WINTER1994 ISSUE No. 59

·Journal of the International Map Collectors Society WINTER 1994 ISSUE No. 59

. CONTENTS

From the Chainnan 's Desk 4 A Diary of IMCoS in Antwerp 30 The Development of Cartography in Our Travel Grant Winner writes 37 the Low Countries 6 16th Century Tempests and the Brave A Unique Collection of Feudal Maps: the NewWorld 39 Duchy of Aarschot 10 'Maps & Society' W arburg Lectures 40 The Business Relationship between International News & Events 41 Christopher Plantin and Mercator 17 Letter to the Editor 43 How did Gerard Mercator design his UK News & Events 45 projection? 25 Mapping Mt Everest 48

Cover Map: Detail from Gerard Mercator's map ofFlandria bound in Abraham Ortelius' Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, 1570.

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Gen. Secretary: W.H.S. Pearce, 29 Mount Ephraim Road, Streatham, London SW16 lNQ. Tel: 081-769 5041. FAX: 081-677 5417 Treasurer: Dr Cyrus Ala'i, 1 Golders Park Close, West Heath Avenue, London NW11 7QR. Membership Secretary: Jermy Harvey, 27 Landford Road, Putney, London SW15 1AQ. Tel: (081) 789 7358 Publicity OjflCer: Y asha Beresiner, 43 Templars Crescent, London N3 3QR. Tel: 081-349 2207. FAX: 081-346-9539 Int. Development Officer: Caroline Batchelor, Pikes, The Ridgeway, Oxshott, Leatherhead, Surrey KT22 OLG. Tel: 0372-843 425 Int. Secretary: Dr Robert Clancy, 11 High Street, Newcastle, NSW 2300, Australia. Fax: 61-49 252 169 ©All signed articles are the copyright of the author, and must not be reproduced without the written consent of the author. Whilst every care is taken in compiling this journal the Society cannot accept any responsibility for the accuracy of the information included herein.

3 From the Chairman's Desk

Members who were not able to travel to have a 'Bargain' section, where no map Antwerp last month may read in this issue will cost more than a nominal amount. about the very successful and enjoyable The stand will be run by IMCoS volun­ symposium that was held to celebrate the teers, but all proceeds will be put into life of Gerard Mercator who died four hun­ widening the advertising for the following dred years ago. The five papers presented at year's Map Fair. While letters to this ef­ the symposium were a model of how such fect are being sent to stall holders, mem­ things should be done: excellent subject bers are requested to get in touch with the matter, precise timing, all slides carefully Map Fair Organiser, Roger Brown at 160 selected and the right way up, and all perti­ Crowndale Road, Borehamwood, Herts nent to the theme. I congratulate not only the WD6 4QB, if they have maps which they speakers, but also the organisers and the would be willing to donate. We are also symposium chairman. Four of the papers increasing the budget for the Fair, hoping are published here, along with the enter­ to attract more and younger collectors. taining presentation by Professor Lat:re at While at Antwerp our new Interna­ the opening of the map fair; I hope to tional Secretary Robert Clancy organised publish the fifth in the next issue. a meeting ofall participating International The large number of participants, Representatives. This was well attended, over a hundred and flfty including accom­ and should lead both to more local activ­ panying persons, is in sharp contrast to the ity, as well as more interaction between declining numbers at our summer sympo­ members in distant countries. If you live sia in Britain. As an experiment, we will in a country that is not represented and have this year a mini-symposium: a talk, would like to volunteer to act as a Repre­ (naturally on maps) before the Annual sentative, please get in touch with either Dinner and the presentation of the Robert Clancy or myself. Let me take this IM:CoS-RV Tooley Award, on the eve­ opportunity to welcome Martine de Cha­ ning before the Map Fair. I do hope that a rnel who has agreed to represent us in large number of members will be able to Mexico. She is well known to many of us attend After many years we are returning as a regular participant in IMCoS acti­ to the Royal Over-Seas League, StJames, vities. for the Dinner, as it has been refurbished With this Journal, but only to mem­ and the location is so central. bers in UK because of the cost of postage, Our Map Fair, on the other hand, con­ goes a letter asking for volWiteers (IMCoS tinues to grow both in size and in import­ after all runs on voluntary work!) to re­ ance each year. Here again, however, we view books that are sent by publishers, are planning to experiment. We are re­ and which then go into the IMCoS library. questing dealers as well as members to It is essential that we build up a wider donate the sort of maps that might appeal panel of reviewers, to do justice to the to a beginner collector, so that we can books that are sent to us. So I hope for a

4 very high response to my appeal. issues of the Journal. If enough items are I would also like to hear in advance listed, they might in addition form a small about map activities that are planned in all separate publication which could then be parts of the world, so that other members sent to all members, and updated as re­ may know about them in time to plan a quired. visit By chance the other day, I saw on I have in the meantime loaded myself Newbury station a notice about an exhibi­ with more work, promising to produce an tion 'Maps: An unfolding local history', Index of articles that have appeared in the that was being held from 1.10.94 to first sixty issues of the IM:CoS Journal. 12.11.94. Too late to inform those inter­ This will be sent out with No. 60, on 1st ested in maps of Berkshire who may not March 1995. To ensure that your name have heard about what was probably a remains on our mailing list, please check very good, local, collection, and might the date to which your membership is have contained some little known maps. valid. This is given, along with your mem­ Another idea for which I would like bership number, on the top line of the label to request help from IMCoS members in containing your address on the envelope. all countries occurred to me while return­ Each quarter I receive back some half ing from Antwerp. Scattered in many of dozen copies of the journal that have not the lesser known collections are copies of been delivered by the postman, because maps of which perhaps only one or two the addressee has moved and failed to let examples have survived. I have realised us know the new address. If one of them myself how important it is to study the was for you, you are not likely to read this, original, particularly of the larger maps. as your copy has gone into my cupboard Reproductions, however well produced, of unwanted items. But if you are reading somehow never permit observation of all this now, make sure it doesn't happen to the text, the map language, even the out­ your copy whenever you change your lines. This was particularly noticeable house or office. Also, please send your when we had the opportunity to see the subscription well in time if you choose to Juan de la Cosa map in Madrid a couple pay annually, or if your three or ten year of years ago. If IMCoS could produce a subscription is finishing in December. list of such maps and where they are held, Only by keeping our administrative costs it would be easier for members to see to the minimum can we maintain the very them. Often we may be travelling through low current subscription rates. a town and be unaware that stored in the Suggestions for the IMCoS-RV basement of a museum is the single extant Tooley award for 1995 may be sent direct copy of an important map, or perhaps it is to me this year for forwarding to the even on permanent exhibition, but not awards committee. Full details of the widely publicised. award and previous winners are in earlier If members would keep sending me issues. Nominations should be received information on such maps, let us say, before the end of March. where no more than three copies are Hope to see you all in the summer in known, it could be included in future London, and in San Francisco in October. 5 The Development of Cartography in.the Low Countries

This paper is an introduction to the exhibi­ Charles V by Jacob van Deventer. Charles tion current! y being held at Louvain on the of Hapsburg was born in the Netherlands development of Netherlands mapping. in Gent and was particularly interested in Because the systems of cartography that his Burgundian heritage. Deventer's sur­ were developed here had a decisive im­ vey is internationally recognised as being pact on European cartography in general, a model for mapmaking in Europe, and in the exhibition also reveals much that is the exhibition are Italian copies of his relevant to the early cartography of other maps engraved either in Venice or in countries. Rome- proof that they were considered We understand the term 'early maps excellent examples of modem mapping, of the Netherlands' to denote maps of the since they were so beautifully copied. A Seventeen Provinces as a whole. These second reason for their importance is their Provinces were split apart after the Eighty aesthetic value. This is obvious in many Years War (1568-1648), and this separ­ of the beautiful wall maps, and in the ation resulted in the birth of three new many versions of 'Leo Belgicus', Nether­ states: the Netherlands, Belgium and Lux­ lands in the form of a lion. emburg. One consequence of this was a The events causing the political fu­ neglect of maps of the early Netherlands, sion of the Seventeen Provinces occurred since people preferred to concentrate on some 150 years before map printing maps of their own country. The oldest began. In 1361 the French king Jean le maps of the Seventeen Provinces remain Bon granted the Duchy of Burgundy, re­ largely a historical memory, charming in­ cently re-acquired by the French crown, deed, but of no actual value. Professor in fee to his son Philip the Bold. By inhe­ Schilder called them a 'neglected chapter ritance, marriage, negotiation or force, of historical cartography'. province after province came under Bur­ The cartography of the Seventeen gundian control. In the beginning of the Provinces, however, is important for two 16th century the provinces Brabant, Lux­ reasons. Firstly their birth as a juridical emburg, Limburg, Guelders, Flanders, unit (to speak of a 'state' would be an Holland, Zeeland, Hainaut, Artois, anachronism) coincided at the end of the Namur, Friesland, Groningen, Overijssel, 15th century and beginning of the 16th Zutphen, Mechelen, Utrecht and Antwerp with the beginning of printed maps. The became united in the hands of the fortu­ first official land survey based on triangu­ nate youngster Charles of Hapsburg, who lation was prepared in the University of at the age of nineteen, became emperor of Louvain by the famous group of three the Holy Roman Empire. Under his rule, scholars: Gerard Mercator, Gemma Fri­ and to further his political aims, he en­ sius and Jacob van Deventer, and was couraged the newly invented art of print­ completed on the order of the emperor ing and ordered that all his provinces 6 should be mapped. For some of the south­ were lost during the last war, or disap­ ern, French speaking provinces the order peared in Breslau. was placed with father and son Surhon However, we are more fortunate with from Mons. The oldest map of the Nether­ the Italian copies. In Italy the map of lands as a whole had been printed in the Flanders (1540) by Mercator, probably first Italian translation of Ptolemy's Geo­ based on a triangulation survey by Van graphia, in the later editions of Ruscelli, Deventer, and maps of the other provinces and in a publication by Porcacchi, as well by Van De venter himself met with an as Sebastian Munster's edition of enthusiastic reception after 1550. Many Ptolemy. It was necessary to replace these were inserted into Lafreri atlases. The en­ primitive attempts by scientifically cor­ graver Jacobus Bossius who left 's-Her­ rect, contemporary maps. It was the Span­ togenbosch for Rome was undoubtedly ish government which gave the order for the most important intermediary. The the survey, and the very first map prepared only map not known to have been copied on a mathematical base of triangulation, in Rome was that of Zeeland. 'by the art of geometry' as Van Deventer VanDeventer's maps yielded anal­ himself said, was that of Brabant, which most immediate result The primitive de­ he presented to the Spanish government in sign of the Netherlands provinces was Brussels in December 1536. promptly superseded by a map that The first publication about triangula­ showed their real shape. This appeared in tion methods we know of is a treatise by 1567, and the unique example of the first Gemma Frisius of 1533 as an appendix to state is on view in the exhibition. A second a translation of Apianus' Cosmo graphia. state was inserted in the first edition of In the same year VanDeventer, the eldest Guicciardini'sDescription of the Nether­ and possibly the least scientific of the lands, however with the name of Camelis three but smely the 'do-er', started his d'Hooghe. It was also copied in Italy, fieldwork. He completed it in about 154 7 probably engraved by Paolo Forlani. with the maps of the provinces of Holland, From this beginning the development Zeeland, Guelders and Friesland. His of Netherlands cartography and its in­ maps of the Netherlands provinces, fluence on other European countries is printed in Malines and probably in very well known. The predominance of the small numbers for military reasons, have southern Netherlands is conspicuous. It all been lost From later reprints or copies all started in Louvain, in the silence of by Antwerp publishers we know of only study and science and it reached its econ­ two examples, that of Zeeland (1560) in omic and international value in Antwerp, the Biblioteca Nazionale in Florence, and in those days the fmancial and cultural Guelders (without date) in the Herzog­ capital of western Europe. It was in An­ August Library at Wolfenbiittel, Ger­ twerp that the first atlas in the modern many. Of the other maps, Holland, sense of the word was born. Abraham Brabant, and Friesland (with the other Ortelius, probably at the instigation of rich northern provinces), we have only photo­ merchants, published his Theatrum Orbis graphs, as the original Antwerp copies Te"arum in 1570, and included in it a

7 beautiful map of the Netherlands. Later tion of independence of the Dutch Repub­ Ortelius, who was greatly interested in lic in 1648, by the Treaty of Miinster, are history, also engraved the Netherlands in maps of the no longer existing Seventeen Roman times, with four magnificent car­ Provinces as a whole. There are only two touches. But he did not use the word small exceptions of minor importance. 'atlas'. It was Mercator who engraved on And until the time of the French Revol­ the title-pageofhisatlasin 1594 the myth­ ution maps of the Netherlands in the shape ological figure of Atlas with the world in of the original Seventeen Provinces con­ his hands. Mercator's map of the Nether­ tinued to be engraved, printed and sold. lands served as a model for many of his Why were there so many, after the con­ successors, among them the wall maps of firmed separation of about 1600? De J ode ( 1566) and Van Doetecum In my opinion there are several rea­ (1594), both preserved in the Biblio­ sons. In the first place we know that the theque Nationale, Paris, and that of Jansz famous cartographic school of the Golden Visscher (1636) which was reproduced in Age in the Dutch Republic owes its origin the famous painting of Jan Venneer 'The to Netherlanders from the south who fled painter in his studio', also called 'Al­ from Antwerp and settled in Amsterdam. legory of the art of painting'. Without First among these was Jodocus Hondius, doubt Netherlands cartography had its who bought Mercator's copperplates after origin in the southern Netherlands, now a his death. In Amsterdam he published not part of Belgium. only the famous Mercator-Hondius­ As stated earlier, the Seventeen Prov­ Atlas, but also made fme maps of the inces were split by war. The surrender of Netherlands as a whole. That by his son Antwerp to the Spaniards under Alexan­ Henricus Hondius has a decorative bor­ der Faroese in 1585 was the crucial mo­ der. Fleeing with him to Amsterdam were ment and from that time onwards Petrus Kaerius, Bertius, Plancius, the en­ separation became an undeniable fact In graver Van den Ende and the bookseller 1587 Frans Hogenburg published an atlas and publisher Camelis Claeszoon. They of the Netherlands calledBelgicaFlorens, were the predecessors and teachers of the Belgica Destructa, the unique copy of northern cartographers such as Blaeu and which is in the University Library of Mar­ Janssonius. But till about 1605 the south­ burg. This title can be translated as 'Rise em engravers held almost a cartographic and Fall of Netherlands' Prosperity' and monopoly in Amsterdam. Experience has is a vivid expression of the tragic situ­ shown that refugees who have fled from ation. On the title-page can be seen, at the terror or persecution do not easily forget top, a happy, fortunate and wealthy their native soil. When designing their Netherlands woman, while below the maps they met with considerable uncer­ same woman is shown raped, bereft of her tainty as to the borders in the east and the possessions and mourning for the towns south. Frontiers were liable to capricious on frre in the background. changes according to the success or defeat But remarkably, all survey maps of of the warring parties. The engravers, the Netherlands until the official declara- therefore, preferred to stick with the tradi- 8 tional shape of the Seventeen Provinces. Belgicus map. Secondly, until about 1630 the hope Again the Republic's view of the of liberating the southern provinces from southern provinces underwent a change. Spanish and catholic domination re­ The new situation demanded protection mained vigorous. The Calvinist church, to against France and the military events de­ which the greater part of the southern cisive for the destiny of the northern engravers belonged, was zealous in com­ Netherlands mostly took place in the for­ bating papism in the southern provinces. mer southern provinces. There is in the The influence of the southern immigrants exhibition a map which shows the site of into the Dutch Republic can be readily every battle fought on sea and on land in understood when it is realised that they the second half of the 17th century. The numbered about 150,000 in a total popu­ southern Netherlands are black with battle lation of about 2 million. signs. After the defeat ofFrance the Dutch Around 1630 there was a change in Republic occupied a number of 'barrier­ the situation. The wish to liberate and the towns' in the southern provinces as a wall desire to be free began to flag. In the south to protect the north against French ag­ people became exasperated by the intoler­ gresston. ance of the Protestants in the north, shown The prolonged survival of the Seven­ at the capture of 's-Hertogenbosch in teen Provinces maps thus becomes com­ 1629, and the merciless raids of irregular prehensible. The southern provinces, once bodies of soldiers from the north. On the the main core of political, cultural and other hand, there was growing recognition economic power in the Netherlands, had in the north that French support was fatally turned out to be the heaviest necessary to resist the Spanish. After all, burden. For almost two centuries the Amsterdam had profited greatly by the southern Netherlands had been a source of fall of Antwerp and was not at all keen on anxiety to the people of the Republic. It is assisting its rival to a new start. So it was no wonder that maps of the Netherlands as early as 1633 that partition of southern in those years had to include the southern Netherlands between the Dutch Republic part as well. and France came up for discussion. The exhibition at Louvain illustrates But the French remedy turned out to this story. In addition are many rare maps. be worse than the Spanish evil. By 1660 Among the 20 wall maps is that ofKaerius France seemed ready to conquer the in 12 sheets, known for four centuries only whole of the southern Netherlands as soon from a written inventory and now recently as the position of the Republic weakened. discovered; the unique example of the After secret negotiations with England wall map of Vrients from the Austrian and Cologne, Louis XIV sparked off the National Library at Vienna with the beau­ notorious disaster of 1672 and in a short tiful scene of Albrecht and Isabella seated time his troops overran all the Republic in a ceremonial boat drawn by Nepnme's beyond the inundation line. The extraor­ horses; and Blaeu's wall map which is dinary pretensions of Louis XIV can be inserted in the three giant atlases in Lon­ seen on a very rare specimen of the Leo don, Berlin and Rostock. On view is also 9 the beautifully drawn manuscript atlas by Holland the lion of the Seventeen Prov­ Christiaan sGrooten. And last but not least inces changed yet again into Leo Hollan­ the complete number of all the maps of the dicus; the editio princeps of this version, Netherlands in the form of a lion, Leo of 1622, has recently been found. Soon Belgicus, can be seen in one place for the Leo Hollandicus also became a tradition. first time. The exhibition is arranged chrono­ The Austrian diplomat Michael von logically, but in every period can be seen Aitzing or Aitsinger got the idea from the various aspects of early cartography: fme Virgo Europe map by Johan Putsch or engraving, artistic decoration, much in­ Bucius from Innsbrock. Frans Hogenberg formation of a non-geographical charac­ engraved the first lion in 1583. Many ter, such as types of ships, sea battles, others followed, including the lion of the portraits of governors, costumes, coats of Twelve Years Truce, the cease-fire arms, and much more. period between Spain and the Nether­ HENK VANDER HEDDEN lands rebels. The lion is quietly seated and Netherlands is peacefully eating the truce as a meal. But gradually the situation changed after The exhibition 'Maps of the Low Coun­ the end of the cease-frre. Danger came tries from Charles V to William/' can be from the south and now the lion is roaring seen at Louvain in the Predikherenkerk southwards. But under the financial and (Church of the Dominicans) until 4th De­ military predominance of the province of cember 1994.

A Unique Collection of Feudal Maps: the 'Cadastral' Maps of the Duchy of Aarschot (1596-1601), Brabant, Belgium

At the turbulent end of the 16th century, spread all over what is now Belgium and one of the mightiest noblemen in the the north of France. Soon he reigned over Spanish Netherlands, Charles de Croy, these possessions as a prince does over his Duke of Aarschot, had drawn up a unique country, and as a prince he lived on his private cadaster of his vast possessions. mansions of Beaumont and Heverlee, An important selection of these maps having which he had transfonned into pleasant been published recently, 1 I am privileged to renaissance dwellings by the best archi­ introduce to you this remarkable cartographi­ tects and artisans of the time. cal collection. The mighty duke combined a modem, Charles II de Croy held high military efficient management of his estates with a and civilian functions in different pro­ refined sense of splendour. It is to this suc­ vinces. In 1595 he inherited the immense cessful combination that we owe an patrimony of the Croy family, which was astonishing collection of maps, drawings

10 and detailed descriptions7 among which are the famous 'Albwns of Crof and the private 'cadasters'. Amongst others7 these cadastral maps have been preserved for the duchy of Aarschot7 in Brabant. The duchy consisted of four important me­ dieval seigniories which the Croy fam­ ily had acquired between 1432 and 1516. These 'seigniories' or baronies, namely Aarschot, Bierbeek, Heverlee and Rotselaar, were located north and south of the important city of Lou vain, along the Derner and the Dijle, two of the main rivers in Brabant that gave access to Malines and from there to Antwerp. Already in 1593 Charles de Croy had given orders for drawing up a new kind of rent-book, in the form of private cadastral maps, describing two seigniories which Cadastral map of the village ofRotselaar he had inherited earlier from his mother. (1596-1601) From 1596 onwards he extended this en­ terprise to the whole of the duchy of Aar­ curacy than their copies in the Albwns, schot, which covered some 25,000 which increases their value as historical hectares. Charged with both tasks was sources. A watercolour of the village of Pierre de Bersacques, a surveyor from Werchter, with local men towing a barge Courtray. Also from 1596 onwards, the in the foreground, faithfully renders the duke had Adrien de Montigny, a painter sky-line, whereas on the copy in the from Valenciennes, make a number of Album it is filled in by an invented land­ sketches ofvillages and notable buildings. scape. From both the cadastral maps and the Pierre de Bersacques worked at the views, Adrien de Montigny had to make private cadastral maps from 1596 till lavish full-page gouaches, which were to 1601. To each barony within the duchy of be assembled into the well known 'Al­ Aarschot was devoted one map- volume. bums de Croy'. The four volumes together contain 396 What is unique for the duchy of Aar­ folia. schot is that not only the original cadastral In fact, they are traditional rent­ maps but also twelve of these preparatory books, to which a visual dimension was drawings have been preserved. As both added. Pierre Bersacques therefore started maps and views were drawn on the spot, by copying the texts of the existing older they contain a much higher degree of ac- rent-books. Sufficient blank space was

11 View of the same village,Rotselaar (1596-1598). left on which de Bersacques later made be paid. Many of the descriptions, how­ pencil drawings of the locality covered by ever, are not numbered; as they were copied the texts. Early in the spring the surveyor from older registers they describe parcels that, went to the spot, with the assistance of the after almost a generation of warfare, were local ducal functionaries, who pointed out overgrown and untended, and of which no­ to him the parcels of land. Colouring was lxxly remembered the exact location. done afterwards, indoors. Pierre de Ber­ In addition to the cadastral maps, sacques provided his pencil drawings with these volumes also contain single dra­ the necessary instructions for the colour­ wings of villages, hamlets or notable ing: inside the fields, buildings or water­ buildings. This dual aspect (cadastral courses he noted in pencil the frrst letter maps on the one hand, single drawings on of the colour to be applied. the other) leads us to the structure of the The volumes mainly contain maps of map volumes, as it reveals the medieval those parcels on which the duke of ~hot, nature of the seigniories. Hence, we can as locallonl, claimed seigniorial taxes. Most consider these cadastral maps as feudal of the Jmrels are nwnbered. Each number map volumes and take a closer look at refers to the texwal description, mentioning their composition. for each parcel: the owner, the swface, its 1. Each volume opens with a repre­ financial use, the precise location (a treasme sentation of the central part of the seig­ for toponymy), and of course the land-tax to niory, either a general map of the main

12 village of the seigniory, or a map of the l seigniorial reserve, that is, that part of the seigniory situated around the lord's castle that was directly exploited for him. These maps are accompanied by single illus­ trated maps or views of the formal seig­ niorial castles; for example, the residence of Aarschot, or the ruins of the medieval castle of Rotselaar, with a dungeon on a steep mound. 2. Then follow cadastral maps of the set­ tlements and the land on which the duke of Aarschot raised seigniorial taxes, mostly hereditary tributes, sometimes also fonns of partial land-leasing or legacy duties. To each locality of the seigniory is devoted a map. A fair example is the map with the l main arable land-complex of Rotselaar, on L ,,.. ~. which we can distinguish four different /) ~ C, ' . I i ~~, - ! . .>1 ~- '1 •' ~ ._,,_ f1'fY. ~}~t>(. :d!- i"'~t t ··~,u l ~; ' lfif-'1~- {~ .J\~.· fih~·~,.~ &,.. 4•'! vtc~_,. ,A.~~-"(~fl.d~,~ J:t'.~·f't/~t**~Jt ft> ' 3. At the end come the feudal holdings of The castle of the seigniory ofRivieren, each seigniory. These were sometimes with a huge dungeon (1596-1598). rather vast inferior seigniories, in which case only the central parts are drawn: a to which they belonged. The village of dungeon, for example, that of the seig­ Ligny with its imposing castle, an impor­ niory of Rivieren; a chateau, for example tant fief of the seigniory of Heverlee, was that of Schoonhoven, both near Aarschot; situated some 50 km away from its feudal or sometimes settlements belonging to it, court. such as the village of Langdorp, that was The series of twelve descriptions divided between the seigniories of Ri­ mentioned above add interesting sup­ vieren and Schoonhoven, both at that time plementary details to these cadastral dependent on the barony of Aarschot. In maps. On a drawing of the village centre many other cases, however, a fief contains of Rotselaar, we observe the striking only a few parcels of land. green aspect of the cemetery, with its Not all these feudal estates were situ­ grass and trees, the house in which the ated within the territory of the seigniory. court of aldermen and the archers' guild A few small fiefs in Louvain, dependent gathered, the judicial lime-tree, the pil­ on the seigniories of Rotselaar and Hever­ lory, the construction of the houses and­ lee, gave ·rise to a map of the whole city, as a status symbol-{)n the most important with a nice view of the 12th as well as the house of the village, a stork's nest. 14th century circular walls. Some estates This collection of maps and drawings were situated miles from the feudal courts is so exceptional that its importance ex- 13 ceeds the regional character of the duchy remaining huge dungeon of Ter Heiden­ of Aarschot Without exaggeration, one Rotselaar, dating from the 14th century can state that no map or other visual ma­ and one of the most remarkable of its kind terial of this type and quality, for an era so in Belgiwn; or the manor of 'Ter Hofstad' remote and for such a wide area, exists in in Haacht, which was occupied by a all Europe. wealthy city patrician who aspired to For the first time a window has opened knightly status and had his dungeon built onto a landscape covering an extensive around 1500. area at the end of the 16th century. The The financial impact of the medieval detailed rendering of villages, hamlets, seigniory is illustrated by the depiction of dwellings (from the most luxurious cha­ toll-houses-such as the toll-house near teau to the most humble cottage), water­ the bridge of Haacht with the Croy coat of ways, roads, forests and the allotment of arms, seigniorial breweries and water­ land, allows us to make a detailed recon­ mills, and the extent and structure of the struction of the landscape four centuries seigniorial reserve, which contained ago. Moreover, because this landscape farmland, woods, hunting and fishing mainly took its form in the Middle Ages grounds. The judicial power of the highest and because the legends permit direct lo­ nobility emerges clearly in the striking calisation of all toponyms, these cadastral registers are a unique source for the study of the genesis of this landscape. The social structure also becomes perceptible; it too shows its medieval roots. The Church is omnipresent In the centre of the village of Bierbeek, close to .) t>--.!1..: ,;~:pj$~..,~~··1<~ . ·~f-; ... i~, f: :·.r:' the church, there were a small Benedictine priory, a chapel, and even a parish hospi­ tal. On the outskirts of the cultivated land, abbeys were situated (like the abbey of A verbode, in the midst of woodland), or leper-houses, as that in Tremelo, on the fringe of the moorland. Next to the impact of the Church it is evident in these maps how in the Middle Ages not only the city, but also the village reflects the image of a towered society. Next to the church tower, most of the villages had at least one, sometimes several, dungeons, not always on a mound; they were the visibly eminent sign A (towered' society: on the left, the from afar of the power of the nobility and church; on the right, the castle with its the local knighthood. Examples are the dungeon (1596-1601 ). 14 presence of gallows and the wheel on the Pierre de Bersacques no longer offered a border of the seigniory, signifying a par­ faithful record of the use of the ticularly frightening aspect at the bound­ grounds. Of the hundreds of parcels ary posts of important seigniories, such as and buildings listed in the ten-column between Rotselaar and Aarschot wide legends for the city of Aarschot, Agrarian life is still based on late­ Pierre de Bersacques succeeded in lo­ medieval principles. The geographical cating only 31. The war introduced a structure of the village is concentric: in new element into the landscape: the the middle the rural settlement, sur­ fortress. In 1582, a fortification was rounded by a green belt of orchards; built by Spanish soldiers around the these in turn surrounded by the farmland watermills of Aarschot. In many vil­ and pasture land; in a third circle we find lages the remaining inhabitants turned meadows, woods, swamps and moors. the church into a fortified place; they The legends, copied from older feudal loop-holed the cemetery wall, or, as in rent-books, reveal the location of former Haacht, heightened it with a wooden vineyards that were so abundant in the palisade. area in the 14th and 15th century. A The war had created a sharp contrast proof of this is a vineyard near Aarschot between the devastated villages and the represented on an illustrated map from city of Aarschot itself, which was reduced the middle of the 16th century which to a small garrison town, while the re­ also belongs to the collection of the naissance mansion of Heverlee was de­ dukes of Aarschot. Thanks to the elev­ veloped into a splendid residence and ations of the dwellings and the coloured decorated in a princely manner for rendition of their building materials, it Charles de Croy. Both these places were becomes possible to reconstruct the so­ brought together on a curious painting of cial geography of the rural settlements. 1627, still hanging in Heverlee castle. Incidentally or not, the idyllic detail of It is obvious that many characteristics the stork's nest seems only to be present of rural society in the duchy of Aarschot on the chimneys and gables of the most around 1590 are also to be traced in other prominent stone buildings. areas in the Southern Netherlands. Hence Almost every village harbours one or these maps and views are an almost inex­ more archers' guilds, pre-eminent ex­ haustible source for the study of many pression ofcorporate life. In some villages aspects of the landscape and daily life, not part of the village green is occupied by a only at the end of the 16th century, but double row of trees, in between which lay also for the Middle Ages; and not only for the shooting range. this part of Brabant, but also for the sur­ This medieval image was greatly dis­ rounding regions. turbed by the Eighty Years' War that al­ 1. B. Minnen.Het hertogdomAarschot onder Karel most permanently raged throughout the van Croy (1595-1612). Kadasters en. gezichten.. Brussel. Gemeentekrediet van Belgie, 1993. area from 1578. Hence, around 1600 many buildings still lay in ruins. The o_lder BART 1vfiNNEN rent-books and feudal registers used by Wezemaal 15 No lover of early maps can afford NOT to have a subscription to

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WE ALSO PUBLISH AND DISTRIBUTE BOOKS ON THE HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY. SEND FOR OUR NEW BOOKLIST. The Business Relationship between Christopher Plantin and Gerard Mercator

In 1555, three years after Gerard Mercator Mercator's maps occasionally can be found had settled in Duisburg, Gennany, Chris­ in Mercator's correspondence, it is in no topher Plantin was printing his frrst books way comparable to the Plantin archives. In in Antwerp. Plantin, born in France the archives one can find information about c.1520, came to Antwerp c.1548-49 the quantity of maps and globes that were where he was initially active as a book traded in Antwerp, the lands to which they binder before he became a printer and were sent, how much they cost, who bought publisher. In spite of the turbulent politi­ them, etc .... Moreover, the archives ofPlan­ calsituationin the Netherlands in the 16th tin' s book trade provide data on maps and century, he succeeded in building up his atlases by Mercator for which there are no business such that it became one of the known exemplars. The trade between Plan­ most important publishing houses in 16th tin and Mercator was not purely one-sided; century Europe. When he died on July 1st, we see, for example, in the preserved ac­ 1589, he had published nearly 2,500 counts, how Plantin provided Mercator with works, including the 'so-called' Royal paper and pasteboard, as well as numerous Bible, or the Polyglot Bible - a books for the cartographer's library. monumental folio Bible edition in eight The first time that the cartographer's impressive volumes, published between name appears in the Plan tin archives is on 1568 and 1573, that made his name im­ March 19th, 1558. On this day, Mercator mortal. (who is called '~Gerard le rnarchant de In addition to being a printer and pub­ Ripelmonde') delivered four maps of Eu­ lisher of boOks, Plantin was also a book rope to Plantin. It was the start of the dealer. In his shop, one could find not only delivering of hundreds of wall maps that Plan tin's own publications, but also the would be distributed further by Plantin. works published by other European We see here that the scale of the trade of printers-publishers. Besides books, one Mercator's maps and globes was depend­ could also purchase maps and other carto­ ent upon the siruation of Plantin' s own graphic instruments from Plan tin's shop. business. If business was going well, Within a few years, Plantin became an Plan tin bought many more of Mercator's important supplier of wall maps and in works. Indeed, it is during the great years due course, he had nearly the monopoly of growth ofPlantin'sPress, from 1566 to for their sale in the Netherlands. Plantin' s 1576 that the dealings with Mercator were successors saw to the preservation of all greatest. It was in this period that Plantin his business records and accounts. In this succeeded in nearly monopolising the manner, the records of Plantin's sales of trade in maps in the Netherlands. When Mercator's globes, maps and atlases have Plantin's business declined after 1576 as also been preserved. Although some in­ a result of the difficult situation in the formation concerning the distribution of Netherlands, the number of maps that 17 -~>""*--~<{r~~ O~t- ..- ~ ·i·

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Pages from the ~great book' of Christopher Plantin, 1572-1589, in which records of the daily accounts were kept. [Plantin-Moretus Museum, Archive no.19 p. 21] were distributed via Plantin's shop con­ numbers sold during this period are not sistently diminished. From 1583 onwards, nearly as high: for Germany 51 maps, the 'Officina Plantiniana' was compelled England 30, Spain 24, and Italy 22. These to buy Mercator maps from another An­ figures are based upon a study by Prof. L. twerp map dealer, Philip Galle. Voet, the former director of the Plantin­ Striking is the huge quantity of Mer­ Moretus Museum, which was published cator's works that Plan tin was able to in the special number of the Duisburg purchase during the high point of his busi­ F orschungen in 1962. The sale via Plantin ness. In the period of 1564/5 to 1576, was only one channel through which Mer­ Plantin bought in total ten sets of globes cator's documents were spread. No archi­ and 884 maps. In the period 1579 to 1599 val data are known concerning sales by however, Plantin and his successor Jan Mercator himself, or other book dealers. Moretus I bought only four sets of globes Plantin sold great quantities of maps and not more than 213 maps and atlases. of Europe from 1554 and 1572, the world As would be expected, the largest number map and the map of the British Isles. Voet of maps were sold in the Netherlands (312 counted no less than 316 of the 1554 maps maps between 1566 and 1576). France ofEuropeand88ofthe 1572editionin the was second with 24 7 maps sold during the account books. same period. For the other countries, the Mercator's most famous map, the 18 1569 world map, was also sold in great Aside from the independent maps, quantities: 185 were sold during the same Plantin also sold Mercator's globes. period. Finally, 81 copies of the 1564 Through 1576, he bought approximately maps of the British Isles were sold during twenty sets of globes from Mercator. It those same ten years. goes without saying that these globes For Plantin, the purchase of all these were extremely expensive. Until 1575, maps was a great investment. Mercator's Plantin was able to buy Mercator's globes wall maps were, as you know, very ex­ for 16 fl. a pair, but afterwards, the price pensive. For example, on February 23rd, skyrocketed: in a purchase five years later 1568, Plantin bought no less than 100 in 1580, the price had mounted to 36 fl. uncoloured maps of Europe at one time. Only a few copies of Mercator's at­ Comprising fifteen engravings, this map lases were sold by the Plantin press. Note­ cost 30 st This was just as much as 42 worthy is that it appears from various full-page engravings from J. Valverda's references in the archives that it was anatomical treatise, Vivae imagines par­ possible to buy separately such distinct tium corporis humani, published by Plan­ components of the atlas as that with the tin in 1566. In comparison, I would also maps ofFrance, or that of the Netherlands, like to mention the price of an unillus­ with texts in French, Latin or Italian. Gen­ trated work: the Dutch folio Bible from erally, copies of these no longer exist 1566, a book of no less than 1016 pages Finally, Mercator also published was sold for 26 st, thus less than Merca­ three non-cartographic works. His Chro­ tor's map of Europe. nologia of 1569 - a work that sum­ While the majority of Mercator's marises the most important facts in the maps were sold to other book dealers, the history of the world since the creation­ list of the private purchasers shows that was often sold via Plantin. Published in these were often rich and noble persons. Cologne by the successors of Arnold A large wall map was also a prestigious Birckman (according to the address on the object to hang on the wall of a library or title page), this book was obtained and drawing room. sold by Plantin from October 15th, 1568 Few or no exemplars of Mercator's forward, even though the colophon states other maps were sold. It appears that Plan­ that it had not been published until 1569. tin did not sell any copies of the Orbis Mercator's Evangelicae historiae quadri­ imago, the first world map, which Merca­ partita monas, sive harmonia quatuor tor published in 1538. The map of the evangelistarum (Duisburg, 1592), a work Holy Land was also sold by Plantin. In on the life of Christ, was also occasionally 1568, more than thirty years after the map sold by Jan Moretus I. The work Lit­ had first appeared, Plantin bought 100 erarum Latinarum, quas I tali cas curso­ copies in Frankfurt, but only a few of these riasque vocant, scribendarum ratio exemplars appear to have actually been (Antwerp, 1540, 1541, 1549, 1566 and sold in Antwerp. Finally, there is only one 1567), a hand book on calligraphy, does mention of a sale of the 1540 map of not seem to appear in the accounts of the Flanders in the Plantin archives. 'Officina Plantiniana'.

19 How did the trade between Plantin ing of privileges for the publication of and Mercator transpire? Due to the great Mercator's maps. In the 16th century, importance of the Frankfurt book fair for anyone who wanted to publish a book or the book trade in the 16th and 17th cen­ a map had to have the permission of the turies, Plantin and his son-in-law Jan government to do so. This permission, the Moretus I went regularly to this German privilege, prohibited both the reprinting of city. Here, or along the way in Duisburg, the publication concerned by other they did their business with Mercator. printers, and offered, more or less, a mon­ Most shipments and payments were ac­ opoly for the printer, publisher, or author tually carried out by middlemen. In the who had received the privilege. For the archives, a few names can be found of request for the privilege for the 1569 those who saw to the shipments to Ant­ world map, as well as for the 1572 map of werp and who collected the money: Louis Europe, Mercator could count on the help de Dieu, Jacob Geyskens, Christoffel Pel­ of Christopher Plan tin. These documents, sens, and Hendrik Slatmakers, figures written on costly parchment and bearing who are otherwise unknown. Mercator's the royal seal of Philip II, are still brother-in-law, Willem Schellekens, who preserved in the Plantin-Moretus Mu­ resided in Leuven, was also involved once seum archives. in the supplying of paper to Mercator. The privilege for the world map pro­ From 1579 forward, it was Mercator's hibited the reprinting of this map from youngest son Rumold who acted in the 'Gerardus Mercator caertescrijver' in the interest of his father in Antwerp, and the Netherlands for a period of ten years. The name ofGerard Mercator would no longer privilege was signed by the secretary from appear in thePlantinarchives. Until1585, the Secret Council, van der Aa, and is Rum old Mercator probably still regularly dated May 22nd, 1569. In Plantin's ac­ came to Antwerp, but after the fall of counts we see that this secretary received Antwerp in that year, all transactions seem a coloured exemplar of the world map in to have taken place in Frankfurt. Despite the following year. Lobbying is no 20th the relatively intense dealings between the century discovery. Naturally, Plan tin Antwerp printer and Gerard Mercator, billed the costs of this gift to Mercator. only one letter exchanged between them Also of interest are the privileges for is known. This letter, now preserved in the the sale of Mercator's 1572 map of Eu­ Staats-und UniversiUitsbibliothek in rope in the ~etherlands. Mercator had al­ Bremen, dates from February 15th, 1569. ready published a map of Europe in 1554. Here Mercator asked for Plan tin's help in In 1572, a new edition was brought out, ascertaining place names in France, a printed with the same copper plates, logical question for Plantin, given that which had been modified in only a few France was his original homeland. It is places. In the privilege, we read that Plan­ certain that there must have been more tin had bought the plates from Mercator letters exchanged between the two. and had them improved. The following is Another example of how Plantin quoted from the French text from the pri­ helped Mercator can be seen in the obtain- vilege: 'ayant achapt:e de Gerardus Mer- 20 ... ;: " ) ~ "'l'f•·W\.

l-J!' ·• {~?<·t dH~Il' (" ''[ /t / l '«w~;~ i t

Privilege granted to G. Mercator for the sale of his world map, 22ndMay, 1569. [Plantin-Moretus Museum, Archive no.1179!103] cator, ses plates et figures de la carte de la Plantin for each map of Europe. All of the description de l'Europ... il a icelle carte costs of the request for the privileges faict augmenter en plusieurs endroictz'. were, without exception, charged to Mer­ Because this was so expensive, 'de tant cator's accounts. Likely, the cartography que ceste oeuvre luy sera de grande cos­ had counted on Plantin's good relations tainge et despence', Plantin asked for a with the government of the Netherlands in privilege for a fifteen year period. Due to order to obtain a privilege for fifteen this text, it has been assumed that Plantin years. For the granting of this privilege, indeed had printed and published the Plantin was aided by the Brussels book maps. From Plantin's accounts, however, dealer Pierre de Ia Tombe. The latter was it appears that there is no stitch of truth to paid 12 fl. for this, which was later the story. Mercator supplied and charged charged to Mercator. Moreover, the mem-

21 Record of the sale of two ofMercator's maps to the secretary ofPhilip II on 9th May, 1573 from the Journal for that year. [Plantin-Moretus Museum, Archive no. 51] bers of the council also received two col­ the Plantin archives alludes to the car­ oured maps of Europe as a gift touche with the 'Peregrinatio Pauli' text, In some works on Mercator, the exist­ as it appears on the map of Europe. There ence of a map by Mercator entitled 'Pere­ are three travel accounts on this map: the grinatio Pauli' is assumed. The existence previously mentioned journeys of Paul, of this map, which should be a repre­ plus one text with the travels of the apostle sentation of the travels of the Apostle Peter ('Peregrinatio Petri') and one with Paul, is based only upon the following the text with the journeys of Christ ('Pere­ reference on April 15th, 1572 in Plantin's grinatio Christi'). In the first edition of daily log book: 'Domino Gerardo Merca­ 1554, the text of the 'Peregrinatio Christi' tori par Louys de Dieu 4 rames du paper was engraved into the copper plate itself. grand fl. 12. Pour 1' impression de 20 For the new edition of 1572, Mercator mains de peregrinatio Pauli'. reworked this text in order to make this On the map of Europe, there is a car­ agree with his recently published dis­ touche in the upper right comer contain­ ~overy that Christ had preached for four ing text with just this title: 'Peregrinatio years and not three. In the exemplars of Pauli'. In this text, Mercator gives a con­ this map [i.e. the 1572 map of Europe] cise account of all the trips that the apostle preserved in Weimar and Perugia, the text undertook. I propose that the reference in is printed typographically, while on the 22 third known exemplar of the 1572 map of see that he imitated Mercator's map in the Europe (preserved in Basel), the text is smallest details. Noteworthy is that when engraved on to the copper plate itself. vande Putte published his map, Merca­ Similarly, it is possible that on some por­ tor's privilege for the world map, which tion of the maps, the text of the 'Peregri­ had been granted in 1569 for a ten year natio Pauli' was not engraved, but period, was still valid. The fact that Plan­ typographically set and printed by Plan­ tin sold both maps of vande Putte and tin. This hypothesis may then justly ex­ Mercator suggests that there must have plain the relevant reference in the Plantin been an agreement between the two car­ account ledgers. An additional argument tographers on this matter. That Plantin is that Abraham Ortelius does not refer to would dare to affront such an important such a map of Mercator when he publish­ client and supplier as Mercator is unthink­ ed his own map with journeys of St. Paul able. in his Parergon. While he scrupulously Finally, while Plantin purchased cites his sources in the accompanying text, maps and globes from Mercator, the car­ no reference to Mercator can be found. tographer bought paper, pasteboard and The existence of a large map of books from Plantin. The balance of the America can be demonstrated with more trade was negative for Plantin. Of great support. This map is also known only interest are the books that Mercator ob­ because it is mentioned in the journals and tained via Plantin. The cartographer had, 'great books'. It is also mentioned expli­ actually, a rich library containing more citly as a map in the archive in which a list than just books on cartography. Indeed, of the editions of the 'Officina Planti­ Mercator was primarily interested in phil­ niana' is given unti11593. Under the list osophy. The books that are listed in the 'Chartae geographicae diversae a Plantin archives contain a broader range diversis', one can read: 'America g[rand] of subjects: from mathematics to history, Mercatoris bl. f. 15 st. 30'. Moreover, it from bible editions to medicine. appears that Plantin also worked on this To conclude, we can propose that map, because on August 2nd, 1582, Plan­ while the 'Officina Plantiniana' was only tin charged Mercator 3 guilders for print­ one channel for the distribution of Merca­ ing '264 titulos Americae'. tor's maps, globes, and atlases, it was an We also know from the Plantin important one from which archival docu­ archives that cheaper versions of Merca­ ments can provide us with an image of the tor's maps existed. These were printed distribution of the cartographer's works. from woodblocks by the Mechelen map Indeed, no other source offers such a great publisher Bemaert vande Putte (1528?- treasure of information on this as the Plan­ 1580). In 1570, he published the map of tin archives. That the accounts of Plantin Europe and that of the British Isles; in and his successors have been preserved is 1574, the world map. Only a small frag­ of invaluable importance in the realm of ment of vande Putte' s world map is Mercator studies. preserved in the library of the Royal Geo­ DIRK IMHOF graphical Society in London. Here, we can Antwerp

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Ph: (212) 751 8135 & (800) 453 0045. Fax: (212) 832 5389 How did Gerard Cremer or Gerard Mercator design his grid with increasing latitudes, called the 'Mercator Projection'?

All map lovers, amateurs or specialists, graphia ofApianus, to which he added his admire the excellence of the calligraphy Libellus de Locorum Describendorum in Mercator's maps and globes. This im­ Ratione, which provided the geometrical proved the readability of his maps and basis for scientific cartography. This work plans. He published, in 1540 in Louvain, has been discussed by many modem his Literarum Latinorum, quas italicos scholars, among them Antoine DeSmet, cursoriusque vocant scribendarum ratio honorary president of the Belgian Na­ (The way to write Latin script, which is tional Center of the History of Science, Dr called italic or running hand), but he is Kish of Chicago, and Professor Van Or­ known for more important improvements troy of Ghent, to name just a few. At the than this. end of the book Frisius wrote: 'Sed si In biographies, you may read that totam Europam, quis per hos modos de­ Gerard Mercator utilised practical geo­ scribere velit commodissime hoc & cer­ metry (i.e., that he was a land surveyor) tissime in sphaeric efficiet corpore : quod and that he constructed scientific instru­ quum no sit vulgarium, hie miss urn facio' ments as a means of earning a living. He -So if you want to use this method for a put this early training to good use, while large area, you should use the surface of a solving theoretical problems in the fields, globe. and combined it with sound common In 1534 Mercator was working for sense. Frisius as a 'mechanicus', a maker of He was listed at Louvain University scientific instruments. The frrst terrestrial as 'pauperes ex castro' (a poor student and celestial globes had been constructed from outside the walls) in 1529, where he in 1530 for or by Gemma Frisius, but no had been introduced by Monachus (author example has been preserved. The earliest ofDe orbis situ ac discriptio in 1528) who to survive to modem times was one con­ instructed him in cosmography, and he structed by Gaspar Vanderheyden (Gas­ was taught mathematics and geometry by par a Myrica from Mechelin or Malines) Gemma Frisius. We know that he applied and Gerard Mercator in 1534. It was found himself assiduously to his studies, and and described in 1903 by Dr Ruge in benefited from reading the 1529 edition of Leipzig, but was later lost during the war. Euclides geometria a Johannes Voege­ The inscription read: 'Gemma Frisius leir. Medicus ac Mathematic us I ex varijs de­ After a two-year training in Antwerp scripsit geographicorum observa I tionis, as an engraver he went to work for atque in bane formam rediget : Gerardus Gemma Frisius in 1534. In 1533 Gemma Mercator Rupelmondus coelavit com Frisius had already published The Cosmo- Gaspare a Myrica'. The circumference of

25 this globe was 1.140 mm with a diameter need for a good projection. of 36J em (Van Ortroy, p.l46). From earliest times navigators had A second celestial globe was found sailed along coasts, and for this the portolan by Dr Ruge in Zerbst, also in 1903, in the charts were quite adequate. With the expan­ Gymnasium Franciscanum, with a cir­ sion of trade routes once the Portuguese cumference of 1160 mm, diam. 36,9 em. circumnavigated Africa and sailed to India This too was signed by Mercator and Gas­ and the Spanish crossed the Atlantic to bring par a Myrica. As Dr Elly Decker has gold and silver from the New World, better pointed out (Scientific Instrument Society navigational aids became a necessity for · Bulletin 3/93, p.19) Mercator's celestial survival and success. globe of 1551 used equatorial coordinates Mercator had a knowledge of mathe­ rather than ecliptic coordinates, based on matics and geometry. He applied this the Alfonsine tables. All other globes use knowledge to cosmography and cosmo­ the ecliptic coordinate system. To transfer logy, which he had learned from Gemma from ecliptic to equatorial coordinates, Frisius. But we know today that he had one can use the Astrolabium Catholicum other material to hand, since Mr Penne­ or Universal Astrolabe. Another pupil of man of St-Niklaas studied a manuscript Frisius, Rojas, published a treatise on the transcript made by Dr Van Raemdonck of Universal Astrolabe in 1550.It was the 1604 auction catalogue of the library Gemma Frisius, with whom Mercator was of Gerard Mercator and his son. Among in constant touch, who had written the the titles are not only books of philosophy, Astrolabium Catholicum in 1554, pub­ geography and cartography, but also the lished by his son two years later. leading mathematical treatises of the time. By the time Mercator left Lou vain for Even if Mercator was not himself a 'bril­ Duisburg in 1552, it is clear that he knew liant mathematician', he had a close rela­ the principles of the Universal Astrolabe, tionship with Gemma Frisius and also which had been in use by Arab geo­ with Beausard, professor of mathematics graphers for many centuries, and had been at Louvain. His terrestrial globe of 1541 'rediscovered' and published by Frisius. showed great improvement in naviga­ We also know that he built astrolabes tional directions, as it included early loxo­ himself, since three have been attributed dromic lines which had been first to him by Professor Gerard L 'E Turner described by Pedro Nunez in his Tratado (1994). The oldest is preserved in Brno de sphaera (Lisbon, 1537), and improved and has as a monogram on the rim 'GMR'. in his Opera (Basel, 1556). In 1547 Ger­ Its diameter is 289 mm, which is exactly ard Mercator completed his research on equal to one Louvain foot The other two the earth's magnetism, and placed the were made after 1552, one for the Medici magnetic centre near, but not exactly on, in Florence and another now in Augsburg. the North Pole. We have now established that Merca­ Time does not permit me to discuss tor worked as a surveyor, that he measured the development of cartographic methods land and designed charts and maps, and nor the evolution of projection systems, that he made instruments. I now turn to the and I must leave discussion of the cordi- 26 form projections of Oroncius Fine that 3rd step: Draw two lines through B and Mercator used in his 'Orbis Imago' map D, parallel to the line A-C. These are the of 1538 and pass straight to what is known meridians. as the 'Mercator projection'. This requires 4th step: From A, draw A-Band A-D. that a navigator should sail to his destina­ The line D-B is the equator. Draw a line tion crossing all the meridians at the same from A to SO between B and C, and 5° angle, on a line known as a loxodrome. Dr between D and C till parallels in B and D. Milller-Reinhard based his theory of the Join both intersections and you have a development of loxodromes on propor­ great circle at 5°. Continue lines on every tional triangles, as discussed in the intro­ 5°, and draw all the great circles which are duction to Ptolemy's 'Geographia'. H. of course parallel to the equator, and in­ Wagner developed a theory by which the crease towards the poles. These are the loxodrome was taken from a globe and increasing latitudes. placed on a chart. B. Kyewski sup­ plemented this argument (Archiv. Wis­ Mercator must have discovered this senschaftliche Geographe, 1951). method by constructing geometrical and A milestone in the history of carto­ astronomical quadrants. The joint appli­ graphy was Mercator's world map of cation of practical geometry and instru­ 1569: 'Nova et aucta orbis terrae descrip­ ment construction is the basis for the grid tio ad usum navigatium'. We know from with increasing latitudes described above. the history of mathematics that Mercator When it is drawn on a larger sheet of did not know the higher mathematics re­ paper, the cartographer is then ready to quired to solve the equations of the loxo­ prepare his map, using the 'Organum Di­ drome (d'Hollander, 1994). How then did rectiorum', which has already been dis­ he build his cylindrical projection with cussed elsewhere (Nauts, 1962). increasing latitudes? As I promised, no mathematics, no Already in 1513 Erhard Etzaub had formulae! I found confirmation of this constructed a sundial on the principle of theory in a treatise of 1584-85 by Lucas increasing latitudes (without meridians) Jansz Waghenaer, De Spiegel der Zee­ using a cylindrical projection (a remrukable vaerdt, where the 'graetboghen' instru­ paper was presented by Dr Brigitte Englisch ment and the construction of the from Germany in the St Niklaas June sym­ 'Pascaert' was fully described (Fig. 2). posium on the history of surveying). In a few words, it is possible that Mercator used the BIBUOGRAPHY following method (Fig. 1: Archiv. Wissenschaftliche Geographey(1951). Vol2 Cornelius Authorisz. Onderwijsing van der see- 1559. 1st step: Draw a circle of the required Averdunck & J. Miiller Reinhard (1969). Gerhard diameter and divide it into the four quar­ Mercator und Geographen unter seinen nach­ ters of 90°, with A at the top, C at the kommen. Amsterdam, Theatrum Orbis Ter­ rarum. bottom, and B and D on left and right Ernst. Crome (1962). De Kaart van Mercator en haar 2nd step: Divide the two lower quadrants ootvangst bij de Zeevaan-De Zee. in 90° from B and D to C. Elly Decker (1992). 'The Muhrad ill globes'. in 27 1!. to" H~

~..._ " '\:\ -~ 1 'Z

A Fig. 1. Simplified diagram to show how Mercator may have drawn his projection. 28 Christie •s catalogue + Scientific Instrument So­ Femand Van Ortroy (1920). Bio-bibliography de ciety, March, p.l9. Gemma Frisius fondateur de l' Ecole Beige de Albeit Buve (1962). 'La projection Mercator trans­ Geographie. Academie Royale Bruxelles. verse' in Annalen van de Oudheidkundige Kring A.S. Osley (1969). Mercator. A monograph or the van hetLand van Waas, 1861-1961, St-Nildaas. leneri.ng + Ghm' svita Mercatoris. London. Raymond d 'Hollander (1990). Historique de Ia loz­ Antoine DeSmet (1974). Album. Centre National odromie Mare Liberum. Lisboa. d'Histoire des Sciences, Bruxelles. Many articles Raymondd'Hollander(l994). 'MercatoretlaLoxo­ concentrate on Gerard Mercator and l'Ecole dromie', Paper presented at Symposium Fl.G., Scientifique of Louvain. History of Swveying, St. Ni.klaas, 3-4 June. Gerard L 'E. Turner (1991 ). 'The Muhrad III globes', Gerard Mercator en de Geografie in de Zuidelijke in Christie •s Catalogue, London. Nederlanden-catalogus bij de tentoonstell ung. Gerard L'E. Turner (1993). 'An astrolabe attributed Plantyn Moretus (1994), Publicatie 29. toGerardMercatorc.1570' ,inAnnalsofScience, HenriMichel(1962). 'Mercatorconstructeurd'instru­ pp403-443. ments astronomiques', in Ciel & Terre, June 5. Gerard L'E Turner (1994). 'The three astrolabes of Herman Nauts (1962). 'Over de Mercator projectie Gerard Mercator'. in Annals of Science, no. 51, op de Wereldkaart, 1569', in Annalen van de pp.329-353. Oudheidkundige Kring van hetLand van Waas, 1861-1961, St-Niklaas. JAN DE GRAEVE J.A. Van Houte (1963). G. Mercator 1512-1594- Herdenkingsrede. Academie Brussel. Brussels

cQntwcrp uauocr ~ract6ogcn ~t1~ru " ., mmttltllbt bit t'anbrm.

Fig. 2. The lgraetboghen' instrument and the construction of the 1Passcaert' , from De Spiegel der Zeevaerdt by Lucas Jansz Waghenaer . 29 A Diary of IMCoS in Antwerp

Friday 21st October District Commissioner for Sint-Niklaas Arrived in the afternoon. Antwerp has and Dendermonde, Mr Karel Dassen wel­ a small airport so no jet travel- back to comed us to Flanders in the year, 1994, the propeller era-a nervous unfamiliar which has been proclaimed 'the Mercator feeling although I am assured a modern year', to mark the fourth centennial of aircraft. To the hotel and then to 'tElzen­ Mercator's death. He outlined the acti­ veld, opened in 1988 by Queen Fabiola as vities which have formed part of this spe­ a cultural centre and described by the Ant­ cial year. werp Airport Magazine as follows: Early in 1994 the cartographic museum 'Established in the medieval St Elizareth's at St-Niklaas was inaugurated, with the Hospital, located in the heart ofAntwerp, this build­ Mercator collection as its focus, containing ing is a haven of tranquillity with several beautiful not only original atlases but also two orig­ inner gardens and closed off from the busy city inal Mercator globes-earth (1541) and a surrotmded by historic buildings. The congress celestial globe (1551). We learned of the centre can accommoda1e top-class seminars, meet­ ings, wmksbops and all kinds of artistic events ... intention to establish this museum as Flan­ the cen1re has thirty luxurious guest rooms in the ders meeting point for cartography, and former JXesbytery and in the monastery.' early next year the museum-in co-oper­ An international symposium, a map ation with the National Institute of Geo­ fair and a number of enthusiastic map graphy and several other scientific collectors most definitely comprised an establishments--will be enlarged. The mu­ "artistic event". seum is part of tomorrow's itinerary. Wandered round the fair before attend­ The second half of 'the Mercator year' ing a welcoming reception by the Deputy has been dedicated to international projects Mayor of the City of Antwerp, Mr G. Ber­ such as a Mini Festival ofLassus-Mercator gers. The Mayor's welcoming address was within the Festival of Flanders framework, followed by words from Shakespeare, or the publishing of the Mercator book by the rather from Professor Latre, a Shakes­ Mercator Find-Paribas and of course our pearean and Chaucerean scholar, who told own International Symposium. us that the map is Shakespeare's favourite Our welcome was followed by a metaphor for the face of one's soul, 'the map message from our President, Dr Helen of my microcosm' (Corialanus). A second Wallis, read by her emissary Tony Camp­ quote 'I see as in a map the end of all' did bell, expressing her regret that for medical not ring true with me. I was just beginning, reasons she was unable to be with us, but and it was time for wine and canapes as old indicating her pleasure that, in association acquaintances were renewed. with our Symposium, the Map Fair was a first for Belgium. Saturday 22nd On to the first speaker, Dr Henk van der A full morning with six speeches in a Heijden, whose aim was to introduce us to beautiful old beamed lecture theatre. The the Exhibition at Leuven 'Unity on Paper'

30 Speakers and Organisers at the Symposium (from the left): Itzhak Sperling, Rodney Shirley, Eliane Sperling, Karel Dassen, Dr Henk van der Heijden, Prof Jan De Graeve, Prof Xavier VanderPoel, Philippe Swolfs, and Bart Minnen. which we would see the following day. chants and other wealthy noblemen and We followed a cartographic and historic travellers, who demanded 'modern' maps journey of the Low Countries starting and globes to support their quests. with maps of the 17 separate provinces After coffee our theme changed and through the separation of the northern and Mr Bart Minnen described a unique col­ southern and onwards towards the culmi­ lection of 16th century 'cadastral' maps of nation of the exhibition.:...... every different Brabant A land registry of all the proper­ representation of the Leo Belgicus maps. ties within the Duchy of Aarschot was To set the cartography of the 16th established between 1596and 1601.From century in context, Professor Xavier Van a series of maps we envisaged its estates, de Poel then gave us an idea of changing coloured according to the type of tax due, world views in Mercator's time. New and we gained a picture of the medieval viewpoints (e.g. the earth is not the centre life of villages, castles and abbeys, with of the universe) were giving a very differ­ all upright elements in the landscape rep­ ent picture of the world theatre, and aca­ resented-stork's nests on important vil­ demics and craftsmen could no longer live lage houses-toll houses-even a in separate worlds. Their attitudes and glimpse of dungeons and gallows. methods began to converge. Mercator Our next speaker, Mr Dirk Imhof combined the skills of scientist and crafts­ from thePlantin-Moretus Museum, talked man, innovating to meet the needs of mer- of the cartographic material printed by

31 Plantin in Antwerp in the 16th century. 1662 Latin Edition, de Wit Atlas 1680 and Plantin, a book-binder before he became then on to Ortelius Theatrum Orbis Ter­ a printer and publisher, owned one of the rarum 1570 and Theatro de la Te"a most important printing houses of the 16th Universa/1612. Then the piece de resist­ century, publishing 2,500 works includ­ ance for me-Ptolemy's Cosmo graphia ing a Royal Bible, published in 1668-73. 1612-page after page in beautiful condi­ He was also a book dealer, selling works tion with clarity of line and colour. After of other publishers and became an import­ this anything else will seem ordinary. ant supplier of war maps. We learned The 'ordinary' proved to be two how, starting in 1558, he purchased 80 ancient bibles. In the frrst place, the 36line globes and 884 wall maps from Mercator Gutenberg Bible circa 1461 given by and nearly monopolised the trade in maps Luther to the Augustine Friars in An­ in the Netherlands. His network extended twerp, said to be the first complete bible, throughout Europe. This was by way of three volumes of which were on display. introduction to our afternoon visit to the Secondly the Biblia Polyglotta written in Museum, rich in material on the purchase 5 languages and published by Plantin in and distribution of Mercator's maps and 1568-72. Other book treasures on the first on the interdependence of the two men, floor ranged from the frrst drawing of a since Mercator purchased large quantities potato (ordered for Ousius in 1588), to of his raw materials from Plantin. some 16th century financial accounts­ Our final speaker, Professor Jan de the Ledger of Balthasar I of Moretus­ Graeve, came from the world of scientific recording the same items, such as assets instruments rather than cartography. His and liabilities, as we do today! was the task of putting himself into the In the Geography Room were wall mind of Mercator all those years ago and maps, including one of Flanders by Mer­ understanding how, as a man who prac­ cator in 1540 and two globes heaven and tised practical geometry, he had designed earth by van Langeren. A spinet adorned his grid with increasing latitudes called the drawing room together with a cabinet the 'Mercator projection'. of pretty Chinese porcelain. More rooms, A very full morning with the promise more books and-good heavens-a four of much of interest to be seen over the next poster bed. I felt tired enough to use it after 36 hours. Time for a beer and an omelette so much concentration but no, on to the en route to the Plantin Museum. The lay­ top floor of the house to the foundry. out of the ground floor, with its many Why place a foundry on the top floor? treasures, can be seen in the design on the The floor was made of stone, unlike the facing page. lower floors, and so less of a fire risk. Here On the first floor the importance of the types were cast. We saw punches, Antwerp as a printing centre was all matrices (copper blocks), moulds and around-Plantin portraits, showcases of smelting furnaces. It is hard to imagine Plantin' s life and works and especially for that the museum possesses about 20,000 us, a wealth of Atlases on view-Jansson matrices and 5,000 punches representing Verbium totiis Belgii 1657, Blau Atlas amongst others Roman, Italic, Gothic,

32 THE PLANTIN-MORETUS MUSEUM

Tucked in the comer of a square, an old building on three floors with a beautiful courtyard in the Brabant Gothic style in the centre. So much to see in this museum - memories of the ground floor:

The words of William The Great Tyndale (who translated the Room of the Drawings Drawing bible into English) and Manuscripts: Room: "ERE MANY YEARS I WILL CAUSE A BOY Beautiful paintings Exhibition of THAT DRIVETH THE including an allegorical dissidents' PLOUGH SHALL KNOW representation of Plantin's books MORE OF THE motto "Labore et SCRIPTURE THAN THOU Constantia" Portrait of DOST" Ortelius The Drawing Room of the Wall The Inner Court: Tapestries: The 17th Century Bookshop! A superb view of Tapestries of the south and west Audenarde and 17th A list of prohibited facades, the oldest century patrician books parts of the Plantin drawing room house, with busts of furniture Plantin, Jan The history of writing: Moretus I Jan Moretus II and The Room of the Correctors: Wall paintings, Lipsius hieroglyphics, lettering Home of two specialists - systems, materials, correctors of facts and instruments, correctors of typesetting manuscripts mistakes - with examples of corrected works on display

Room of Justius Lipsius: Type Room:

Hung in guadamacil, 16th Wall to wall shelves of typefaces- 90 different ones century Spanish gi It - some in their original packing! Setting of the leather from Cordoba Hippocratic Oath in Greek. Settings of music

Printing Plant:

Five printing presses dating from 17th & 18th centuries, which printed 100 sheets an hour. A 20th century demonstration!

33 Greek, Hebrew, Samaritan, Ethiopian, au romarin/vacherin glaci aux fruits de Ia Syrian letters. Set up by the Moretuses at passion rounded the day off to perfection. the beginning of the 17th century it is a unique model of an old type foundry. Sunday23rd After this it only remained to return to Could have done with a lie-in, but not earth-or rather the ground floor- and a a chance. A brisk walk to 't Elzenveld for well deserved glass of beer in a local the coach and a wonderful day in prospect· hostelry. We were split in two groups which fol­ Having revived, on to an Exhibition lowed the same itinerary but in a different at the Library of the University of An­ order. Group B, which included me, twerp where we met members of the travelled first to the Mercator Museum in Royal Geographical Society of Antwerp St Niklaas. (KAGA). A welcoming speech by Profes­ First we learned of the restoration of sor Dr van Halten, then the President of a Mercator IATO (Italian Atlas to Order) the KAGA, Mr de Ia Faye, told us about Atlas of 1532-1568. Containing 93 maps its activities past and present-it had pre­ and 4 sheets of text this was donated to the viously patronised expeditions, for Royal Historical Society in 1862. The example to South Pole, and had been ad­ atlas had water damage, mould and heavy dressed by illustrious speakers-for wear and tear and has now been lovingly example Captain Scott, Sir John Hunt and conserved and restored for the town coun­ Walter Shearer, pilot of the Mercury, cil of St. Niklaas. Pictures of the restora­ Gemini and Apollo spacecraftit has re­ tion process were on display. Naturally cently founded a Mercator Ortelius Prize every sheet was documented before remo­ for Geography awarded every two years val from the Atlas for treatment. We to a student of distinction in Belgium. learned some amazing statistics about the Atlases on display included a Blau Atlas restoration. For example the map of Flan­ in 12 volumes, Legrand atlas, ou Cosmo­ ders was glued to hardboard. It took 20 graphie blaviane, en La quelle est exacte­ hours to remove it by frrst using a scalpel ment descritte Ia terre, Ie mer et le and then steaming. In all, the work took ciel-1663. 1,500 hours and all maps are now either Now dead on my feet; thank goodness boxed in specially designed acid free only a short walk to the hotel. Then an boxes or on special mounts on the wall. even shorter walk from my hotel to the The four walls of one room contain some boat for the gala dinner. The compactness of its finest pages. of Antwerp was proving a real attraction. Next the second section of the Mu­ Drinks followed by dinner while the seum. Having been spellbound by the 'Flandria' steamed upriver to Rupel­ IATO Atlas, I was not particularly moved monde and then downstream of Antwerp by the very large maps on display here. before returning us to 'port'. The pleasant However I came under a second Mercator company of friends and new acquaint­ spell when I saw the two Mercator globes ances together with a menu of assiette of 1541, heaven and earth, in their original nordique/filet de pore au four au miel at stands. Having a diameter of 52 em they 34 ,, f:# '*· -i\~

Back to Mercator, as he looks down on admirers from his lofty position in Rupelmonde. have been cleaned at a cost ofBF5 million Council. This was in a small 'castle' al­ and now givearealfeelofwhatthey were most surrounded by a moat and reminis­ like in the 16th century showing their cent of a French chateau had it not been subtle autumnal colours of red green built of brick rather than white stone. In brown and gold. The celestial globe the afternoon on to Leuven to visit the showed amongst others Pegasus, Perseus, . Exhibition entitled 'Unity represented on Aries, Taurus, Orion. The earthly globe Paper'. A mixture of maps, paintings and portrayed the world as it was then known manuscripts told the history of the low to man. This was an occasion when I countries from 1369. What else was rep­ really did not want to leave, as there is too resented on paper in addition to many much of a yellow hue in the postcards to maps? provide a realistic memory. I shall defi­ From the period prior to the separ­ nitely be back-readers who were not ation of the 17 provinces in 1648 we saw with us-you must not miss this museum the seals of office of Maria of Burgundy, if you are in Belgium. It has plans for Duchess of Brabant and proclamations expansion so there should be more treats whereby she granted privileges to certain next time. cities. From the period immediately fol­ After this visit we travelled to Rupel­ lowing, paintings by Bonnecroy of An­ monde, past the site of Mercator's birth, twerp (1657) and of Amsterdam (c. 1650) to lunch courtesy of Rupelmonde Town provided powerful visual stimuli. I was

35

making a historical journey to the fall of minute stragglers. Soon in Brug~, where Antwerp, the period of the 12 year truce, three guides were waiting to give us a the war of the Spanish succession, the war guided tour of much of old Bruges, not of the Austrian succession and beyond specifically related to maps, but it gave us I became increasingly aware that my a very good idea of the background and lack of historical knowledge was seri­ times of the people whose work we have ously undermining my ability to ap­ been admiring this weekend. preciate the importance of all the We reassembled at one of the em­ material before me. The exhibition pro­ barking points of the canal boats, and en­ vided the political, religious and dynas­ joyed the comfort of gliding peacefully tic background necessary, but there was beside many of the buildings we had just so much to absorb in a short space of seen from the road, emphasising the use time. The intrusion of war was inesca­ of the waterways as arteries of the town. pable and not without reason is Belgium At this time of the year it was not too sometimes referred to as 'the cock pit of crowded, though it is plainly now one of Europe'! Cartographic reference points Belgium '.s leading tourist centres. were here in abundance. A hand drawn The afternoon was kept free for a Atlas of 1568-73 containing originally longer look at whatever appealed most. 28 maps by Christian 's Grooten was an Two places were specially marked on the example of mapping prior to printing; a maps we had been equipped with. Marc giant map of the Netherlands (1608) by Van de Wiele's Gallery in Sint-Salvator­ Willem Blau measuring 2 metres by 1.5 kerkhof was thrown open to us, and those metres was one whose size demanded who visited were wannly welcomed. And, attention; maps from schoolbooks for those who still felt they had a little drawn by monks for children reminded room for good Belgian food, Warwick one of the source of teaching at the time. Leadlay and his son Jerome had laid on a The visual attraction of the final section magnificent spread in their antique Gal­ of the exhibition, the Leo Belgicus maps lery in Scheepsdalelaan. It was a friendly was inescapable-my eye drawn to ending to a great weekend. those bordered with cartouches of the All participants will join in express­ cities contained therein. It was with ing our thanks to those who spent many those images fixed in my mind that I left months preparing and planning this the exhibition. symposium: our representative Itzhak A comfortable journey back to Ant­ Sperling and his wife Eliane worked werp and a relaxing evening in the com­ hard along with Philippe S wolfs to give pany of more friends. I felt sad that I had us what has been described as one of the to rennn to England in the morning and best series of symposium papers; Anne would miss the day in Bruges. Le Brun of Destree Organisation who JENNY HARVEY organised us all, Mr Dassen, Chairman Monday 24th of V.Z.W. Mercator 1994, members of Into the coaches once more, everyone KAGA and UFSIA, Rupelmonde Town so eager that we were delayed by no last Council, and all those whose names do 37 not appear but who put in many hours of Plantin and this helped considerably in the work . It was a memorable weekend, and we result. all learned a vast amount, as well as having a Mercator constructed globes and math­ ematical instruments, surveyed lands and wonderful time. drew maps that he engraved on fine copper SG plates as he was a qualified copper engraver as well. Our Travel Grant winner writes: The most important thing that makes Receiving a grant from IM:CoS is an hon­ Mercator so special is how he managed to our and I feel very proud as a recipient of the change the whole perspective and image of 'Young Members' Travel Grants. I would like cartography. Some of the most noticeable to especially thank the President and Commit­ pieces of his work are the map of Europe tee of IMCoS as well as the International in 1554 and the famous map of the World Chairman, the Cyprus Committee and partici­ in 1569. Between 1585 and 1595 Mercator pants for their care and warmth. I would also prepared the publication of his Atlas in like to thank all the participants for their con­ three stages. A collection of maps from all sideration and the attention they showed me over the world had not existed before. The during the 13th International Symposium in word 'Atlas' was used for the frrst time to Antwerp. describe this 'bundle of maps'. As Dr Gun­ My knowledge about cartography is ther Schilder said in his closing speech at limited and as a beginner in the field, I always the symposium, '. . . this book made it try to learn about maps, from the International easier for man to carry the weight of the Symposia as well as from the various articles world ... ' published in the IMCoS Journal. Other sources For a man who never travelled, his map that I use include books and other publications work is considered quite accurate, and bear­ concerning cartography and particularly maps ing in mind that he never visited the places of Cyprus. he illustrated his descriptions were fairly The fact that I was mostly made aware of correct. The fact that he was a good co-ordi­ at the last symposium is how Mercator is con­ nator comes out in his work, since travellers sidered to be the 'father' of all cartographers. reported back to him as he was sketching and Being the most famous Cosmographer next to trying, successfully if I may add, to produce Ptolemy, a great scholar and a talented techni­ what it was he thought they were describing. clan, his work is exceptional and as time passes Unfortunately the great Flemish map­ by, people are becoming more aware of the maker never made a map of Cyprus,j the qualities that this man had. domain that I am interested in. As A. and Mercator was a tough man-a per­ J .A. Sty lianou describe in their book The fectionist who delivered maps that were History of Cartography of Cyprus (Cyprus not maps alone. They were pieces of in­ Research Centre, Nicosi~ 1980, p. 82), Mer­ formation that till today give us food for cator never made a map of Cyprus, the last thought. They make us think of how map in the Atlas being that of 'Candia cum people who love what they do, can be Insulis aliquot circa Graeciam'. The map of committed enough to produce time-hon­ Cyprus which is usually passed under his oured work. Even at that time his work name to collectors, was actually introduced was considered exceptional and he was into the Atlas by Jodocus Hondius, the suc­ working on a masterful basis. He had cessor to the business. business ties with other well known MICHAEL N. EFREM printers and publishers such as Christopher 38 Sixteenth-Century Tempests and the Brave New World Maps and Mapp 'ry in Shakespeare

Is this 'a man or a fish' [holding up the Arden judge our own nature. In comparison with him, paperback of Shakespeare's Tempest]? The the jester Trinculo is worse than a sensual figure depicted here is that of Caliban, who in beast. And even worse than Trinculo is Anto­ the 'List of Actors' is called 'a savage and nio, the usurping Duke of Milan. He is en­ deformed Slave'. Caliban is a 'native' of the dowed with Reason, a zoon logon echoon, by island on which Prospera and his daughter which Aristotle meant that men like Antonio Miranda now live. This island is, in tenns of have the capacity of the logos, the ability both the play, somewhere between Milan and Af­ to reason and speak a language (preferably rica. But in terms of Shakespeare's late six­ English). Nevertheless, Antonio is a Renaiss­ teenth or early seventeenth century sources for ance man who falls very deep because he the play, it might just as well be an island in the reaches far too high. The title of Duke of Milan Caribbean - the Bermudas for instance, has always been above his station. By way of where in 1609 some Englishmen were ship­ contrast, Prospero 's daughter Miranda will one wrecked. Caliban then becomes a 'Caribban' day deservedly become the queen of Naples. or inhabitant of the Caribbean islands. Shakes­ Her name and her behaviour make us 'wonder' peare had at his disposal a millennium of fic­ about the nobility of our race. Are we, in Ham­ tional works plus at least a century (the 16th) let's words, 'infinite in faculties' and therefore of more 'scientific' accounts (complete with close to the angels? Or is Hamlet right when he maps) concerning remote islands and their in­ ultimately despises what we also are, the 'quin­ habitants. tessence of dust'? Read but 'the map of my The question whether Caliban is a man or microcosm,' suggests Menenius in Coriolanus a fiSh is raised by Trinculo (Tempest ll,ii,25), (ll.l.62). By this curious phrase he means his a jester from a group of people who have just face, the lines of which give answers to all your been shipwrecked on the island of Caliban and questions about his inner self. Similarly, in Prospera. For him, there is little doubt about Twelfth Night, it is said about the Puritan Mal­ the answer: Caliban is just an anagram for volio 's face that it is 'in more lines than is in cannibal; the creature is a monster and should the new map' (1II.ii.79). The word 'map' be sulxlued. Caliban might be useful, Trinculo becomes a metaphor for the landscape of the reflects, in a town like London, where one soul. could charge the mob for the spectacular sight When 16th century sailors or travellers in of a 'Man from Ind', an Indian from theWest general read Mercator's maps to discover new or East Indies, from America or Asia. Caliban lands, they are therefore faced not only with stands in a long tradition ofmonsters in the Old the task of finding a correct orientation, in Testament, in ancient Greek and Latin texts, geographical terms, innew territories. They are and in medieval accounts of miraculous jour­ out on an inward journey. Confronted with the neys like Mandeville's Travels. One still finds other or Other in an alien culture, the challenge these monsters drawn or painted in the corner is to define the alien's identity and to redefine of 16th century maps. In Shakespeare's play, their own. In the 16th century men and women the native gives the most convincing evidence still have fabulous medieval visions of other­ ofbelonging to the brave new world of renaiss­ worldliness. They are now called upon to ance civilisation: he speaks English. populate the Renaissance island of self-knowl­ Ultimately, Caliban becomes a mirror to edge and self-reliance.

39 1hls new process of discovery was some­ is endless. Both we and the world have their times painful. Those who used to project im­ limitations. Prospera has not only been ex­ ages upon unexplored territories now find their pelled from Milan; he has also been driven out world mapped out by Mercator, who as it were of the Garden of Eden. projected a global vision upon a blank and flat It seems to me that the sixteenth century surface that used to leave room for fantasy and was more aware of macrocosmic and micro­ speculation. Philip II of Spain would find out cosmic limitations and ambiguities than some to his dismay that the mathematics of meetings later periods in our history. The 18th century at sea were beyond his grasp. The ships from English colonist Robinson Crusoe puts his foot Spain and the Low Countries that were to meet much more literally and confidently on the in the 'English' Channel didnotmeet at alL and neck of Friday than Prospero does on the neck the Armada of the greatest colonising empire of Caliban. And the late 19th century writer of those days was shamefully defeated in 1588 Rudyard Kipling has few moral qualms about by the English merchant fleet and by the Prot­ the 'whiteman's burden' to cultivate the world estant wind God sent to help the English. as though it were an English backyard. Philip's English was certainly not good What I hold in my hand is neither a man enough. Neither was his plamring in his study nor a fish, but a book, the kind of object that in in the Escurial: 'They call this bed-work, the 16th century became man's most powerful mapp'ry, closet-war,' Ulysses says in Troilius weapon in the discovery of himself and the and Cressida (ll.ili.205). Not everyone in the world. And when Mercator had several pages renaissance of the South was a da Vinci and of maps bound together into a book, he called therefore capable of combining theoretical vi­ it an Atlas. It is the kind of book that makes it sions with a practical success. Nor was every­ easier to carry the weight of the world upon one in the North of Europe a Mercator for that your shoulders. matter. GUIDOLATRE As Stephen Greenblatt's recent book on K.U.Leuven Renaissance SelfFashioning points out, hav­ ing to be a self-made man was a dangerous business, and required a great deal of knowl­ MAPS AND SOCIETY edge of one's own limits. 'You know neither The next three talks, at the Warburg me, yourselves, nor any things,' says Menenius (in Coriolanus) in answer to his own Institute, London, 5.00 pm, are: question about the map of his face. How does one map one's life out in the 16th century? Dec. 8. Prof. John Williams: Beatus Where should we renaissance people and Isidore: Mapping the Apostolic draw the line? Where to draw the line is a Mission question Mercator may have put in a sense that was often more than literal. On globes you can Jan 19. John Leopold: Finding East travel on indefinitely. On their projection on and West The Art of Establishing maps this seems more problematic: 'I see the Longitude ruin of my House,' says that other Queen Eli­ zabeth, wife of King Edward IV in Richard/// -'I see, as in a map, the end of all' (II.iv .44- Feb 16. Prof. Walter Goffart: 49 ). There is, I am afraid a limit to the price one Breaking the Ortelian Mould: The can pay for a map on display in the fair of this Vogue for Atlases of Universal His­ world. It is only the voyage to our selves that tory, 1747-1830

40 International News & Events

1995 14th International Symposium Monday Oct. 9 with California Map Society Map Fair and Auction Preview 9 am-5 pm San Francisco, USA Visits to museums & exhibitions 8-11 October Map Auction 7.15-9.00 pm Contact: Alfred W. Newman 1414 Mariposa St, Vallejo Tuesday Oct 10 CA94590 Symposium 9.00 am-noon Tel: (707) 642 9091 Visit to University of California at Berkeley and tour of Bancroft 1996 15th International Symposium library in the afternoon Riga, Latvia 6-90ctober Wednesday Oct 11 Contact: Dr Janis Strauchmanis Symposium 9.30 am-noon . Tallinas 83-40, LV-1009 Visit to Stanford-Green Library and Tel: 371 2 29 05 72 on to Sutro Library in the afternoon Fax: 371 2 22 50 39 Symposium Banquet 8.00 pm

1997 16th International Symposium Post-symposium tours may be arranged, Budapest, Hungary depending on demand, to: 26-29 September Napa Valley Contact: Dr Zsolt TOrok Yosemite Dept of Geography Southern California EC>tvos University Ludovika 2, 1083 Budapest The registration form will be sent to mem­ Tel: 36 1 134 2785 bers early in the New Year, and will in­ clude details of symposium fees, and the California, 1995 programme for post-symposium tours. Planning for our symposium in San Rooms will be available at the Marines Francisco next year is now well advanced, Memorial at the special rate of $90 single, and a tentative programme has been pre­ and $95 double per night, plus tax. pared by Al Newman and his committee. Al writes that early October in San All the events will take place at Marines Francisco is 'traditionally one of our best Memorial Association Hotel, 609 Sutter weather periods, usually without rain, and St (except as noted below). relatively warm and clear. Yesterday's temperature was 54° low and 83° high.' Sunday Oct. 8 It may be possible for participants to Registration 9 am-5 pm stay as house guests with members of the Map Fair noon-5 pm Californian Map Society during the visit Reception in the evening to Southern California. More on this later.

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Letter to the Editor

Bagnacavallo King Francis I of France, he tried, as far 25/09/1994 as possible, to keep the independence of Sirs the Republic of Genoa, in the most With regard to the article 'Rare Italian troubled period of Italian history. Woodcut Maps of the Sixteenth Century' Another interesting annotation is by Rodney W. Shirley (IMCoS Journal, 'Marchese del Vasto Capitano': Alfonso no. 58) and about the description of the d' Avalos (1502/1544), Marquis del Vasto map 'La presa di Tunes', I have to point and di Pescara, Neapolitan of Spanish ex­ out that 'Capitano Andrea Dorio', or bet­ traction and valiant general of Emperor ter Andrea Doria, was not Venetian, but Charles V, was the commander of the from Genoa, as was most of the fleet that Spanish troops. He died fighting against took part in that expedition. The coat of the French, while he was governor of arms of Genoa is a cross, the coat of arms Milan. of Venice bears the lion of St. Mark. Gianni Veggi Andrea Doria (1466/1560) was the Via Cristofori 48 best Italian admiral of his times. Often 48012 Bagnacavallo (RA) allied with Emperor Charles V or with Italy 43 Fine Antique Maps, Atlases & Globes

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Specialist in ..;.. Fax (0)40-854075 · Tel (0)40-853571 ' Hand colouring , ~, , ·•. and ' . / / Restoration in maps and prints maps~ prints and atlases of all parts of the world. Brobury House Gallery BROBURY . . •.•... -· --- Herefordshire HR3 6BS . Fax or ·write for catalogue 0981500 229 Please specify wauts. UK News & Events 31 January 1995 parishes, townships, cities and manors in Informal Evening at the Farmer's Club, various parts of England. [This detailed 3 Whitehall Court, London SWlA 2EL information comes from the newly pub­ (nearest tube stations: Embankment or lished Historians' Guide to Early British Charing Cross), at 6.00 pm. Maps, ed. Helen Wallis with Anita Members may bring guests, and intro­ McConnell, to be reviewed here shortly.] duce them to IMCoS. It is especially More detailed information is included hoped that they may like to bring along on the registration form, which should be young friends, as it is a very informal sent to the Secretary before 15th April. gathering, and no knowledge of maps is necessary, only a liking for them! 24th June 1995 Members may bring a map which The Annual Dinner will be held at they themselves find interesting, or about the Royal Over-Seas League, London which they seek information, and be pre­ SW1A lLR. The pre-dinner speaker will pared to talk on it for about five minutes. be Admiral G .S. Ritchie, celebrating the The meeting will be chaired by Rodney bicentennary of the Admiralty Hydro­ Shirley. Light refreshments will be avail­ graphic Office with a talk entitled 'The able at a small charge. It is helpful if those First Hundred Years'. More detailed in­ planning to come would phone Harry formation is included on the registration Pearce on 081-769 5041, so that we can form which should be sent to the Secretary estimate numbers. before 1st June (or 15th April if the visit to Sheffield is also included). 29thApril1995 A visit has been arranged to Sheffield 25th June 1995 City Archives, to see the Fairbanks col­ The IMCoS Map Fair will be held at lection of maps. The Fairbanks family the New Connaught Rooms, Holbom, provided three generations of surveyors London. Open at 10.00 am to IMCoS and map makers between 1688 and 1848, members, 10.30 to the public. active in Sheffield and its surroundings, and elsewhere in Britain. Though the In Edinburgh wealth of material (more than 4600 plans The Royal Society of Edinburgh and and maps, and more than 1000 surveyors' the National Library of Scotland are orga­ books) is far more than we can hope to nising a symposium, 'Charting the Scot­ comprehend in one visit, we will obtain an tish Seas 1500-2000' on Sanrrday 18 introduction to an important archive in February 1995. Registration forms (to be British surveying history. In addition to submitted not later than 18 Jan)are avail­ plans for railways in various parts of Eng­ able from The Royal Society of Edin­ land, turnpike roads in neighbouring burgh, 22, 24 George St, Edinburgh. The counties, and enclosure maps of Derby­ fee of £25 covers coffee, buffet lunch and shire and Yorkshire, there are maps of tea

45 SPAIN Maps, Prints & books FRAME RODERICK M. BARRON The Antique Map Specialist 21 Bayham Road, Sevenoaks, Kent TN13 3XD Tel/Fax/24 Hr Answerphone: 0732-742 558 Maps of the Far East and Japan a speciality MATTHAUS SEUTTER c.l/40 IMPERIUM JAPONICUM

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--- 0 i~ ~ ili -

1!!W~~.&V\"B:$:iJjtg~ wr,JNm\.' Mapping Mt. Everest In the Summer 1994 issue of the IMCoS January 1858) completely refuting Hodg­ Journal David Bannister contributed an son's claims, and re-affirming the true interesting article, 'How to be 20 Feet position of Mt Everest. Taller in 135 Years', describing how the Waugh's map is interesting because it height of Mt. Everest had been deter­ sets out the triangulation pattern across mined; first in the 1850s and then in 1992. north-east India which had been used for The original map he referred to show­ sightings of no less than 27 Himalayan ing Everest for the first time (illustrated on peaks of which Mt. Everest is number XV. the facing page) is indeed the one made in All the observations had to be made from 1858 by Lieutenant-Colonel Andrew India as entry into Nepal was then strictly Scott Waugh, Surveyor-General of India, forbidden, and Nepal remained closed to but it was actually made for quite a differ­ foreigners for a fwther 90 years. ent purpose. Detailed calculations show­ Most of the other peaks numbered on ing that Mt. Everest was the highest the map are today identified under more mountain in the world, at 29,002 feet, had familiar names. Kanchenjunga is one of been communicated by Waugh nearly two the few peaks named as such, with a cal­ years earlier, in March 1856. culated height of 28,156 ft, and the high Waugh's map was prepared because peak number :xm on the map close to a dispute had arisen after a claim by a Everest is now known as Makalu, height certain Mr Hodgson who sought, in a 27,799 ft In the case of Everest, no fewer paper in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic than seven sightings were made, ranging Society, to amalgamate Mt Everest with from Dumdangi in the east to Jirol, 150 another uncertainly located mountain miles (as the crow flies) to the west The called Deodanga. ·This is the other moun­ closest observation point was still over tain cited in the title to the map. A sledge­ 100 miles from Everest itself. hammer of a report was prepared by In the light of all the difficulties, the Waugh (which may be read in the Journal 1850s survey yielded a set of remarkably of the Royal Geographical Society for 11 accurate results. Despite much more ad­ vanced surveying equipment, as David SUBSCRIPTIONS Bannister points out, a revision of only 20 If your subscription is no longer valid feet (from 29,002 ft in 1856 to 29,022 ft after December 1994, please mail £18 in 1992) is a minimal correction indeed. (US$36) for 1 year, £45 (US$90) for Accounts of the Himalayan survey 3 years, or £150 (US$300) for 10 years were on occasions summarised in re­ to the Membership Secretary, by ports published in the Journal of the Royal cheque payable to IMCoS, or giving Geographical Society and make fascinat­ your AccessNisa (not Amex) Card ing reading. Waugh's map is a reminder No. (to be debited through Intercol of the great achievements of the near -past. London) and expiry date. RODNEY W. SHIRLEY

48 •i' )f ap

·:·. I o fl/u3trnt'' Col

•I•, Sc-.ie 3 2 M.ilu to .ut fneb. . MT. EVEREST 29,002 ft. v

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Specialist advice on investment. Call at our lovely Gallery in the heart of Historic Edinburgh or write to We particularly specialise in small, early maps. A Carson Clark FRGS SCOTIA MAPS-MAPSELLERS 173 Canongate We welcome any enquiries. The Royal Mile Edinburgh EH8 8BN Tel: 031-556-4710 We usually attend the monthly Bonnington Map Fairs. Catalogues issued on request IMCoS List of Officers Directors Themis Strongilos Advisory Council Alfred W. Newman President Dr Helen Wallis OBE Past President Rodney Shirley Executive Committee and Adelaide W.A.R. Richardson Appointed Officers Barcelona Sra Montserrat Galera President Dr Helen Wallis OBE London Tony Campbell Chairman Susan Gale London Catherine Delano Smith Gen Secretary Harry Pearce Ottawa Ed Dahl Treasurer Cyrus Ala'i Paris Monique Pelletier Membership Sec Jenny Harvey Utrecht Dr Gunter Schilder Publicity Officer Yasha Beresiner Washington Ralph Ehrenberg Map Fair Organiser Roger Brown Map Fair Liaison Philip Burden International Officers Advertising Manager Warwick Leadlay Chairman Malcolm R Young Ubrarian Christopher Terrell Secretary Robert Clancy Photographer David Webb Development Officer Caroline Batchelor Journal Editor Susan Gale Representatives America, Central: Paul F Glynn, Latvia: Dr Janis Strauchmanis, Casa El Carmen, 3a Avenida Norte 8, Tallinas 83--40, Riga, LV-1009 La Antigua, Guatemala Mexico: Martine Charnel de Coelo, Edificio America, South: Dr Lorenzo GOller Frers, Condesa G1, Mexico 06140 OF Peru 285, 1641 Acassuso, Argentina Netherlands: HDA Kok, Poelwaal 15, Australia: Prof Robert Clancy, 2162 HA Lissa 11 High Street, Newcastle, NSW 2300 New Zealand: Neil McKinnon, Belgium: ltzhak Sperling, PO Box 84 7, Timaru 137 Voskenslaan, B 9000 Gent Norway: PAl Sagen, Bygd0y Aile 69, Bulgaria: Bojan Besevliev, lnst for Balkan PO Box 102 Tasen, N-0801 Oslo 8 Studies, ul. Kalojan 7, 1000 Sofia Philippines: C.J. Beresford-Jones Canada: Edward H Dahl, Nat. Archives of P.O. Box 789, Manila Canada, onawa, Ontario K1 A ON3 Portugal: JC Silva, Croatia: Ankica Pandzic, Travessa de Quelmada 28, Usbon 2 Historical Museum of Croatia, Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia: Matoseva 9, YU-41 000 Zagreb Julie Yeo, Antiques of the Orient, 21 Cyprus: Dr AJ Hadjipaschalis, PO Box Cuscaden Road, Ming 4506, Nicosia Arcade 01-02, Singapore 1024 Finland: Jan Strang, Antiiki-Kirja, South Africa: Dr Oscar Norwich, Kalevankatu 25, SF-001 00 Helsinki 306 Devon Place, North Avenue, France: Jacques Reutemann, Riviera, Johannesburg 2193 54 Rue des Grands Forts, 26110 Nyons Spain: Jaime Armero, Frame SL, Germany: Prof Dr D Novak, General Pardif1as 69, Madrid 6 Adenaurallee 23, 0-5300 Bonn 1 Sweden: Gunnar Skoog, Greece:Themis Strongilos, Skoogs Foretagsgrupp AB, Malmo 19 Rigillis Street, GR-1 06 74 Athens Thailand: Dr Dawn Rooney, Hungary: Dr Zsolt TOrOk, Dept/Geography, PO Box 11, 1238 Bangkok Eotvos Univ. Ludovika 2, Budapest Turkey: F Muhtar Katircioglu, Karanfil Iceland: Kjarten GOnnarsson, Lyfjabudin Araligi 14, Levent, 80620 Istanbul ldunn, Laugavegi 40(a), Reykjavik USA, Central: Kenneth Nebenzahl Inc, Israel: Eva Wajntraub, PO Box 370, Glencoe, Ill 60022 4 Brenner Street, Jerusalem USA, East: Charles A Burroughs, 686 Col­ Italy: JD Maranelli, Villa Clampedelles, lege Parkway, Rockville, MD 20850 Crignes 76, Cortina d'Ampezzo USA, West: Alfred W Newman, 1414 Mari­ Japan:Kazumasa Yamashita, 10-7 2- posa Street, Vallejo, CA 94590 chome, Sendagaya, Shibuya-ku, Tokyo Let Yasha Beresiner welcome you to the COLLECTOR'S WORLD

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