Scholarly Journal of Science Research and Essay Vol. 5(6), pp. 117-123, December 2016 Available online http:// www.scholarly-journals.com/SJSRE ISSN 2315-6147 © 2016 Scholarly-Journals

Full Length Research Paper Information sourcing and packaging in the Digital Era: A study of Radio Journalists in Western Winfred A.C Malala

Department of Journalism and Mass Communication, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kakamega, Kenya. E-mail: [email protected].

Accepted 19 September, 2016

The world is witnessing constant and rapid transformations in the media industry. These changes have been brought about by digitization, convergence and interactivity. With more sophisticated and varied functionality, internet access and mobile phones provide new interactive channels for a better informed and active global society. These developments affect the way journalists carry out their duties, leading to a great shift in the way news is sourced, packaged and accessed. This paper seeks to evaluate how digitalization impacts on the flow of information in terms of sourcing, packaging and selection of content which is instrumental for the public to make informed choices. The paper also interrogates the editorial, production and ethical challenges that radio journalists face in this digital era. The study was majorly informed by the Social Responsibility Theory and the Gate Keepers’ Theory. The study was conducted among news reporters, presenters, producers, editors and managers within Western Kenya. In this study, I used the qualitative research approach. Through stratified sampling I selected six radio stations: Radio Mambo, Citizen Radio, Mulembe FM, KBC Radio Taifa, MMUST FM and West FM according to type. Purposive sampling was applied in the selection of reporters, presenters, producers, editors and news room managers from the six radio stations. A sample population of 36 participants was found to be representative of radio journalists in Western Kenya who use digital means to source and package information. The data was generated through in-depth interviews, participant observation, informal conversations and content analysis. These tools adequately brought out the challenges of information sourcing and packaging in the digital era by radio journalists from their own perspectives. I analysed the data thematically by using recurrent and unusual themes that emerged from the collected data. The findings provided the status quo on the challenges faced by radio journalists in state, commercial and community radio stations. Among these challenges are multi-tasking, interrupted power supply, high cost of digital gadgets, lack of policy on the use of digital technology and interference by media owners. This study was significant as it yielded data and information that may help radio journalists and other media stakeholders to understand how digitalization has affected how radio news is sourced and packaged, thereby inform policy formulation.

Key words: Information, Digital Era, journalism.

INTRODUCTION

Radio is the most effective way of communicating and cramped room. Today, journalists around the world use facilitating dialogue because it is instant and reaches a digital gadgets to source, package and disseminate wide variety of people. Radio stands out among other information. The use of digital technology is not only channels of the media due to its unique characteristics; it confined to journalists, but the audiences as well. This crosses the literacy barriers and is used as a background has in effect affected radio journalism. Kenya’s medium. The emergence of digitalization has changed communication sphere has not been left out. the face of radio all over the world. Digital technology has The use of internet, mobile phones and other digital reduced the once touted ‘global village’ into a tiny gadgets is an everyday activity in the Kenyan radio Scholarly J. Sci. Res. and Essay 118

industry. Digitalization is ingrained among radio can use to communicate and be informed. Radio journalists that it is now a norm. The rapid pace at which broadcasting in Kenya started in 1928 as a monopoly run the new hand-held technology has taken over our lives is by the government. Kenya Broadcasting Corporation unprecedented. Traditional media is left but to marvel at (KBC) was established in 1961 to replace the the expanded reach of the internet, now believed to be government controlled KBS (Kenya Broadcasting the new frontier in communication. No central Service). In July 1964, KBC was nationalized into VOK, a organization determines what goes onto the Internet, nor department in the then Ministry of Information and is there any sense of accountability to a mass audience Broadcasting. In 1989, VOK was changed back to KBC (Gilster, 1997). With so many positive uses and through the KBC Act, Cap. 211 (Laws of Kenya). As the applications of the digital technology, also come many public agitated for change due to what was seen to be negative aspects. As radio journalists shift from analogue government control of KBC and rigidity in allocation of to digital means to source, select and package frequencies, the government ceded ground and in 1989 information, they encounter challenges which are licensed KTN. Capital FM became the first privately addressed in this paper. owned radio station to be licensed in 1995. The liberalization of airwaves in Kenya that took place between 1996 and 1998 ended the monopoly of KBC. Background of the Study Kenya’s radio industry has had to re-invent itself owing to the dynamic nature of digital technology. KBC’s Globally, the radio industry has developed immensely management has had to contend with an exodus of its from the telegraph times to the current sub-marines, manpower that leaves service because of the draconian fibre-optic cables and high frequency radio that ensure rules and outdated equipment that have been in use. that the audience easily access unfolding global events at KBC relays on government grants to run and therefore the touch of a button on their mobile phones. This cannot compete favourably with the new and upcoming development has not been confined to the developed FM stations that are privately owned. countries alone but has spilled over international borders Turow and Tsui (2008) noted that radio has evolved to such that third world countries are beneficiaries of this the point where online platforms are now integrated and technology. The Kenyan radio industry has embraced necessary components of business. Mobile phones have digitalization. Technology has however come with many become computers in our palms and pockets that do not challenges to media practitioners and stakeholders. serve their primary role of making `telephone calls but are These challenges include: the need for reliable high used for accessing online communication, news, speed internet connectivity, high cost of digital equipment information and entertainment. The future of radio is thus hindering quick adoption, difficulties in censoring however jeopardized by pressure from proliferation of content overload and increased competition for interactive and mobile media. The radio communication listenership. Kenya’s audiences have access to diverse sphere indicates that power is shifting from journalistic media choices. Technological convergence has enabled institutions to the individual journalist. Through hyperlinks radio journalists to use on-line and mobile platforms for and hypertexts made possible by e-mail, blogs and other information sourcing and packaging. social media which are readily accessible on mobile The media industry is undergoing rapid and significant phones, consumers are gravitating to the work of change as personal, local, regional and national media individual writers and voices. spaces continue to be reconfigured. The way journalists Hausman et al (2007) concur with these views noting and audiences use media is changing along patterns of that the World Wide Web has turned the radio industry living in an information economy. The internet and mobile upside down. At the onset of WWW radio management phones are fast changing the face of radio. Since the viewed the web as a threat but many stations now view advent of digital technology, private, public and the online world as an exciting new opportunity. Today, community radio sectors in Kenya have embraced the mobile phones provide a very sophisticated platform for use of this technology, thereby transforming radio enhancing citizen participation in radio programming. immensely. Through use of the internet and mobile Through use of the internet and mobile phones, radio has phones, radio has now become more accessible to the become more interactive. Audiences are now able to audience through platforms such as webcasting, mobile participate in live interviews during news bulletins, live streaming and podcasts. These have greatly changed the discussion shows, talk shows and debates through call- way news is gathered, produced, packaged and ins, opinion polls and SMS. disseminated to the audiences. Journalistic practices Interactive radio ably provides the public sphere that have too been affected. gives the audience and news makers a platform for free In Africa, television is too costly and is therefore discussion. This ensures expression of divergent views restricted to largely urban elite audiences. Most of the and dialogue on matters of public interest. By and large, people in the rural areas cannot afford the luxury of mobile phones and the internet today provide a platform newspapers and so radio becomes the channel that they for the audience to react to the messages they get Malala 119

through radio instantly, thus providing instant feedback. the people who use it. Baran goes further to state that: This much acclaimed communicative quality of digital technology also poses a major challenge to radio The power of technology is at the heart of the controversy journalists, in terms of how they must work to ensure that surrounding the new communication technologies. Are their role does not become redundant. we more or less powerless in the wake of advances such Association of Media (AMWIK, 2005) as the Internet, the World Wide Web, and instant global asserts that media is a powerful and effective way to audio and visual communication? (Baran, 2010). convey messages to a mass audience. According to AMWIK (2005), it is through the journalists’ unrelenting Technology does have an impact on communication and efforts that information is sourced, gathered, complied at the very least it changes the way journalists research and disseminated to the public. Through this, the public is and verify information. Tasks can now be performed then able to engage into debate and make informed faster and swiftly using these new technologies. With choices. AMWIK notes that in the radio industry digital equipment, the reception of digital signals is better information passes various gates before it reaches the and the quality of the sound output is of high standard. audience. The media gatekeepers make decisions about The presence of international news agencies and global what type of messages actually gets produced for networks such as BBC, VOA, DW, Reuters, AP, CNN, particular audiences. The gatekeepers to information AFP, Kyodo and Radio China who use sophisticated include the source of the message, the journalists, media means to relay their stories places a lot of demand on owners, regulations and the channels through which Kenyan journalists to perform much better. The Kenyan information is disseminated. radio industry in its current state is shedding off the Another view by Campbell (1998) asserts that in colonial legacy which focused on analogue and has now accordance with the linear model, mass communication embraced the use of mobiles phones for their is a component system made up of senders who include correspondents, reporters and audience to call-in, send authors, producers, agencies and organizations that text messages. In fact, the idea of radio journalism as a transmit messages in the form of programmes, texts, cultural practice has undergone significant definitional images, sounds and product advertisements. He further change related to shifting notions of work and adds that through the mass media, the senders pitch their technological advancement in the workplace. The messages to large groups of receivers such as readers, process of newsgathering has typically been informed by viewers and listeners. In the process, gatekeepers such an understanding of existing social and economic as editors, producers, reporters, presenters, news inequalities in society. However, the rapidly shifting use anchors and media house owners function as message of digital technology which is now affordable has filters. redefined the function of radio in society. Dominick (2009) concurs with these views stressing that gatekeepers abound in mass communication. The Statement of the Problem more complex the organization, the more gatekeepers will be found. Mobile phones have the unprecedented The world is witnessing constant and rapid capacity for transmitting more information, more rapidly to transformations in the media industry that have been more people at a lower cost. Radio journalists are faced brought about by digitization, convergence and with a challenge of beating competition. In a bid to stay at interactivity. With more sophisticated and varied the top, radio journalists censor their style and content. functionality internet access and mobile phones provide According to Mbeke (2010), all major media interactive channels for a better informed and active organizations in Kenya have established internet services global society. These developments affect the way and disseminate news and current affairs through the journalists carry out their duties, leading to a great shift in internet. Various media houses have websites that they the way news is sourced, packaged and accessed. There use for internet journalism and blogging. All these is need to rethink and re-examine the significance of the services are readily and cheaply accessed by the radical shift from analogue to digitalization in audience through the mobile phones. Today a growing manufacturing of news by radio journalists in Kenya and number of Kenyan youths receive radio broadcasts the challenges are faced by journalists. through mobile phones, internet and MP3s.It has become Market forces and digitalization determine how much commonplace to see the youths with ear phones plugged information is churned out to the public. Radio is striving in their ears in all public places. They strive to keep to re-invent itself as a multi-platform entity by providing abreast with events unfolding across the globe on e-radio online outlets and feeds which can be accessed digitally through their mobile phones. This scenario therefore from the internet and mobile phones. The manufacturing exerts pressure on journalists who churn out these of news no longer exclusively relies on professional stories to the masses. involvement, but can be accomplished by a cheaper Baran (2010) is of the view that technology’s influence workforce which is more attuned to packaging information is ultimately determined by how much power it is given by than to exercising analytical skills. This study sought to Scholarly J. Sci. Res. and Essay 120

explore the impact of this interplay on news gathering, involved in information sourcing and packaging by radio delivery and overall information dissemination in journalists in Kenya in the digital era. Descriptive studies newsrooms across the country. seek to ‘draw a picture’ of a situation, person or event to Through use of e-mail, blogs and social media which show how things are related to each other (Gray, 2009). are readily accessible on mobile phones, power has This study was situated in the relativist philosophical shifted from media organizations to individual journalists. orientation. In resonant with Richards (2003), Jwan and Radio has evolved to a point where online platforms are Ong’ondo (2011) say that the relativist philosophical now integrated and necessary components of business. leaning maintains that knowledge is universal and relative This exerts pressure on radio journalists. and will always depend on the situation. The research According to economies of scale, it is important for the population of this study was radio journalists and reporter or journalist to measure the proceeds of an item. research was conducted among a representative sample Obviously, the amount of time available to a programme of radio journalists selected from all the six radio stations and the finances involved in the production affect whether that are popular among the Western Kenya audience. it will be aired, the time slot and duration of the news The participants included both male and female story or programme. The real constraint then becomes reporters, presenters, producers, editors and managers the media owners. Media ownership dictates the from the six radio stations. The sampling technique institutional values of a particular media organization and employed in this study was cluster and purposive also determines whether the organization is sampling. Cluster sampling was used to group the radio technologically compliant and at what cost. This means stations according to type and purposive sampling was that the release of a story or programme to the public used to select participants. domain is pegged on what will or will not be accepted by The instruments employed to gather both primary and those in control at the top. Media ownership then affects secondary data included techniques such as in-depth the use of internet and mobile phones among radio interviews, participant observation, informal journalists. conversations and content analysis. The key qualitative method for this study was in-depth interviews. I used 36 Purpose of the Study participants for the in-depth interviews because the focus was to generate in-depth information about the This study sought to answer the question on how processes, reasons and challenges regarding information digitalization determines how radio journalists source, sourcing and packaging by Kenyan radio journalists in select, package and disseminate news stories. The study the digital era and not about making inferences or interrogated the interplay between digitalization and the generalizations. I relied on semi-structured and flow of information and selection of content which is unstructured questions in administering my interview instrumental for the public to make informed choices. schedule to find out how digitalization has affected how This study also sought to get answers regarding the radio journalists gather their news stories and how stories editorial, production and ethical questions which radio are selected. journalists who use and rely on digital technology face. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the collected Further, this study exposed the various modes or ways data. The data was reviewed and analyzed using defined that radio journalists censor content and style stages. Other documents analysed included ICT policies digitalization and how the practice has been internalized. so as to get data on quality assurance and control The audience has a right to know how news is selected. measures with regard to digital technology. The stages Further, this study exposed the various modes or ways that I undertook were familiarization with data, that radio journalists censor content and style transcription, open coding, axial coding, review of themes digitalization and how the practice has been internalized. and report compilation. The collected data was classified The audience has a right to know how news is selected. according to themes for easy understanding. These included dynamics in information sourcing and packaging, editing, multi-tasking, productivity, new world METHODOLOGY order and competition. The qualitative data was then qualified and presented in tables, figures and narratives. The study adopted a qualitative research approach. Qualitative research is an approach to inquiry that emphasises a naturalistic search for relativity in meaning, RESULTS multiplicity of interpretations, particularity, detail and flexibility in studying a phenomenon that a researcher The findings of this study were with reference from the in- chooses to focus on at a given time (Jwan and Ong’ondo, depth interviews that were personally conducted by the 2011). In this study I used the descriptive research researcher, participant observation made by the design because my study sought to find out and describe researcher, informal conversations between the the underlying reasons, processes and challenges researcher and the participants and content analysis Malala 121

Figure 1: Participants who used digital means to source for information. derived from secondary data instruments such as digital facilities such as mobile phones, e-mail, digital editorial policies of various media houses and official audio recorders, memory cards, flash disks, console documents from media stakeholders. This was done in mixers and computers for interactive radio programmes. line with the main purpose of the study, research From the findings 28% of the participants subscribe to questions and the two theories that informed this study; social sites such as face book and twitter, and they use Social Responsibility theory and the Gatekeeper’s theory. these platforms to interact with news sources for The study found that different meanings were attached to information tips, whereas 7% of the participants the concept of digitalization according individual download pre-recorded productions and relay the journalists’ understanding, academic background, information to their listeners (figure 1). experience and geography of where they operate. The findings revealed that a radio journalist whose Journalists refer to announcers, presenters, reporters, station is streamed on the internet has to re-work his or producers, editors as well as managers. Most of the her language to suit the on-line audience. This is journalists interviewed associate the concept of because the audience is diverse. Radio journalists can no digitalization with the use of digital means such as longer use words like ‘today’ or ‘yesterday’. The capability computers, internet, mobile phones, flash disks, and of internet has made the context of time to be problematic digital recorders, CDs, DVDs and MP 3 in gathering, for radio journalists. The challenge of digitalization in compiling and disseminating their stories. productivity is that the immediacy nature of news has The findings of the study indicated that most of the been compromised. The omission of words that specify digital gadgets used by the participants are electronically the time by radio journalists due to the difference in time enabled. Some of the gadgets include computers, mobile for the on-line audience in news works negates one of phones, digital voice recorders and console mixers. the values of news, which is timeliness. It has also led to Some areas within my area of study do not have generalization rather than specific information. Internet electricity. Radio journalists who were interviewed said allows radio journalists to connect with sources and the that power blackouts interfere with their work. Most of the audience and even get tips and learn about potential participants interviewed and observed highly rely on stories in real time. Communication is also faster through digital means for information sourcing and packaging. In tweets posted on journalists’ web pages. as much as they said digitalization has made their work From the findings of this study, it emerged that most of easier and faster, they also conceded that it has had the participants’ creativity has been compromised by the negative impact on their productivity. digital gadgets that they use for sourcing and packaging Out of the 36 participants used in this study, 65% use information, thus negatively affecting their productivity. Scholarly J. Sci. Res. and Essay 122

Digitalization has encouraged complacence among radio The priorities of the media owners in most cases are not journalists and undermines the ability for journalists to inclined towards responsible journalism such as accuracy engage in investigative journalism. In as much as the use and objectivity of information that is churned out to the of digital gadgets is convenient, easy to use and has audiences. Media ownership dictates the type of made work easier and faster for radio journalists, most of equipment that radio journalists use. In striving to break the participants whom I interviewed and observed said even or make profits, radio journalists are made to use digitalization has health hazards. Among some of the sub-standard equipment that affects their health, multi- health hazards that the participants attributed to over use task and deskill so as to cut costs. of digital technology are eye strain, finger strain, fatigue, backaches, buzzing eardrums and radiation. Digitalization has now ensured that there is no specific DISCUSSION OF STUDY FINDINGS target audience but audiences with specialized interests. The ‘mass’ now consists of networked publics who post Digitalization has thus led to a highly personalized media their comments, feedbacks and opinions through tweets, sphere. Every individual has the capacity to control what SMS, opinion polls or call-ins. Digital technology used in information to receive, filter or block. The audience play a information sourcing, packaging and dissemination has crucial role in information sourcing and packaging changed radio audience from a mass audience to a more because all news is now verifiable due to the nature of interactive, individualised and participatory audience. packaging. Power has shifted to the audience as they no Today’s audience know what they want and how to longer relay on radio journalists as they continually make access it. Every individual radio user controls what personal decisions with the aid of vast information on- information to receive, filter, block and listen to preferred line. Control over information and the prestige that comes choice of content which is readily available through the with the journalism profession is slowly and surely wide array of digital channels. The radio audience can slipping away from professional journalists as the public choose radio handsets, radio via mobile phones or radio try their hand at the profession on-line. The notion of content that is streamed on-line. Radio journalists work has drastically changed. therefore have to tailor their messages so as to attract Reporters still carry the old label of journalists but and hold a specified niche of audience. Radio journalists without as much individual voice and discretion because are apprehensive of the management of their individual of the overuse of digital technology. Digitalization has radio stations who do not employ enough staff but rely on given the audience a voice. Journalists who have for a audience who call-in to report especially during disasters long time enjoyed their prestigious position in society as like landslides, murder and floods. ‘the fourth estate’ must now face the emerging ‘fifth The convergence produced by digital technologies has estate’; the new frontier; the on-line audience who are made broadcasting and the internet to come closer to the competing for the same space. audiences because of its capacity to deliver content. Just Decisions regarding the definition and treatment of like their audiences, radio journalists grapple with the news are embroiled in media bureaucracy that is digital divide; that is the growing gap between those who dominated by specific management concerns such as have access to technology and those who do not. media owners and politics. Under these circumstances Despite the entry of the fibre optic cable in Kenya in July radio journalists’ role has been watered down. Abuse and 2009, a pricing circus is still being played out by ISPs over use of digitalization has led to lack of commitment to regarding reduced internet connectivity rates. Internet work and to the public cause of journalism by radio users still find the cost too prohibitive. My study area; journalists. Media owners should re-think the cardinal role Kakamega and Bungoma counties are classified as rural of journalism to society. Competition and profits override Kenya. Rural areas remain underdeveloped, with very everything. Increasing competition among media houses little telecommunications infrastructure in place. which has been spurred by the new media such as From the findings of this study, it emerges that the computers and the Internet has pushed radio stations to media owners and management have ‘commodified’ opt for cheap labour and multi-tasking by engaging news. With the high levels of unemployment countrywide, untrained labour who can use digital technology. Media the labour market is saturated with inexperienced and owners think that they are saving on operational costs but unskilled population that imagines that journalism is a the reality in the long run is that they end up losing much profession that can be done by anybody who has some more in terms of audience loyalty or advertising accounts knowledge on digital gadgets and therefore does not because of the reduced productivity among the necessarily require specialized training. Though effective, workforce. As the English adage goes, ‘cheap is the use of digital technology is very expensive therefore expensive’, radio journalists can perform better if hinder quick adoption. specialization is emphasised instead of multi-tasking. Radio journalists have to go by the decisions made by Journalists feel overwhelmed with the dynamic nature the media owners, who in most instances must ensure of technology. They have to struggle to keep abreast with that they rake in profits in order to survive competition. the emerging technology because as new products come Malala 123

into the market the radio journalists must upgrade and measure. A new technology sometimes creates more learn new things over a short period. Digitalization brings than it destroys. Sometimes, it destroys more than it with it new responsibilities that demand creative and creates. But it is never one-sided…..’ strategic thought from radio journalists. Further, there is Just as a sport, digitalization has resulted into winners need to bridge the digital divide so as to ensure that a and losers. With all the benefits and challenges of larger population is empowered and is ICT literate digitalization, the question of integrity and social because the audience are embracing technology based responsibility should always guide radio journalists in distribution. ensuring that the information that is churned out is for the good of the audiences.

CONCLUSION REFERENCES Basing on the analyzed data, the study revealed that AMWIK (2005) A Guide to Effective Use of the Media, : Sunburst radio journalists contend with a myriad of challenges as Communications. they work round the clock to ensure that their stories Baran, S.J. (2010). Introduction to Mass Communication: Media th reach the audience. Everywhere I went I encountered Literacy and Culture (6 ed.), New York: McGraw- Hill Companies. Campbell, R. (1998). Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass extraordinary energy despite the challenges I witnessed nd Communication, (2 ed.), New York: St. Michael’s Press. the participants grappling with. This is a pointer that there Dominick, J.R. (2009). Dynamics of Mass Communication (10th ed.), is great promise for radio journalism in the digital age. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies. Gilster, P. (1997). Digital Literacy, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Digitalization is fast changing the face of radio and as nd new technologies emerge, radio journalists are forced to Gray, D.E. (2009). Doing Research in the Real World (2 ed.), Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. measure up to the pace. In most cases, these Hausman, C., Messre, F. and Benoit, P. (2007). Modern Radio technologies have had a profound impact on radio’s Production: Production, Programming and Performance (7th ed.), institutional cultures and practices, especially with regard Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. to the way news is sourced, packaged and disseminated. Jwan, J.O and Ong’ondo, C.O. (2011). Qualitative Research: An Introduction to Principles and Techniques, Eldoret: Moi The challenges brought about by emerging new University Press. technology are not confined to journalists alone. Due to Mbeke, P.O. (2010). ; Systems and Practice. digitalization people have been enabled to access large Nairobi: The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation. volumes of information. The use of digital media is also Postman, N. (1990). Amusing Ourselves to Death. New York: Vintage. Turow, J. and Tsui, L. (2008). The Hyperlinked Society: Questioning influencing the audience as they become more actively Connections in the Digital Age. Ann Arbor, M.I: University of Michigan involved in production and consumption of news. Press. The notion of mass media and audience has taken a turn because digitalization has created networked publics who post their comments and feedback instantly. This in effect is a challenge to radio journalists who must now re- work their content and style. The introduction of new communication technologies; such as computers, mobile phones and the internet have increased the anonymity of the work process and reduced the expectations of journalists of recognition for their unique intellectual or creative contributions to the profession. There is need for all stakeholders in the information industry to learn how to deal effectively with new technologies. Communication will improve as we learn to manage new technologies that keep us in touch with the world around us. Technology does have an impact on communication. It is important to note that technology is not cast in stone. It is prone to errors. Technology is not a solution to all problems but only aids in making processes simpler. At the very least it changes the basic elements of communication. What technology does not do is to relieve radio journalists of their obligation to use mass communication responsibly and wisely. The findings of this study concur with past scholarship on the challenges of technology. Postman (1990) in his book Amusing Ourselves to Death noted that, ‘Technology giveth and technology taketh away, and not always in equal