New Patterns:The PolycentricMetropolis 453 eral A U.N. study of 20 megacitiesfound that every one and decentralizedurban landscapesof late-twentieth-cen- of them had at least one major pollutant at levels ex- tury North America.a The galactic metropolis evolved )t ceeding\forld Health Organization (VHO) guidelines. from the traditional pattern of concentric zonesas sec- 5a Fourteen of the 20 had two major pollutants exceeding ondary businessdistricts and commercial strips emerged er 'eo WHO guidelines, and sevenhad three. Such pollution is in the to cater to neighborhood shopping and not only unpleasantbut dangerous.In , the Philip- serviceneeds and decentralizedindustrial districts devel- l0 use pines, the Asian Development Bank found levels of sus- oped around airports and freeway interchanges.Subse- lent pendedparticulate matter in the air to be 200-400 percent quently, edgecities grew into suburban hubs of shopsand ts above guideline levels.In Mexico , where sulfur diox- officesthat sometimesovershadow the old central business n ide and lead concentrations are two to four times higher districts. Edge are nodal concentrationsof shopping than the \fHO guidelines,and where national ozonelev- and office space situated on the fringes of metropolitan els are exceededon more than half of the days through- areas,typically near major highway intersections.Tysons t out the year,seven in 10 newborns have dangerouslyhigh Corner, Virginia, just outside lWashington'sbeltway, pro- tct- levelsof lead in their bloodstream.WHO studiesdemon- vides a good example (Figure 11.32). en- strate that it is unhealthy for human beingsto breathe air The result is a polycentric metropolitan structure that d with more than 100 to 1.20parts per billion (ppb) of ozone now has variants around the world. GeographerPeter rob- contaminants for more than one day a year.Yet Mexico Hall has identified six common types of nodes within the City residentsbreathe this level, or more, for over 300 polycentricmetropolis:5 daysa year.In Bangkok, Thailand, where air pollution is t The traditional dountoun center, based on walking almost as severeas in , research has shown distancesand servedby a radial transportation center. that lead-bearingair pollutants reduce children'sIQ by The hub of the traditional metropolis, it has become an averageof 3.5 points per year until they are sevenyears the setting for the oldest informational services:bank- old. It has also been estimatedthat Bangkok's pall of dust ing, insurance,and government.Examples include the and smokecauses more than 1,400 deathseach year and City of London, Chitelet-Les Halles (Paris),lower $3.1 billion eachyear in lost productivity resultingfrom Manhattan, and Maronouchi/Otemachi (). traffic and pollution-linked illnesses. Proximity to industrial facilities,often the result of t Newer business centers, often developing in an old the need and desire of the poor to live near placesof em- prestigiousresidential quarter and serving as a set- ployment, posesanother set of risks. A notorious acci- ting for newer servicessuch as corporate headquar- dent at the Union Carbide factory in , India, in ters, the media, advertising, public relations, and 1984 caused2,988 deathsand more than 100,000 in- design. Examples include London's $ZestEnd, the juries, mostly among residentsof the shantytownsnear 16th Arrondissment in Paris, midtown Manhattan, the chemical factory. and Akasaki/Roppongi(Tokyo). t Internal edge cities, resulting from pressure for space s for in traditional centersand speculativedevelopment in ada- nearbyobsolescent industrial or transportationsites. ,ople NEWPATTERNS: THE POLYCENTRIC Examples include London's Docklands, La D6fense i res- METROPOLIS (Paris),and Shinjuku (Tokyo). ruch t External edge cities, often located on an axis with a ding Traditional patterns of and spatial organization major airport, sometimesadjacent to a high-speed may in many parts of the world are being transformed by the train station,always linked to an urban freewaysys- hose local effects of splintering . Economic and cul- tem. Examples include'Washington'sDulles corridor, tural , together with the uneven evolution London's Heathrow district, the O'Hare areain Chica- lrm- of networked infrastructures of information and com- go, Schipol(Amsterdam), and Arlanda (). nod- munications technologies,is forging new landscapesof t Outermost edge-ci4t for rbile innovation, economic development,and cultural trans- complexes back offices and R&D operations,typically near major train stations pol- formation, while at the same time intensifying social and 30 to 50 kilometers(18.6 to 31 miles)from main ides, economicinequalities between the fast world and the slow the core.Examples include Reading (outside London); St. lem- world. As we noted in Chapter 10, thesetrends are most (Paris); rinto pronounced in world cities and major regional metropol- Quentin-en-Yvelines Greenwich, Connecticut (outsideNew York); and Shin-Yokohama(Tokyo). rg of itan centers,particularly in core countries. Nevertheless, low- fragmentsof this splintering urbanism are increasinglyev- ly to ident throughout the world as new technologies,new forms aP. ient, of economic organization, and new sociocultural norms Lewis, "The GalacticMetropolis." In R. Platt and G. Macuriko, orne spreadthrough the global urban system. eds.,Beyond the Urban Fringe. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,1983, pp. 2349. l^t^, North American cities were the first to break away 5P. Hall, "-Regions in the Twenty-first Century." In A. J. p air from traditional patterns. GeographerPierce Lewis coined Scott, ed., Clobal City-Regions: Trends, Tbeory Policy. New York: i the term "galactic metropolis" to capture the dislointed Oxford University Press,2001, pp. 59-77. 454 CHAPTER11 CitvSoaces:Urban Structure

Figure11.32 TysonsCorner, Vir- ginia An locatedon the beltwayoutside Washington, D.C., TysonsCorner is an unincorporated area that contains45,000 residents and over 100,000 jobs. TysonsCor- ner does not existas a postalad- dress:residents' mail mustgo either to Viennaor McLean,Virginia. But thisanonymous city containsa huge concentrationof commercial space (the eighth largestof all CBDs in the UnitedStates in 2000), including more than 27 million squarefeet of office space,several million squarefeet of retailspace, nine major departmentstores, more than 3,500 hotelrooms, and parking for more than 90,000 cars.

: Specialized subcenters,usually for education, enter- centralcitylike challenges-aging infrastructure,deterio- tainment,and sporting complexes,exhibition and rating schoolsand commercialcorridors, and inadequate convention centers.These take a great variety of housing.At the other end are the boomburbs of the west- forms and locations.Some are on reclaimedor recy- ern United States:new tracts of sprawling, low-density, cled land closeto the traditional core;some are older and auto-dependentsuburbs that are growing at a fever- centers,formerly separateand independent,that have ish paceat the fringe of metropolitan areas. Figr becclmeprogressively embedded in the wider metro- In many metropolitanareas the changingface of sub- spra politan area. urbia is fueling an intensedebate about the quality, pace, and shapeof growth. Central to the debateis the ideaof The largestof the world's polycentric metropolises smart growth. Smart growth is a package of suburban asr havebecome "100-mile giliss"-mslropolitan regionsthat land-useplanning principlesdesigned to curb sprawl. Its basr are literally 100 miles or so across,consisting of a loose advocatesclaim that growth restrictionsraise the quality are coalition of urban realms,or economicsubregions bound of life, increasethe efficiencyof urban infrastructureand and togetherthrough urban freeways.In some regions,clus- protect the environment.Among the key principlesof gro' ters of networked, polycentric metropoliseshave devel- smart growth are the following: gro' opedinto cohesive"megapolitan" regions (see Box 11.2: tion "Megapolitan Regions." r preservinglarge areasof open spaceand protecting the quality of the environment by settingaside large prol fringe areaswhere developmentis prohibited; fecti Sprawl r redevelopinginner suburbs and infill siteswith new tog Inherentin the polycentricmetropolis and endemicto most and renovatedstructures to make them more arrrac- cult contemporaryurbanization is suburbansprawl. The Unit- tive to middle- and upper income households; no!! ed Statesis the exemplar (Figure 11.33). Between 1985 r reducing dependencyon private automotive vehi- cutt and 2000, when the populationof U.S.metropolitan areas cles-especially one-personcars-by requiring high- witl increasedby 17 percent,about 25 million acresof farm- er density development, clustering high density blea land and open space(roughly the sizeof Indiana)was de- gas around transit stops,raising taxes,and increasing parl veloped around these metropolitan areas:a 47 percent public investmentin light-rail transit systems; out r increasein developedland. Since1985, the 100 largestur- r encouraginginnovative urban designand reg- calle banizedareas have sprawled out over an additional 37,670 ulationsthat createpedestrian-friendly communities, a fat squarekilometers (74,545 square miles). In the polycentric mixed land uses,and commercial centerslclcated at com metropolis,suburbs are no longer just bedroom commu- transit stops; of s< nitiesfor workers commuting to traditional . r creating a greater senseof community within indi- mos Rather, many are now strong employment centersserving vidual localitiesand a greaterrecognition of region- hom a variety of economic functions in their regions.As the al interdependenceand solidarity. as rh polycentricmetropolis has evolved, suburbs have become more economicallyand physicallydiverse. Smart-growthadvocates include anti- or slow-growth At one end of the continuum lie suburbsbuilt in the and environmental organizations,together with central early or middle twentieth century that are experiencing city and inner suburbanleaders and interestgroups, such "R.K. New Patterns:The PolycenlricMetropolis 455

'lir- he .c., ated 3nts Cor- t- ither But nuSe race rwn r00), rral JE, nore rking

;erio- luate west- nsitS ever- Figure1'1 .33 Suburbansprawl Contemporaryurban development in the UnitedStates is characterized above all by suburban isub- sprawl.This photograph shows a new subdivisionlayout encroaching on farmlandoutside East Phoenix, Arizona. pace, ea of Lrban as mayors, downtown businessgroups, and community- PackagedLandscapes rl. Its basedorganizations. Opposed to smart-growth principles The generic landscapesof the polycentric metropolis are rality are most developers,homebuilders, major landowners, increasinglypackaged in order to appealto particular sub- : and and chambers of commerce. Their objections to smart markets.As we have seen(Chapter 10), globalizationhas es of growth are partly based on the contention that smart produced a splintering urbanism that requires the devel- growth costs more, and partly on an ideologicalobjec- opment of severalkinds of functional enclaveswithin met- cting tion to planning controls that inhibit opportunities for ropolitan areasthat are active nodes within the global large profit through real estatedevelopment. urban system. Globalization has also contributed to the Resistanceto smart growth and debate as to its ef- emergenceof a postmodern culture in which the symbol- fectivenesshas meant that, in practice, sprawl continues new ic properties of places and material possessionshave as- to gather pace, consuming ever greater amounts of agri- itrac- sumed unprecedentedimportance, with places becoming cultural land. The scaleof the developmentindustry is important objectsof consumption (Chapter6). now suchthat suburban sprawl occursin large increments, In this new economic and cultural context, packaging vehi- cutting and within months filling swathes of rural land has become an important marketing strategy.So, for ex- high- with residential subdivisions, condominium complexes, ample, the developersof businessparks bundle office space nsity bleak accessroads, strip malls, parking lots, and office with day-carecenters, fitness centers, and integratedretail asing parks. Most of the architecture and is with- and entertainment spaces,surrounded by lush landscap- out merit, adding up to what architect Rem Koolhaas has ing and perhaps a nine-hole golf course. Shopping malls ,reg- called "Generica"6(Figure 11.34).Following the logic of are themed and packaged with movie theaters and din- rities, a fast return on investment and flexibility in use, most ing, exhibit, and performancespaces. Condominium com- ed at commercial structuresare simple boxes, while economies plexesare packagedwith high-bandwidth Internet access, of scale dictate a cookie-cutter approach for all but the enhancedtelephone services,movies on demand, party indi- most upscaleresidential subdivisions-where "monster centers,pools, and fitnesscenters. Private, master-planned gion- homes," "starter castles,"and "McMansions" take over residential communities are packaged with security sys- as the norm. tems, conciergeservices, bike trails, "" centers,and owth even elementary schools. Increasingly,master-planned ntral communities are themed and packaged in different ways such 6R.Koolhaas, Mutations. : ACTAR, 2001,p. 524. in order to appeal to different market segmentsand New Patterns:The Polycentric Metropolis 455 t- e :., ted 1tS or- her ut ruSe lce VN )0), al ore king

lrlo- uate vest- LsitS )ver- Figure11.33Suburbansprawl ContemporaryurbandevelopmentintheUnitedStatesischaracterizedaboveall bysuburban sub- sprawl.This photograph shows a new subdivisionlayout encroaching on farmlandoutside East Phoenix, Arizona. ,ace) :a of rban as mayors,downtown businessgroups, and community- PackagedLandscapes l. Its basedorganizations. Opposed to smart-growth principles The generic landscapesof the polycentric metropolis ality are most developers,homebuilders, major landowners, are increasinglypackaged in order to appealto particular and and chambers of commerce. Their objections to smart sub- markets.As we haveseen (Chapter 10), globalizationhas :s of growth are partly based on the contention that smart produced a splintering urbanism that requires the devel- growth costs more, and partly on an ideological objec- opment of severalkinds of functional enclaveswithin met- rting tion to planning controls that inhibit opportunities for ropolitan areasthat are active nodes within the global rarge profit through real estatedevelopment. urban system.Globalization has also contributed to Resistanceto smart growth and debate as to its ef- the emergenceof a postmodern culture in fectivenesshas meant that, in practice, sprawl continues which the symbol- new ic propertiesof placesand material possessionshave to gather pace, consuming ever greater amounts of agri- as- ttac- sumed unprecedentedimportance, with places cultural land. The scaleof the developmentindustry is becoming important objectsof consumption (Chapter6). now suchthat suburban sprawl occursin large increments, In this new economic and cultural context, packaging i'ehi- cutting and within months filling swathes of rural land has become an important marketing strategy.So, for ex- righ- with residentialsubdivisions, condominium complexes, ample, the developersof businessparks bundle office nsity bleak accessroads, strip malls, parking lots, and office space with day-carecenters, fitness integratedretail rsing parks. Most of the architecture and urban design is with- centers,and and entertainmentspaces, lush landscap- out merit, adding up to what architect Rem Koolhaas has surroundedby ing and perhaps a nine-hole golf course. Shopping malls i reg- called "Generica"6(Figure 11.34).Following the logic of are themed and packaged with movie ities, a fast return on investment and flexibility in use, most theaters and din- ing, exhibit, and performancespaces. Condominium com- ed at commercial structures are simple boxes, while economies plexesare packagedwith high-bandwidth Internet access, of scale dictate a cookie-cutter approach for all but the enhancedtelephone services, movies on demand, party indi- most upscaleresidential subdivisions-where "monster centers,pools, and fitnesscenters. Private, master-planned gion- homes," "starter castles,"and "McMansions" take over residential communities packaged as the norm. are with security sys- tems,concierge services, bike trails, "town" centers,and owth even elementary schools. Increasingly,master-planned ntral communities are themed and packaged in different ways such 6R. Koolhaas, Mutations. Bordeaux: ACTAR, 2001, p. 524 in order to appeal to different market segmentsand New Patterns:The Polycentric Metropolis 459 idor on's red lark A. Stamford,CT the

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Figure11.34 Generica American atti- tudestoward investmentin the built envi- ronment,together with poor planning and weak regulations,have led to a generic landscapeof office buildings,warehouses, shoppingmalls, and residentialsprawl.

lifestyle communities. Some, like Anthem, north of Marketing packaged landscapeslike these has been Phoenix, (Figure Arizona 11.35), are packagedto appeal very successfulin metropolitan regions around the world. to young families.Anthem feelsmore like a luxury holi- In , , communities in the edgecities of Es- day resort than a town. It includes a park with enkent and Bogazkoy are modeled on American subur- water slides, tan a children's railway, hiking trails, tennis bia. In Manila, in the ,private master-planned courts, a rock-climbing wall, two golf courses,several communities are packaged with privatized infrastructure spotless parks, a supermarket mall, two churches, a networks of roads, drainage,water supplies,power, and school, and a country club. Some master-plannedresi- telecommunications and designedand marketed as frag- dential communities are packagedto appeal to affluent ments of urban , with nameslike "Brittany" and retired people: The Del \7ebb developmenr corporation,s "Little Italy." In the United States some47 million peo- marketers have identified early-retiring baby-boomers- ple-one in six of the total population-live in 230,000 "f6s11s1s"-as the target market for their latest Sun City privately planned residentialcommunities, and half the development,packaged accordingly with Starbuckscaf6s, new home salesin big cities are in thesecommunities. Internet access,and multi-gyms, as well as the usual ten- The result is a mosaic of packageddevelopments and nis courts,pools, and golf courses.Some are packagedas mega-projects:refurbished heritageand cultural zones, "green" communities or smart-growth developments. waterfront redevelopments,campuses and technopoles Others have a narrower focus: Front Sight, Nevada, is for high-tech industry, and airport complexes,as well under construction with a guns-and-ammotheme, fea- as businesscenters, condominium complexes,master- turing streetswith names like SecondAmendment Drive planned communities, and shopping malls. The preferred and Sense ofDuty I7ay, target-shootingranges, a pro shop architectural styling for much of this rebundled urban ac- stocked with weapons, a martial arts gym, a defensive tivity is postmodern. Postmodern urban design has driving track, a kindergarten-through-12th-gradeschool brought a return to traditional and decorative motifs and where teacherswill be allowed to carry concealedfirearms, introduceda variety of deliberately"playful" and .,inter- and sales inducements that include anlJzi machine gun esting" architectural styles in place of the functional de- game-hunting and a safari in Africa. signs of Modernism. Postmodern urban design is 462 CHAPTER11 CitySpaces:Urban Structure

Figure11.35 Anthem,ArizonaAnthem, which is plannedto have'l2,5OOhomes, opened in 1999.lts houses and roadslook spotless.One reasonfor thisis that everybody who buysa housein Anthemhas to followcertain covenants, conditions, and re- strictions(CC&Rs) governing everything from the color of yourhouse to whetheryou canput yourcar up on blocksoutside (you can't).(Photo courtesy [email protected] @2002.)

characterized by a diversity of architectural styles and el- metropolitan regions there has been an increasein the ements, often combined in the same building or project. relative numbers of those who are rich and those who are It makes heavy use of symbolism and of color and deco- poor, along with an increasein the financial distancebe- ration. It is no coincidence that postmodern design has tween them. There has also been a greaterdifferentiation flourished in the most recent phaseof globalization. Hav- among the intermediate groups, so that there is often a ing emerged as a deliberate reaction to the perceived short- four- or five-part division of socioeconomic groups comings of Modern design, its emphasis on decoration rather than a simple division into two. The United Na- and self-consciousstylishness has made it a very conven- tions Center for Human Settlements(UNCHS) has iden- ient form of packaging for the new global consumer cul- tified this social polarization as an indirect but crucial ture. It is geared to a cosmopolitan market, and it draws determinant of contemporary patterns of segregationof quite deliberatelyon a mixture of elementsfrom different people and land usesaround the world. The overall ef- placesand times. In many ways it has becomethe transna- fect of globalization, according to the UNCHS Global tional style for the more affluent communities of the Report on Hwman Settlements2001,7 is the "quarter- world's cities. ing" of cities into spatially partitioned, compartmental- ized residentialenclaves. Although varying from city to city becauseof differ- Globalizationand the Quartering encesin national political and economic structuresand in of Urban Space cities' roles in the international economy, their historical development, and their demographic composition, Intensifying social polarization is another dimension of there are some basicfeatures that characterizethis quartering contemporary that is associatedwith glob- of urban space.Geographer Ronald van Kempen plan- alization. The increased mobility of capital, together and ner PeterMarcuse describesix socio-spatialformations- with the increasing span of control that is possible through advanced information and communications technologies,has resulted in an increasing concentration TUnited Nations Center for Human Settlements,Cities in a Globaliz- of wealth and an increasinggap betweenthe fast world ing'World: Global Report on Human Settlements2001. London: and the slow world (Chapter 2). In most of the world's Earthscan,2001,p. 33. Conclusion 463

residential patterns that, they suggest,add up ro a new Thesesocio-spatial formations representanother as- spatialorder that characterizesglobalizing ciries:8 pect of splintering urbanism. The premium spaceswith- in the quartered city are plugged r protected enclavesof the rich-"citadels" or exclu- in to the networked infrastructures of information sionary enclavesthat generallyconsist of expensive and communications tech- nologies that underpin the fast apartmentsin favorablelocations (see Box 11.3: "The world. They are parri- tioned off from Globalizationof Suburbia"): the slow world and its spacesof oerceived danger.difference, and poverrythrough processesof seg- r gentrified areasoccupied by young professionalsand regation and congregarion,assisted by the practicesof managers,typically located in the inner districts of designersand developerswho deploy and market securi- central cities; ty as a key feature of the built environment. Urban de- r middle-classsuburbs and medium- and high-rise signershave become adept at programming defensible apartmentand condominium complexes; spaceinto the layout of new developments,while archi, r working-classneighborhoods, often of rented tene- tects have adopted bunker- and fortress-styleelements ments, that are differentiatedaccording ro income, for their buildings. occupation, and ethnicity, sometimeswith hardened Developers,meanwhile, have learnedto include ac- spatialboundaries between them; cesscontrol and surveillancetechnologies in the pack- aging of the built environment. Gated r ethnic enclaves-a specific form of tenement area communiriesare the most striking example where ethnic segregationis particularly pronounced; of the way in which the quar- tering of urban spaceis being splintered into hardened r excluded ghettos-the slums inhabited by the very security zones.In the United Statesmany of the private poor, the excluded, the never employed and perma- master-plannedcommunities are gated: In all, about 8 nently unemployed, and the homeless. million people live within the walls of gated communi- ties. Gated communities are by no means confined to 8P. North American Marcuse and R. van Kampen, "Introduction," in p. Marcuse and cities, however; they have become R. van Kampen, eds.,Globalizing Cities: A New Spatial Order? Ox- symptomatic of social polarization in globalizing cities ford: Blackwell,2000, pp. 3-5. everywhere.

le re coNcrustoN e- Patternsof land use and the functional organization of economic to emerge,with half a dozen )n or more major commercial and in- and social subareasin cities are partly a product of economic, dustrial centersforming the nuclei of a seriesof interdependent a political, and technological conditions at the time of the city,s urban realms. ps growth, partly product a of regional cultural values, and parrly In other parts of the world, traditional patterns of land use a- a product of processesof globalization. Geographerscan draw and the functional organization of economic and social subar- n- on severalperspectives in looking at patterns of land use with- eas have been quite different, reflecting different historical lega- in cities, al including an economicperspective that emphasizescom- ciesand different environmental and cultural influences.A basic petition of for spaceand a socioculturalperspective that emphasizes trend affecting the cities of the world's periphery is demo- :f- ethnic congregation and segregation.Nevertheless, urban struc- graphic-the phenomenal rates of natural increase and in-mi- ture varies al considerably becauseof the influence of history, cul- gration that have given rise to overurbanization.The example of ture, and the different roles t- that cities have played within the provides some sobering insights into the human conse- world-system. quences Ll- of overurbanization. An ever growing informal sector The evolution of the unintended metropolis of the periph- of the economy, in which people seek economic survival, is re- ery has been very different from the evolution of metropolitan flected r- in extensive areas of shanty housing. High rates of un- areas in the world's core regions. Similarly, the problems they employment, underemployment, poverty in and generateacute have faced are very different. In the core regions, the conse- social problems, which are overwhelming for city governmenrs al quences of an economic transformation to a postindustrial econ- that are understaffed and underfunded. If present trends con- re omy havedominated urban change.Traditional manufacturing tinue.such problems are likelyro characte.izeincreasing num- of and related activitieshave beenmoved out of central cities, leav- bers of the world's largestsettlements. Meanwhile, globalization n- ing decayingneighborhoods and a residual population ofelderly processesare recasting metropolitan structure and intensifying and marginalized people. New, postindustrial activities have social and economic inequalities betweenthe fast world and the begun to cluster in redevelopedCBDs and in edgecities around slow world. In the next chapter, we consider this question as metropolitan fringes.In a few cases,metropolitan growth has be- part of a broader discussionof future geographies. come so complex and extensivethat 1OO-milecities have beeun