San Lorenzo: Downloaded by [Julianne Hazlewood] at 15:05 07 February 2012 a seemingly endless sea of oil palms (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) swallowing the ancestral territories of Afro-Ecuadorian and indigenous Awá and Chachi peoples. These oil palm plantations invade both the natural and cultural worlds of San Lorenzo in detrimental ways. Within the Afro-Ecuadorian village of La Chiquita, the Awá village of Guadualito, and the Chachi village of La Ceiba (Rodas & Hazlewood, 2009a; see Figure 1), four major effects of oil palm expansion have been identified: (a) destruction of native forests (Bernis & Cárdenas, 2007; Cárdenas, 2007; Benalcázar, 2009) and loss of innumer- able endemic and/or endangered flora and fauna habitats (Nuñez Torres, 2004; Koh & Wilcove, 2009); (b) contamination of rivers—through improper 122 J. A. Hazlewood FIGURE 1 Study sites in Canton of San Lorenzo, Esmeraldas, Ecuador (Rodas & Hazlewood, 2009a) (color figure available online). disposal of agrochemicals and oil palm processing runoff—and resultant health problems for the people of the communities (Nuñez Torres, 2004); (c) dispossessions of territory and instigation of social conflicts between the historically peaceful indigenous and Afro-Ecuadorian communities (Misión de Verificación, 2007); and (d) violations of indigenous and Afro-Ecuadorian people’s rights to food security and food sovereignty and to living well (Misión de Verificación, 2007). Oil palm plantations have transformed San Lorenzo residents from largely self-sufficient people into “castaways”; once able to travel freely through one another’s lands and across national borders, they are now Downloaded by [Julianne Hazlewood] at 15:05 07 February 2012 nearly stranded on dispersed and isolated landholdings that resemble islands in a growing sea of palms (see Figure 2). As the demand for biofuel contin- ues to increase (WWF Germany, 2007)—and as oil palm is four times more productive than any other oil-producing crop (Rieger, 2006)—it is likely that the sea of palm monoculture will expand further across the world, threaten- ing to engulf the territories of indigenous and other marginalized peoples at an accelerated pace. The Indigenous Environmental Network (IEN, 2007) has coined the term CO2lonialism to emphasize the colonial nature of biofuel production and other invasive “green” business ventures encouraged under global climate change policies. These policies are often formulated with lit- tle to no input from rural Afro-descendent and indigenous peoples whose Geographies of CO2lonialism and Hope 123 FIGURE 2 The author with a collaborator on the perimeter of his 42-ha farm/forest island surrounded by a 4000 ha sea of oil palms owned by Palpailon S.A. oil palm company + (photo by Daniel Ortega-Pacheco) (color figure available online). communities and lands are most severely affected by climate change and its mitigation strategies. Indigenous peoples’ and environmental organizations claim that biofuel development and carbon trading, spurred by the Kyoto Protocol’s (United Nations, 1998) market-based mechanisms, are “false solutions to climate change” (Global South Workshop, 2007; IEN, 2007; Tebtebba Foundation, 2008; Indigenous Peoples Global Summit on Climate Change [IPGSCC], Downloaded
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