CEU eTD Collection New Nation, New Nationalism: New Nation, New Agrarian PolicyTheory and in Bulgaria from 1919-1923 In partial fulfillment ofthe requirements forthe degree ofMaster Arts Submitted to Central European University Advisor: Michael Laurence Miller Nationalism Studies Program Budapest, 2012 Hungary Eric Halsey D. By CEU eTD Collection the Ottoman region's legacy. view and we modernization addressing how of processes broader in the and implications Agrarianism, Balkans, the with in nationalism comes This Balkans. entire the eventually, and, Bulgaria of identities national re-forge the to attempting regime nationalist a as regime anti-national an called often and depth the theory, nationalism of lens is what view to possible becomes it clearer.framework become this Through regime the of importance the through it analyzing with conjunction in regime Stamboliski the of context historical and policies the examining By is ideology. what Marxist always of almost framework a in it discuss to attempt who those and regime the of policies the at look simply who those between research of division in a been rooted has gap perspective this of ideological result The broader theory. nationalism a and perspective historical basic a from Stamboliski There exists a critical gap in the literature between analysis of the regime of Alexander Alexander of regime the of analysis between literature the in gap critical a exists There Abstract i CEU eTD Collection been invaluable. have input academic and friendship whose Okov, Slav and Velcheva Boriana colleagues, and two friends to thanks my send to like would I Finally, connection. grateful a feel always will I institution that With year. academic 2009-2010 the during Bulgaria in University American the by so generously me to offered experiences the years. without possible several been have past not the would research through this Additionally, commentary useful and advice, support, his for Al-Tikriti Professor Nabil university undergraduate my from advisor academic my thank to like also would I you. to unknown so something into off rush son a see to easy be can't It research. and studies, travels, my First and foremost I would like to thank my mother for all of her love and support through all of of all through support and love her of all for mother my thank to like would I foremost and First Acknowledgements ii CEU eTD Collection
Bibliography Conclusion Chapter 5: Agrarianism Nationalism as Chapter Nation,Nationalism: 4: New Theory Chapter 3: Expanding the Nation: Stamboliski's Foreign Policy Chapter 2: Re-Defining the Nation Internally Chapter 1: Contextualizing Stamboliski's Agrarianism Literature Review Introduction Table ofContents Acknowledgements Abstract
Table ofContents
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8 68 66 57 48 39 2812 5 1 iii ii i CEU eTD Collection 2 When referring to Modernization here, I am reflecting the language which exists in the literature and When referring to Modernization here, Iam reflecting the language which exists in the literature and 2 See Todorova's introduction and in particular page 11, Maria Todorova, 1 political the be would What fundamental. were circumstances these to response in asked questions were in manyover not ways just policy but onthe very meaning ofmodernization and progress order reached an apex and the direction ofthe futurefar from was certain. The political battles fought War represented a nearly unrivaled revolutionary moment in which disillusionment with the existing a in discussed or discussed, problematic way. not either is it so easy, or convenient not is discussion Its reference. of frame as a context historical on relying by ideology this discuss to easy not simply is It problematic. quite is Balkans the in movements Agrarian contemporary own its with it grouping Even ideology. universal a not also it's yet Bulgaria, to only apply to designed not it's nation; new a constructing on not is It paradigms. existing focused it's yet the nationalism, as of think commonly we into what not it's Fascism; or fit Socialism, Liberalism, not does It Agrarianism. inter-war of brand peculiar Bulgaria's with problem the see similarly we that here is It without. or within from whether others, many as homogenized and over glossed laboriously as been not have region the of specificities the that is true be to seem however,does cultures, what of place 'meeting' or 'mixing' a of speak to today cliché Orientalism. of vision Said's via explained be cannot things such that out Todorovapoints Maria populations, minority on perspectives Bulgarian analyze to Orientalism of use Neuburger's Mary of critique her In paradigms. existing into seriously onthe European stage and not being viewed some as quasi-oriental backwater). refer to the ofeconomic process development and a joining ofEurope (in the ofbeing sense taken not referring to modernization theory. When in used this context, the shouldbe interpreted word to York, NY: 2009). University Oxford Press, Of coursesome contextOf isnecessary, the main one being the idea that the end ofthe First World fit easily not does region the that been often has Balkans modern the analyzing in problem The 1 This Balkan space is neither the Occident nor the Orient. It is a a is It Orient. the nor Occident the neither is space Balkan This Introduction 1 Imagining the Balkans 2 . The (New (New CEU eTD Collection 3 Referring to the Peasants, Mitrany states that “their sense of independence was to find expression Referring to the Peasants, Mitrany states that “their ofindependence sense to find was expression 3 world. the of parts other most in than Balkans the in problematic and dangerous more far something powers, foreign any of endorsement the carry not future. the of visions alternative on gamble to voters of willingness the World First demonstrates War the itself of aftermath the in development economic and theloses nuance and detailed ofthe contemporary perspective. this Doing modernization. of notion defined narrowly and clearly more a from starting by debates these upon conclusions and perspectives hoc post impose to words, other In perspective. defined more this from manifestation Balkan debate's this view to tendency strong a is there Yet Balkans. the in settled being still were debate this of parameters and and Western forms States United very the Europe, the throughout concrete and developed more far were questions such time this by While future. the a political context? the composition andofthis purpose larger community ofthe nation? wouldself interest How be defined in be would What themselves? run and orient communities would How state? the of boundaries Bulgaria's international situation during this period in isdiscussed detail in Kosta Todorov, 4 Peter F. Sugar, “The Views oftheDepartment U.S. ofState of Alexandre Stambolijski of policies advocated byStamboliski werequite baffling to both political and diplomatic circles. that intelligence even U.S. when basedon information was from and Russian British the sources mix additionally, in an examination ofrecordsfrom theState U.S. Department, Peter F. Sugarconcludes Firebrand: Autobiography of aRebel, Soldier, andStatesmen Review L.S. Stavrianos, “The Balkan Federation Movement: A Neglected Aspect,” in supported extended towards Agrarians, Communists and Socialists alike throughout the Balkans in Bulgariacommunism that ofthe early yearsofSovietization.” Oren, Nissan of spontaneity, 1919“could be said to have witnesseda revolutionary upheaval more genuine than Social Dogmatism active in every country ofeastern Europe.” David Mitrany, after 1919,organized never as before, in a widespread Peasant movement. The movement was The fervent rejection of much of what would become the orthodoxy of western-style political political western-style of orthodoxy the become would what of much of rejection fervent The The sum ofthese questions wouldmanifest themselves in conflicting to this answers question of , 48.1(1942): 30-51. (Chapel Hill: University ofNorthCarolina 1951),119; Press, also that in terms (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973), 1; and that this upsurge (Baltimore: 1973),1; University and Hopkins that Press, Johns this upsurge 4 In this sense the Agrarian movement of Alexander Alexander of movement Agrarian the sense this In 2 3 Most radical of all were the visions which did did which visions the were all of radical Most Revolution Administered: Agrarianism and Revolution Administered: and Agrarianism Marx Against the Peasant: A Study in Marx Against the Peasant: A Study in (Chicago: Ziff-Davis Co.,1943); Pub. The American Historical The American Historical ,” Balkan Balkan Balkan Balkan CEU eTD Collection Ernest Gellner, 8 Groueff explains Stamboliski's opposition to the patriotic national ideal it as perceived was well as 7 "From the day Stamboliski turned Baron down Aliotti's offer ofa secret military alliance against 6 Though commonly transliterated “Stamboliiski,” as among some others, Ihave chosenthe spelling 5 anti-nationalist sense this In ofnationhood. encompass new definition a implement to attempted overtly less which one but views, to happened which movement a simply not becomes It light. new a in congruent,” be should unit national the and political the that holds which principle, political “a is it that Gellner, Ernest by phrased simply,as but “anti-nationalist,” implications ofhistheories onthe history ofnation building in Bulgaria. an him label reflexively to observers nationalism. While hisovert rejection ofirredentism in both its ethnic and territorial long formshas led to relationship Stamboliski's is problem this of element important One discount. to easy too movement his made have theory, modernization of scope standard the become has what within fit poor its with combined power, in time Stamboliski's of nature lived short The context. own its in modernization most ofEuropesaw somewhere in the range ofapathetic to outright hostile to its policies and ideas. which factors political external by part large in destroyed ultimately vision a was It modernization. Stamboliski Jersey: Princeton 1977),207. University Press, Alexander Stamboliski andthe Bulgarian Agrarian National Union frank in referring to Stamboliski an as “anti-nationalist” Bell, D. John Bulgaria, 1918-1943, hisrejectionas ofirredentism, Stephane Groueff, Bulgarian reparations." Todorov, Yugoslavia, the Italians set out to destroy him. They had three major -bribery, weapons terror, and correctly pronounce in English. which eliminates the second“i” Ibelieve as it makes the name more readable, but still easyto from westerngovernments." Mitrany, undoubtedly helped to weaken the prospectsofthe eastern Peasant parties the [as] lack ofsympathy Studies If nationalism is to be understood in its wider sense, not as a narrowly defined political ideology ideology political defined narrowly a as not wider sense,inunderstood its be is to If nationalism of vision alternative this of importance the from detract not should destruction this However, , 2 (1990), 70-77; the effect was important, as Mitrany explains that "No other factor other"No factor , 2(1990),70-77; the effect important, was Mitrany as explains that 5 can be seen as the most daring of these interwar experiments in alternative visions of of visions alternative in experiments interwar these of daring most the as seen be can Nations andNationalism New ed., (Lanham, Maryland: Madison Books, 1998), 75-6; Bell is more ed., (Lanham, New Maryland: 1998),75-6; Books, Bell Madison ismore Balkan Firebrand Marx Marx Against the Peasant (Ithica: Cornell 1983),1. University Press, 8 then it becomes possible to view Stamboliski's movement movement Stamboliski's view to possible becomes it then 3 Crown of Thorns: The Reign of King Boris III of Crown TheReign of Thorns: of King BorisIIIof , 151. 7 this labeling has masked the wider wider the masked has labeling this , 142. , 1899-1923 (Princeton,, New , 1899-1923(Princeton,, New Peasants in Power: Peasants in Power: 6 CEU eTD Collection the aims and direction offuture research. discuss will conclusion The nationalism. of brand a fact in is Agrarianism Stamboliski's that namely bring together the conclusions ofthe preceding fourchapters to make the core arguments forthis thesis, will chapter final and fifth Finally,the field. this within nationalism of brand Stamboliski's place will I how discussing before studies nationalism of field the in literature relevant the discuss will chapter theoretical a Next, detail. more in regime his of policies foreign and domestic the discuss will chapters chapter devoted to contextualizing Stamboliski's Agrarianism in the Balkan context. The following two taken into consideration an as importance chapter in the history ofNationalism in the Balkans. and the movement within Agrarian unique as seen Balkan be should policies his which in One wider modernization. and Agrarianism both within Stamboliski for role redefined these Together a out spell label. implications single this under movements Agrarian Balkan in wider issues discuss several to out attempting points ideology that of brand particular Stamboliski's of understanding new this as whole a as Agrarianism for implications specific more are there Additionally, lens. theoretical new this through movement Agrarian his and Stamboliski Alexander reevaluate to and nation the of definition the expand to out sets thesis this arguments these making By Balkans. the in modernization its make and nation new a define congruency with the state a reality. to set which ideas and policies of set a upholding while sense political narrow a in 'nationalists' as labeled those opposing itself, movement nationalist a becomes it To do this I will begin with a review of the relevant historical literature before progressing to a a to progressing before literature historical relevant the of review a with begin will I this To do of history the and theory nationalism both for important are concept this of implications The 4 CEU eTD Collection This analysis istaken Bell, fromD. John “The Agrarian Movement in Recent Bulgarian 9 KostaStamboliski Todorov'sof the publicationduring player political autobiography.key a as role His the 1923coup. after worsenedonly which something interpretations, partisan heavily reflectingcriticism ideological in French contemporary these regime the douse to tended also works Bulgarian contemporary Most critical. quite be to whole tend accounts the On 1933. in Sofia in French in published book a provided is government Stamboliski the of policies labor compulsory the of impact the at look term longer A 1925. in Historique Revue the in Bulgare” Drame “La example, For power. in time his at look which Stamboliski of death the following years the in published were unclear. accounts Additionally, several giving France” de Revue “La somewhat are journal of this leanings political the Unfortunately regime. ofthe accounts contemporary like journals news monthly Parisian in came publications French will be analyzed in later additions to this research, and other direct quotes will have to suffice. they means worksthese difficultyHowever obtaining in in 1981. published his works were of numbers Selected himself. Stamboliski Alexander of writings the are these of important most and first The available. are which French and Bulgarian in several are there sources, contemporary with Beginning the era. War Cold within post the into moving before stages States, United the from several and regime Communist Bulgarian through progressing writings, contemporary with beginning contexts, Historiography” in Two later publications will provide more in depth Bulgarian primary sources. First is the 1943 1943 the is First sources. primary Bulgarian depth in more provide will publications Two later in primarily found regime Stamboliski's of analyses contemporary of variety a exist also There historical in much very developed has regime Stamboliski the on literature the of evolution The 9 Balkanistica 8(1992),20. Literature Review 5 CEU eTD Collection books, especially as they often discuss topics which are directly relevant to the origins of the the of origins the to relevant directly are which topics discuss often they as especially books, books the in these in present be may which discussed censorship covert or over of level the to as questions raising themselves, not are access for requirements the and relationship this of nature precise the enough, Interestingly there. authorities communist the with working by obtained Sofia in archives major the political figures ofthe time are an invaluable resource.of many on perspectives and with discussions his country, the of life the political from everyday strayed and perspective political particular own his had undoubtedly Boris While 1919. in abdication father's his following developments political tumultuous the on perspective his and III Boris King) later (and Prince on focuses book The of Thorns. Groueff's Crown Stephane is interviews, under similar circumstances, readsmuch more Party as propaganda. published was it such though and 1979 Another in Bozhkov Li︠u︡ben and Boris, Boev, analysis. by published good was biography provide indeed does perspective, Marxist superficial a containing while which, source competent a as stands book The himself. Khristo Stamboliski of was biography One Angelov's scholarship. previous harmed had which perspectives ideological the from free largely regime, the of nature the around centered debates substantial contained now and significantly, debate over the nature ofthe regime in Bulgarian history. a into developed had backlash a 1970s, early and 1960s late the By all. at discussion little with offset was portrayal sympathetic more as 1960s the into continued which something regime, the of portrayal sympathetic more somewhat a to leading and Bulgaria in scholarship up opening in role important an played de-Stalinization 1950s, the Around resource. interesting an autobiography his makes period At the same time several American authors were publishing quite excellent works with access to At the same time several American authors werepublishing quite excellent with accessto works personal and research archival extensive on based but English, in 1983 from publication A later 100 Stamboliski's Around th birthday in 1979 the scholarship in Bulgaria had advanced advanced had Bulgaria in scholarship the 1979 in birthday 6 CEU eTD Collection organization. Chary ultimately concludes that the party was based more on 'bread and butter' issues issues butter' and 'bread on more based was party the that concludes ultimately Chary organization. the to related they how and theories, his Stamboliski, discusses also it Party, Agrarian Bulgarian the of beginnings the with primarily deals chapter this While failures. its and regime Stamboliski the on commentary broader of example early good a provides 1979, in published Europe, Eastern in Peasantry period israised but not sufficiently answered. this during working freedom academic of level historians foreign of question the again So Sofia. in materials archival many accessing in historians Bulgarian non-official of difficulty the as well as 1973 of as historiography in gaps out points also Oren progress. significant alone let gains, of consolidation areas prevent once at these everything tackle to in ability own his problems in belief overriding yet Stamboliski's with combined impasses, related policy foreign and internal both to given break is to Respect attempts flawed. uniquely and adept uniquely simultaneously being as seen is regime Stamboliski's Here historiography. of problems serious to attention drawing while regime Stamboliski research in Bulgaria a onsuch topic without some pressure. his conducted have could Rothschild imagine to difficult is it as work this political on heavy of rests question influence previous the Yet speeches. Stamboliski's coverage of quotes newspaper like items foreign with detailed complete as well as previously, mentioned articles academic French several including period the on works other most in utilized well not sources several of use extensive Rothschild details the Communist's reaction to specific Stamboliski policies. hisresearch For he makes as light to come dynamics political internalMany up to 1936. party of the thedevelopments discussing Communist government itself. Frederick Chary's chapter on radical peasant movements in Bulgaria in a larger volume on on volume larger a in Bulgaria in movements peasant radical on chapter Chary's Frederick the of successes and problems broad the discusses Oren Nissan Administered Revolution In Bulgaria of Party Communist The Rothschild's Joseph was publications these of earliest The 7 CEU eTD Collection overt partisanship of these sources, yet their contributions are fascinating as reflections of the the of reflections as fascinating are contributions their yet sources, these of partisanship overt the is this for reason the that clear seems It book. 1977 his in found was than sources of variety wider a of discussions incorporating Agrarians the of historiography excellent an with first work previous contextual important without left are elements. conclusions his research, historical of well a foundation provides needed here work Bell's while So theory. this of development or background theoretical the discuss not does he movement the behind theory agrarian the of uniqueness the of emphasis Bell's despite Significantly, it. to paid for attention of movement lack the out the points and of history European importance and Bulgarian continued the emphasizes he so doing In factors. internal than external for more doomed was which development political way' 'third a towards attempt significant for all later scholarlyonthe subject. works tone the set would book Bell's French, and English Bulgarian, in works scholarly of list extensive an to addition in newspapers non-Agrarian and of Agrarian variety a with Bulgaria in and archives, ministry foreign in Europe around survivors, with US the in conducted research on Based come. to decades for the Agrarians on articles publish to continue would Bell subject, this on publication major first his Power. in Peasants was D.Bell's this While John was depth Bulgarian some the in movement Agrarian sufficient analysis to domore than make an early claim. provide not does certainly chapter the argument an making while Still, philosophy. its than policies its of basis the on more evaluated be should it that history, namely in regime the of role the evaluating for tone early an set importantly This Stamboliski. of ideas abstract any to opposed as advocacy and While Bell focused on some other research topics for a time, by the 1990s he was adding to his his to adding was he 1990s the by time, a for topics research other some on focused Bell While a as it painting downfall, its and movement Agrarian the with sympathizes ultimately Bell of history broader the tackle to attempted which language English the in book major first The 8 CEU eTD Collection farther. Identifying the lack of a sufficient framework for discussing both internal and external external and internal both discussing for framework sufficient a of lack the Identifying farther. times, it none-the-lesswhat could showed be done with theory. such at clumsy is Orientalism Said's of use her While minorities. these towards relative nation Bulgarian a construct to how about ideas others and his between contrast a as well as period this of governments other the of those and government Stamboliski the of policies minority the between contrast strong a draws She formation. identity national of framework the within Turks and Pomaks the particularly minorities, its towards directed policies government Bulgarian of history the examines She analysis. historical her in elements theoretical significant incorporating by precedent important an establishes analyze to whether Agrarianism aorto as 'third look way' at Stamboliski's particular brand ofauthoritarianism. theory Though, any of discussion resource. significant a wonderful lack a to continues it work make his importantly, materials translated and sources language English of reading further discussion and useful extremely its and sources itself analysis book's the of whole the on Thus discussion back. the in provided useful very a with offset is book the of length shorter The sources. of discussion and use careful a with subject his of discussion concise a combines he style by Agrarianism and Stamboliski of Second Worldthe of end fall until 1878 from period War.the on focusing his become has what Continuing and rise the of view longer a take to Bell. attempts by Crampton earlier years 32 identified Agrarians the and Stamboliski on scholarship of lack same the Europe which consisted ofa condensed and slightly updated version ofhis1977book. Eastern In Populism in chapter a contributed Bell 1996 In ideology. Agrarian of discussion historians Russian early some of Bell's analysis of times. true theirespecially of winds is This politicalprevailing Marie Todorova develops these basic ideas developed by Neuburger and takes them much much them takes and Neuburger by developed ideas basic these develops Todorova Marie Within Orient The Neuburger's Mary period, Stamboliski the with directly less dealing While tackling at he aims on it book In a published Crampton himself. 2009 Stamboliski In Alexander 9 CEU eTD Collection debates on Eastern European political, and philosophical history. One finds authors without Bulgarian Bulgarian without authors finds One history. philosophical and political, European Eastern on debates and discussions broader within deserves it attention the of fraction a receiving period Agrarian the in resulted has it believe I abilities, sufficientlinguistic without subject the tackle to attempting authors in itself manifest often not may Bulgarian in being sources primary of problem the While barriers. physical/political as well as linguistic of out borne fragmentation a is It fragmentation. of degree some Sofia during Communism. in working historians foreign discussed previously the by faced been have may which environment the as well as working were writers Bulgarian which in context the both understanding into insight greater a provides period this throughout history Bulgarian on writings in role lesser or greater a played frameworks and critiques Marxist which to extent the Tracing subject. relevant politically any nearly on writing applied those to be communismcan under ofhistoriography developments broader the about drawn conclusions the detail, great in discussed not is period Agrarian the While 2004. in published the sincehistoriography Balkans, Nation the in a Daskalov's of Roumen Making is AgrarianThe period part a uniquely Bulgarian political development. large in phenomenon, Balkan uniquely a part small in though was, movement Stamboliski's that being conclusion The politics. Balkan early in peasants of roles different the crafting in legacy Ottoman theoretical shared a than unique influential more were her factors local from that claim the Balkans makes she wider so doing In the perspective. and Bulgaria in played party Agrarian the role the of discussion useful a through moves she framework developed more her With Balkanism. calls she work Said's of variation a develops she context), Balkan a in Orientalism of use awkward times at perceptions ofthe Balkans being as a major problem in many Neuburger authorsas such (leading to her Taking a broader look at the historiography of Stamboliski's period of Agrarian rule one sees sees one rule Agrarian of period Stamboliski's of historiography the at look broader a Taking Bulgarian in developments broader on back looking work significant recent most the Finally, 10 CEU eTD Collection for some literature which can examine Stamboliski and histheories with a broader perspective. opening clear a leaves framework historical this 4, chapter for theory nationalism on literature relevant the of discussion the leaving theory. While and history marry to attempt which histories Balkan future broader and historical basic for promise great towards Todorova like points a authors form scholarship newest The level. both theoretical on period Stamboliski the address to sufficiently developed attention that dodelve authors who into the primary sourcematerials argue it deserves. the with never but issues, these with dealing volumes larger in mentioning Agrarianism skills language The result has been fragmentation. While a small core of solid scholarship exists, it has not not has it exists, scholarship solid of core small a While fragmentation. been has result The 11 CEU eTD Collection 0See footnote 3. 10 Stamboliski's Agrarianism within some context. place first to necessary is it reason this For exists. which diversity internal relevant the for account to fails and level macro the on only functions term the Agrarianism, Stamboliski's of context limited more a within Even variety. such encompass to term single this of ability the strains Europe Eastern 19 of variety a describe to term the of use The extent. same the to process this experienced not has Agrarianism boundaries, external and internal the delineating better of purpose the for sub-categories significant into separated been have ideologies two latter the While Fascism. and Communism like ideologies contemporary of to as beliefs well and relationship with hisBANU's those parties.discuss as parties, policies Agrarian the contemporary other extent to attributed what be to can government as Stamboliski's confusion any avoid This to Union). important National is Agrarian discussion (Bulgarian BANU Stamboliski's of policies detailed the more of into discussions leading movements Agrarian Balkan the relevant between the differences discuss and will similarities one chapter this In of movements. level such some discussing invite when also homogenization they significant, were Balkans the and Europe of movements Agrarian Balkans. the especially and Europe, Eastern across parties The editor's note of the collected volume on European Ideologies it is stated that Agrarian Agrarian that stated is it Ideologies European on volume collected the of note editor's The many to relative arises difference noticeable a history, in Agrarianism examining When Agrarian among successes great of period a amidst occurred 1919 in victory Stamboliski's th and 20 and Chapter 1: Contextualizing Stamboliski's Agrarianism th century ideological and political beliefs, and movements from around around from movements and beliefs, political and ideological century 12 10 While the connections between the the between connections the While CEU eTD Collection 5“The Greek Agrarian Partyestablished which was late as both in 1922was, as terms ofmembership 15 Ibid. 14 Ibid, 396. 13 This issaid, curiously, without elaborating onprecisely what makes these similarities remarkable so the 12 Never-the-less, all. them compass evenly to inability It should be noted that some authors tend to 'agrarian'interchangeable use andas 'peasant' adjectives 11 its of result a as definition this from away farther or closer movements three these pushing of risk inevitable a the with coupled is task perilous one of creation the and exist not does definition fundamental a such clear, made has Dimitrov Romania). and Croatia Bulgaria, of to (those movements “Agrarianism” prominent of most use three the generic describe the with problems initial the of one represents task this century 20 early the during Balkans the in Agrarianism of context the in However, upon. agreed be must term the of definition a Agrarianism, of instance any contextualize and analyze to order In ideology. political and philosophy of terms in meanings broader as well as connotations historical numerous absolute principles, and which demonstrate a significant level offlexibility. to opposed as broad within grouped be only can which movements political of category broad a see syndicalism.” cooperative of idea the on based democracy economic and political of ideology values;” of structure philosophical fundamental coherent of a doctrine or systematic principles a possess yet not does Agrarianism recent, “being that notes Dimitrov M. George Party Agrarian Bulgarian the of head former the volume, that in Agrarianism words his in peasant” [“democratic peasants remained under clerical influence.” Mitrany, inter-war period, the “Serb Agrarian Party... never gathered political strength, while the Slovene significant Agrarian movement existed in Albania or Yugoslavia, apart from Croatia, during as the Period,” “Greek and Bulgarian Peasants: of Aspects Their Sociopolitical Situation during the Interwar and in terms ofpolitical impact, an insignificant force in Greekpolitical life.” Mouzelis, Nicos York: Philosophical Library, 1948), 393. “Agrarianism” in Feliks Gross, relative to what can be seenwithin other umbrella ideological terms. George Dimitrov, M. to describe the movements being here. discussed Of course the initial step must be to establish what is meant by “Agrarianism.” The term has has term The “Agrarianism.” by meant is what establish to be must step initial the course Of Comparative Studies in Society andHistory European ideologies, of asurvey 20th century political ideas 11 ] movements were “remarkably alike.” “remarkably were movements ] 13 , 18.1 (Jan., 1976),90;, 18.1(Jan., additionally, no Marx Marx Against the Peasant 13 noting only that it “tends to be an an be to “tends it that only noting 12 Yet in his chapter on on chapter his in Yet , 138. 15 As Mr. As 14 , (New So we we So th CEU eTD Collection 7The Bulgarian Agrarian the Nationalused name Union(BANU) union instead of party a as 17 When social I say Iam referring specifically to activities which exist apart from the political process 16 movement in spite ofits obviouspolitical nature. social a but party political a considered be to even not was BANU his that contention Stamboliski's in form extreme most its in itself manifests aspect divisional This ones. industrial or urban in same the did never certainly Agrarianism societies, Agrarian in flourished while times at example: have For may Communism majority. agrarian the of values social the reflect not did system political the that perception the was impetus very their Often system. political the onto values social internal some of reflection the upon based movements internal but programs, political inspired or founded externally level national the on activities political overtly their of spite in often nature; in local and social as primarily themselves see to movements of political tendency Agrarian the of because Agrarianism of case the in complicated more is division this politics, national of realm the within clearly fall to value face at seems here discussed being is what While Agrarianism. of aspects and acknowledge its shortcomings along the way. definition a such reaching of process the through work to seems then solution best The definition. a of elements central some least at on agreement some requires movements these of evaluation comparative from them. Crampton, R.J. parties central was to Stamboliski's platform, it therefore was prudent for him to separate himself achieving these wider social goals. thisAlso, position made opposition as sense to the political cooperative development it operated in the political realm only as one (if at times the main) of way establishing local level organizations for not just political mobilization but foragricultural reflection ofits broader social goals. Inthe that sense it operated outside the political realm by modern Agrarianism. on the level ofthe national parliament, Ifind it useful to create this distinction discussing when emphasis ofthis aspect of Agrarianism over its importance an as ideology which advocates foritself of cooperative syndicalism in creating better economic situations in the villages and the occasional political wouldbe advocating forland redistribution a as political party. Because ofthe importance society should,forexample, return to their peasant rootsin terms ofculture and behavior. The on the state level. The social side of Agrarianism isthe advocation individuals ofhow and the The initial question to discuss is the relationship between the perceived social and political political and social perceived the between relationship the is discuss to question initial The Stamboliski (London: Publishing Haus 2009), 30. 17 14 16 . After all, these were not not were these all, After . CEU eTD Collection 0Mitrany, 20 “The irony isthat the anti-urban and anti-capitalist poetrymost often was written bypeople had who 19 an within country entire the for A more basic foundation ofthis element of work Agrarian theory isdescribed in Roumen Daskalov,18 “Ideas to designed were which programs of set a forward put rational through reform economic Stamboliski rhetoric, anti-urban despite that is here important wider is What reforms. structural modernizing on emphasis the to relative wisdom peasant of notions romantic the deemphasizing by downplayed somewhat was tension social/political aforementioned the which in case one shows example Bulgarian the mentioned, As line. that straddling themselves found above described variations Balkan three the which in ways important are there possible, always to exist side byside, and in doingattempt so to reconcile these problems. principles.” political their and plans social their between contradiction a of burden the one, tactical a was parties... Peasant the faced which difficulty chief the “perhaps that explains Mitrany David government). central the extension, by (and city the of sphere social the within itself for place a finding and confronting without changes broader enact not could it countryside, the of sphere social the represent to Attempting predicament. awkward an in existed criticized. they which urbanity the experienced fully city. the in selfnot often one's had basing policy anti-urban an Additionally,of proponents the of many meant power political of exercise city, wider the any by held communication mass of tools the requires ideas such of dissemination The ideology. peasant this oppose to seemed which sphere urban very the within exist design by must which party political a of platform the as ideas these of manifestation urbanization.” Daskalov, “Ideas About, and Reactions to Modernization in the Balkans,” 162. actually lived only in small and had towns little experience with advanced capitalism and isdescribed1960s in Gross, The more sophisticated and developed form ofBalkan Agrarianism which had developed bythe About, and Reactions to Modernization in the Balkans,” While it is clear that a clean division between social and political sides of Agrarianism is not not is Agrarianism of sides political and social between division clean a that clear is it While agriculturalist, peasant the of wisdom innate the of idea the from did they as Originating Marx Marx Against the Peasant European ideologies, , 141. 15 306-307. 19 The result was that Agrarianism had always always had Agrarianism that was result The 20 It seemed the social and political sides had had sides political and social the seemed It East European Quarterly 31.2 (1997): 161. 31.2(1997): 161. 18 the the CEU eTD Collection 4It been has noted onseveral occasions byKosta Todorov, Stamboliski's foreign minister,24 that though Indeed, Radić rebuffed overtures bythe Agrarian International to move a towards more 23 PeroMoraca, 22 While this term often isused in the literature, Ihave been unable to find aofprecisely discussion 21 Stamboliski, by principles advocated Agrarian on based federation Balkan wider the alone let reforms, pan-Yugoslav to even might include Bulgaria, Serbia and Macedonia, but not Croatia.” geographically, either Balkans ofthe culturally... part or not politically are “Croats A Federation Balkan that idea the upon based independence to path eventual an as autonomy federal Croatian of level higher a support to continued HSS state, the of years early the through Even 1921. in Slovenes) and Croats Serbs, of Kingdom of Yugoslavia founding the the as to (originally opposition notable its example, For peasants. of organization social universalistic more a as role its over party political a as role its place to seemed which policies several maintained HSS the level, political more a on Operating differently. Croatian and Romanian cases. materialism and modernization of notion overarching Agrarienne,” internationalist form of Agrarianism, Louisa Reviakina, “Le casStjepan Radić et l'Internationale formation of Yugoslavia, more however thedeserves study. issues BalkanBugarska')” Studies 4(1993),7-11; myisthat best guess evolved Radić'sviews after the Bulgarians through the Eyes ofStjepan Radić (The Bulgarian Character inBook'Obnovljena His could only be accomplished... only with Bulgarian participation” Rumiana Bozhilova, “The that Radić at the time “fervently supported the thesis that the desired unity ofthe Southern Slavs “Obnovljena Bugarska” or“Bulgaria Renewed” written in 1913right after the Balkan Wars explains some confusion onthis point an as analysis provided byRumiana Bozhilova ofRadić's book Singleton, the psychological satisfaction of,say, being reunited with a lost piece of'national' territory. definition, but rather somewhat loosely to mean that it isourmaterial wealth that matters more than economic sense. Though it seemslikely that hethe used term not then with its strict economic clear not hereferring was to materialism in a Marxist orphilosophical but sense, rather in an make some preliminary conclusions. Looking at the background ofStamboliski's education it seems future research mentioned in the conclusion ofthis thesis will certainly this need, addresses can we what Stamboliski meant bythis term. While a further look into Stamboliski's writings planned for By viewing its own Agrarian platform as a uniquely Croatian development which did not aspire aspire not did which development Croatian uniquely a as own platform its Agrarian viewing By quite divide social/political this played Radić Stjepan by led (HSS) Party Peasant Croatian The Twentieth Century Yugoslavia Balkan Studies The League of Communists ofThe League ofYugoslavia Communists 23 Radić and HSS prioritized the political far more than Stamboliski. than more far political the prioritized HSS and Radić 1.1(1995): 35-55. (New (New York: Columbia 1976),p.73-4; yet Press, there is 16 21 . This can be distinguished from both the the both from distinguished be can This . (Belgrade 1966), 13. Found in Fred (Belgrade in 1966),13.Found Fred 22 24 The CEU eTD Collection Agrarianism better reflected social reality and attempted to reflect that reality through politics instead instead politics through reality that reflect to attempted and reality social reflected better Agrarianism of form localized more this that show Federation Balkan the and International Green the of failures the Perhaps Stamboliski. by advocated projects universalist of kind the precluded which differences social his of scope the limiting political party and in effect dominating Croatian politics. of way a as peasantry Croatian the of characteristics Croatian uniquely the as saw he what using was Radić Agrarianism, of implications social wider potential any ignoring or suppressing for tool a as difference national of ideas social Using opposite. the precisely doing be to seen be may Radić then differences national overcome to attempt to tool a as peasants of similarities social the used Stamboliski if Indeed, Agrarianism. of aspects social the from distinguished be must political but policies, the HSS for basis political the in the and Radić of rhetoric the of both in social indeed elements were platform national uniquely the for reasons The reasoning. social overtly of maintain some level ofCroatian independence. Yugoslav the of to designed activities anti-centralizing for component more and reforms Agrarian for that less allow would Federation of dominance political platform, Agrarian an on within support based political Croatia of base solid a obtaining on purely focusing by Thus context). Yugoslav or Balkan a within least (at it universalize necessarily would which movement the of aspects social the opposes it as politics, federal of realm the in primarily operate to seems HSS the of Agrarianism prioritize the political above all else. charlatan." Todorov, generous nature handicapped him; the he was last an to adventurer discover was who a and who speculators in farm also eager products.was He to teach them to fill administrative But posts. his Through the co-operatives he expected to free them permanently from their dependence on the peasants from the control ofthe middlemen had been who robbing and usurers them foryears. “What Stamboliski real wanted was democracy, nopolitical but economic. That meant liberating ability to judge personal character and willingness to fire even werebrazenly those who corrupt. an excellent public speaker and at times a skilled strategist, Stamboliski suffered from a lacking While the argument could be made that this localization of Agrarianism was in fact recognizing of localization recognizing this fact inthat made be was argument could Agrarianism the While foundation a on of lay forms Agrarianism political Yet, seemingly for ironically,preference this Balkan Firebrand, 134-5; It can then be said that Stamboliski clearly did not 134-5; It can then be said that Stamboliski clearly did not 17 CEU eTD Collection 7This element did exist onsome level in all the Balkan manifestations of Agrarianism with the 27 Ibid, 165. 26 Daskalov, “Ideas About, and Reactions to Modernization in the Balkans,” 164-5. 25 a not was character,Romanian Agrarianism romantic central this despite Thus, regeneration. its of but the Balkans, well as the as movement's historical complexity. in use overarching terms the against point another yet is Romania within itself of Agrarianism history complex the Yet Stamboliski. and Radić as time same the at interests Agrarian represented which or Croatia in Party Peasants Romanian than the to primarily refer to coalitions best seems it here and clarity of purposes For parties Bulgaria. of variety wider much a by held been has Agrarianism present. chaotic the and past romanticized character. in Romanian wholly and uniquely be to claimed they which ideology agrarian an create to differences religious and ethnic on drew movement one. political a into evolved later only and movement, social a as initially developed undoubtedly which Agrarianism relationship between the social and the political within Agrarianism. the of consideration this to dimension curious a same adding the values, of Agrarian many of pursuit in policies these pursued they that argues reasonably be Yugoslavia),or could on it single a (where states Federal Balkan wider on policies of terms in ends opposite the pursing are movements Agrarian two these clear is it While lens. same the through movements Agrarian Balkan different these viewing of issues fundamental the out points perspective alternative this of problem The around. way other the of (Huddinge: Södertörnshögskola 2008),57. change andideological formationthe population among rural of the Baltic area 1880-1939 Marxism and Liberal Democracy: Romanian Agrarianism an as Economic Third Way,” philosophersRussian belonging to the Slavophil and Narodnik schools.” Angela Harre,“Between exception ofStamboliski's version, and “in the Balkan states these debates werestimulated by The central goal of the Peasant Party was not the maintenance of a Romanian peasant character character peasant Romanian a of maintenance the not was Party Peasant the of goal central The of interpretation religious and romanticized more a take to seemed variation Romanian The 25 Beginning in the late 19 late the in Beginning th century in several literary journals, the Romanian agrarian agrarian Romanian the journals, literary several in century 27 Beyond these early beginnings the mantle of Romanian Romanian of mantle the beginnings early these Beyond 18 26 They emphasized the difference between the the between difference the emphasized They Societal Societal CEU eTD Collection 0While the degree to which anti-Yugoslav policies varied, byHSS forexample were pursued when 30 Bell reflects the typical stance onStamboliski's foreign policy bylabeling it “anti-national.” as Bell, 29 the "Under Agrarian government of Alexander Stambolijski, tolerant was who toward the country's 28 any preventing in role significant a played which differences these that is here difference crucial The all. them of of form Agrarianism particular most the perhaps displayed Romanians to time same the At federation. the of borders internal the transcended which ethnicity Croat on based networks political within wider Yugoslavia, themselves creating for by also space political but national a out carving only their of emphasis new a through or differences importance. entrenched such or rejection a through come Federation. populations Turkish and particularist Pomak minority of Bulgaria's for form policies former equal more the far through rejected domestically, both Stamboliski Agrarianism asking. are you who on depends answer more The as divisions? very those overcoming of function capable ideology Balkans) the of it terms in least (at universal does Or religion? and language, ethnicity, by different but as goals some marked sharing ultimately forms, national uniquely of set a as exist Agrarianism Does nationalism. the to befrom lessons drawn those peasants differed significantly from proposing. what he was of interpretations their Peasants, the towards looking by made be could progress believed individuals these Stamboliski, to similar manner a in While modernization. of kind different a simply now was key, still was Modernization it past. idealized some to return to desire a possessing ideology regressive Mass MobilizationMass nationalism persisted. Biondich, Mark the policy of Peasants in Power Muslim Minorities in Bulgaria Muslim minority, the situation ofthe latter quite was favorable." Ali Eminov, Radić and HSS, by comparison, actively undermined attempts at wider federal structures by not not by structures federal wider at attempts undermined actively comparison, by HSS, and Radić of form defined ethnically an to adherence an is here emerges which difference crucial The 29 Much as in the wider debates of the inter-war period, it seemed modernization could could modernization seemed it period, inter-war the of debates wider the in as Much narodno jedinstvo 28 , 1904-1928(Toronto: University of Toronto 2000),247. Press, , 207. , and internationally in his advocacy of the Green International and the Balkan Balkan the and International Green the of advocacy his in internationally and , , (London: & C.Hurst Co.,1997),49. was abandoned in 1918, some important level of croatian abandoned was in 1918,some important level ofcroatian tea ai,teCotPaatPry n h oiiso Stjepan Radić, the Croat Peasant Party, andthe Politics of 19 Turkish and other Turkish andother 30 CEU eTD Collection somehow bothsomehow falling homogenized under s vision of'Communism.' as Korea North and Cuba in situations current the describing as problematic as times at but level some many its at of useful be each can Agrarianism of term in blanket the ideology under all them home-grown to referring that uniquely and manifestations, a as Agrarianism see to possible is it that is result The circumstances. social and political of variety a fit to modified are which solutions similar broadly to lead modernization of problems the with experiences and backgrounds similar Here time. over developing and at works of set single a from stemming ideology Looking an see we comparison for Marxism development. further some bears theories Agrarian various these of origination the to regards in previously mentioned point a social Agrarianism, or political of realm the within movement of Agrarianism to its practical limits.label unifying the strain mentioned, as which, difference of markers important undoubtedly are and social how political aspects merged ultimately as of important, less the questions ofscale which developed from them questions the view can one while So case). Bulgarian the in (as supra-national sub- be it whether ideally or case), ideas, Romanian the in (as own national case), Croatian the their interpret could one (as of state/national scale the to as conclusion each different aspects a these to blending came in movement importantly, more However, elements. political and social these of mixtures differing slightly had movements three all that conclusion the to come we Agrarianism in their countries' futures. peasants the of importance the of notions vague of interpretations different fundamentally from rather but values core enumerated of set central a of interpretations differing from or leaders their amongst disagreements personal from stem not did success achieving from movements Agrarian transnational Having established the problems in this diversity of scales, arising from attempts to define each each define to attempts from arising scales, of diversity this in problems the established Having of aspects political and social the between relationship the of examination the in Thus 20 CEU eTD Collection 32 Maniu was Prime Minister of Romania three times during the inter-war period as head of the Prime Maniu was Minister ofRomania three times during the inter-war period head as ofthe 32 Biondich, 31 Maniu. Iuliu like Party Peasant's National the of leaders Romanian some and an hand one the is on Stamboliski and there Radić between distinction movements, important Agrarian these of leaders the on information biographical the at Looking differences. important some creates also relationship similar of this Agrarianism, terms in intelligentsia the peasants and the urban centers in which they must exist to fully propagate their ideas. of ideologues these between relationship awkward aforementioned the namely similarities, important some creates process modernization the in role their and movements the of timing the sense this In idea.” national the of bearer the hitherto intelligentsia, the with identify to peasants most of “inability the is Agrarianism Balkan of aspect unifying One cases. three these amongst important similarity of are elements there Certainly Rouge. Khmer the to school Narodnik Russian the from everything encompassing use wider its from restricted but context Balkan or European Eastern limited more a and geographically. chronologically both movements, of variety a such for term umbrella broad a lent as use have its to which themselves term the of qualities the establishing in important is it label, the use not to reason a itself in not is point this While scope. its within fall to determined later were where ideas of variety a to hoc post applied been often has it as meaning selective somewhat a has term the that say then can creation. We its prompted which circumstances the in but ideology of the origins textual the not is here commonality The circumstances. similar within ideas related developing individuals many reflects it Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 28Mar. 2012. Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia National Peasant Party and can be considered its most important leader. "Iuliu Maniu." However, looking more closely at the issue of the relationship between the peasants and the the and peasants the between relationship the of issue the at closely more looking However, in used justifiably be fact in it way, this could applied is term the if questions, some raises This indeed,So Agrarianism functions quite differently. Instead of stemming from this single source, Stjepan Radic , 246-7. 32 Maniu's background was one of “a family with long long with family “a of one was background Maniu's 21 31 CEU eTD Collection 7Biondich, 37 Crampton, R.J. 36 Ibid, 85. 35 See footnote 9. 34 Slabey Joseph Rouček, 33 Romanian the view to ability The parties. political three these view should we how in distinctions backgrounds. bourgeois essentially share both ideologue and leader political chief whose Party, Peasant Romanian represent. to tried he whom peasants the from directly came who thinker and politician made self a as seen be Stamboliski) to (similarly can journalist. minded Sava, the on village a in parents impoverished ideologically and illiterate to born children, eleven of ninth the Radić, and politically a of that was politics to prior profession his and and industrialization but through collective farms and the revitalization ofthe peasants and the countryside. capitalism though not Romania revitalize would which spirit' 'peasant the of uniquely vision a Romanian in belief a of those were here elaborated features important The movement. the define to came Romanian, into translated loosely Populism or “Poporanismm” of idea the thought, Agrarian beyond moving inter-war Romania's of Eventually, much of idea foundational the developing and Socialism reformed imprisonment. Burnstein's political with mixed privilege enjoyed and origins, head” “invisible its and Party,” Peasant the of “ideologist the the from far were which countryside. backgrounds had themselves who movement peasant Romanian the of associations.” legal New New York Times, 1971),87.
71 68 In spite of this the final component of this policy was passed in 1921 enabling even un- even enabling 1921 in passed was policy this of component final the this of spite In Instead he envisioned solving the problems of unproductive accumulation of excessive excessive of accumulation unproductive of problems the solving envisioned he Instead 67 meant that Agrarian policies would be relying on shaky governmental foundations foundations governmental shaky on relying be would policies Agrarian that meant Alexander Stamboliiski: Life, His andWork Ideas , 165. The Principles of the BAP , 148. 33 (Sofia: The Bulgarian Agrarian Party, 1919),29. (Sofia: BAP Printing House, 70 Ultimately, however, the A A CEU eTD Collection 75 “There were not enough productive jobs available for those who were being trained. Since the “There werenot enough productive jobsavailable werebeing forthose who trained. Since the 75 Crampton, 74 wider the Ibid, 168. as 73 saw BANU what to Bell, 72 but agriculture to related necessarily not specializations other and sciences, natural languages, foreign towards curricula their direct to told were schools professional Other require. would institutions new these which staff and teachers the train to opened were schools service. civil bloated the in jobs undemanding towards graduates directing entirely almost pursuits which Stamboliski viewed being as unproductive. True, professional bythat schools time were academic bourgeoisie of kinds the from away and skills vocational towards more shifted was content task. the for built schools new of hundreds with compulsory, made was schooling secondary history Bulgarian in time first the For content. ideological and practical of thewas most fair and economic to way dothings in their eyes. that but because reasons ideological obtuse notfor society of center the at would be peasant the else, all and economy above ruled society,Materialism realities. economic to them blindto this allow not did government the the in farms peasant sized medium to small of role the and fairness around centered agenda ideological an fulfilling in interested was government BANU the that was showed policies sector. that to reforms agrarian the of philosophy the effectextending in factories, their in share some workers factory allowed have would which legislation writing of midst the in allegedly was farmed monastic holdings to be confiscated and redistributed. Development Gerasimos ed., Augustinos, government Bell, clerks.” D. John “Modernization Through Secularization in Bulgaria,” in commerce, it foundthat was graduates few actually those pursued careers, the majority ending upas bureaucratic careers... Even in institutes set upto provide specialized training in agronomy or government the was only major sourceofemployment, Bulgarian students prepared themselves for In the realm of education, Stamboliski's government once again put forward policies with a mix mix a with policies forward put again once government Stamboliski's education, of realm the In he occurring, was Stamboliski murder violently and overthrow would which coup the as Just Peasants in Power A Concise of History Bulgaria (Ann (Ann 1991),19-20. Press, Arbor: Greenwood , 165. ies ah omdriyi otesenErp:Esy nNtoa pathstoDiverse modernity in southeastern Europe: in National Essays , 150. 34 72 74 While at the same time, the the time, same the at While 73 75 What these these What Additional CEU eTD Collection 7The brackets are myintended own, to emphasize that Stamboliski's Agrarian ideology not was 77 Ibid, 23. 76 without modernity of trappings the of and all cinemas, schools, roads, develop could Bulgaria rural that competitiveness. and viability economic create to co-operatives of ability the in belief firm a of result the was It 1. chapter in discussed Romanticism of kind bythe notunderpinned was viable economically be farms to medium sized and ofsmall ability the style Soviet the buildings. apartment urban of construction to the even and forestry, fishing, resort to having without landholders like realms other into expanded eventual was policy This despised. so Stamboliski that collectivization sized medium and small to scale he co-operatives the Through expected to free them permanently from their dependence onspeculators in farm products.” years. for them robbing been had who usurers and middlemen the of control the from peasants the liberating meant That economic. but political democracy, no real was wanted Stamboliski “what explains, Todorov Kosta As level. local the on organizations cooperative Agrarian.” was Bulgaria] [for which of important most the categories, occupational or estates into but of production, means and ownership on based classes into not divided “was society because that meant he this By society. the of composition true the reflect to democracy of restructuring fundamental a involved economic necessities ofthe state going forward. 9Zhak Nata et al., 79 Todorov, Balkan Firebrand 78 0Christov, 80 chapter; intended to be universalist. This aspect ofhisideology will have important implications in the next Diverse pathstoDiverse modernity in southeastern Europe; 34; cited from Bell, “Modernization Through Secularization in Bulgaria,” in ed., Augustinos, Dvizhenieto kooperativno za zemedelie v Bulgariia pre usloviiata nakapitalizma The result was the development of co-operatives designed to bring the benefits of economies of of economies of benefits the bring to designed co-operatives of development the was result The Stamboliski of goals political ultimate and rhetoric the policies, domestic of set this Alongside 77 Ibid, 125. This was to be reflected both in a restructuring of the Subranie (parliament) and through through and (parliament) Subranie the of restructuring a in both reflected be to was This Alexander Stamboliiski Istoriia naikonomicheskata misulv Bulgariia , 135. , 12. 76 80 35 Through these organizations Stamboliski believed believed Stamboliski organizations these Through Crampton , Stamboliski, 115. , II(Sofia: 1971),278-86; BMateev, 79 Importantly, the belief in in belief the Importantly, (Sofia, 1967),32- 78 CEU eTD Collection 84 Undoubtedly the best full history of this interaction from independence until the 1980s (in spite of Undoubtedly the best full history ofthis interaction from independence until the (in 1980s spite of 84 Alexander Stamboliski, 83 Ibid, 67 82 Ibid, 16-17; explained another well “the as assertion that the conditions ofmodern life demanded the 81 harassment. and assimilation of campaigns off and on of one been generally has 1878 since populations Muslims) Turkishspeaking (Bulgarian Pomak and its and state Bulgarian the between interactions the of history The policies. minority government's a with parties parliament ofeconomic interests. political of parliament the replace to able was BANU and Stamboliski before came inequality.” economic the abolish will the effect they also... and it; without impossible in is existence equality,normal their political as and social will disputed stabilize will masses they i.e. laboring do, “the to failed that parties political be the would what successfully result accomplish ultimate The chapter. second the in International discussed Green the through transnational becoming eventually organizations these envisioned Stamboliski policies. domestic his within manifestation radical most laborers Day unions), the Craftsmen'sUnion,the UnionofMerchants, etc." the Party, Agrarian the trade workers the or rise party workers the ming wold in had he whether on there elaborate not did (he place Organization their in and away die to destined were parties bourgeoispalace organizations.factional The social economic and political estate new the for way make and aside "step would parties political old the which in system political new a of basis sacrificing themselves at the altar ofindustrialization. House, 1909),14. House, Power occupational formations in the country in a system offunctional representation.” Bell, supplanting if political parties bycorporative or'estatist' organizations that wouldgroupthe major The final component of Stamboliski's domestic agenda relevant to this thesis' analysis is his his is analysis thesis' this to relevant agenda domestic Stamboliski's of component final The the form to were They play. to role national greater a had also organizations local small These , 60. Political Parties Professional or Organizations 83 For better or for worse, however, the coup of June 9 June of coup the however, worse, for or better For 36 84 Yet the Stamboliski government broke with this this with broke government Stamboliski Yet the 81 Here Stamboliski's materialism sees its HereStamboliski's materialism its sees 82 , something which will be be will which something , (Sofia: BANU Printing Printing (Sofia: BANU Peasants in Peasants in th , 1923 1923 , CEU eTD Collection 9Ibid, 154. 89 Bell, 88 Ibid, 44. 87 Neuburger, TheOrient Within 86 Eminov, 85 all at co-operatives and service, labor the reform, educational through interactions everyday reform fundamentally to efforts significant This sought. was which change of depth the alongside observed be then can front domestic the on scaling of element important This religion. to class from cleavages societal of variety a across extend encompassing, be to designed was sought was which transformation The elements. Urban or Agrarian narrow to simply not and society, of levels all to applied regime law breaking certainly existed, it not particularly was different than the previous regimes. some and corruption While altogether. precedents legal rejected who regimes communist and fascist later to compared directly be should it mean not does that 'radical,' as regime Stamboliski's characterize altogether.” 'rules' of concept the reject not did they rules, enemies' their with game the play to refused they “although that is first The alone. policies these from derived be can conclusions basic few a chapter, next the in policy foreign of discussion in hispolicies Muslims.” towards leaders... Bulgarian (pre-1989) tolerant most the of one as Stamboliski tout sources most fact, In state. easily peasant a as Bulgaria of vision Stamboliski's from excluded “never were Muslims that Neuburger notes quite well. as them were to applied previously discussed Bulgaria reforms the of in all Thus it. Muslims into incorporated internationalist, was populations. ideology these for Stamboliski's environment tolerant Because and favorable quite a instead provided and legacy London: Cornell 2004). University Press, Within: MuslimMinorities andthe Negotiation of Nationhood in Bulgaria Modern some problems inOrientalism herofSaid's use in her analysis) Neuburger, isMary Secondly, that contrary to how the they are often portrayed often are they the how to contrary that Secondly, the require will analysis thorough more a While policies? these of sum the view to then How Peasants in Power Turkish and other MuslimMinorities in Bulgaria , 160. , 44-45and 177-178. 87 88 37 That is to say, while it is certainly reasonable to to reasonable certainly is it while say, to is That , 49. 89 , the reforms of the Stamboliski Stamboliski the of reforms the , (Ithica and (Ithica and The Orient The Orient 86 Mary Mary 85 CEU eTD Collection entire region. the to policies domestic these his extension an about also but defense, mutual about simply not is idea federal new This Federation. Balkan of kind new a construct to attempts he as whole, a as Peninsula Balkan the the for meanings policy, new acquire foreign policy domestic his his of Through elements materialist and universalistic ways. reinforcing mutually and important, in policy domestic economy. and society Bulgarian the to changes fundamental made to attempt its in 1944) in takeover Communist the to (up successors and predecessors his both to relative out stands regime Stamboliski's sense this In way. lasting and deep a in society alter and reform to attempt serious a demonstrated society of levels As will be explained in the second chapter, Stamboliski's foreign policy interacts with his his with interacts policy foreign Stamboliski's chapter, second the in explained be will As 38 CEU eTD Collection 93 An explanation of Bulgaria's financial situation following the wars can be found in Lampe, “Belated explanation An ofBulgaria's financial situation following thecan be wars found in Lampe, “Belated 93 “By the turn ofthe century, military expenditures and interest payments onthe national debt, which 92 “It could be argued that Bulgarian nationalism apopular as mass more force, was the consequence 91 Combined the casualties weremore than 460,000,with around 158,000deaths, Georgi T. Danaillow, 90 occurred a as result ofBulgaria's foreign policy played an equal role. military, Bulgarian the on spent money of sums enormous the undoubtedly hoped, been had as quickly as modernize to inability Bulgaria's in role large a played chapter last the in discussed forces political and economic domestic population. the of much of wishes sincere the as well as elements, terrorist by backed ideas irredentist with saddled psychologically country the left had importantly most perhaps and territory, men, young of thousands of tens killed Europe Modernization in Comparison” in ed., Augustinos, 1918-1921,” in Djordjevic, ed., Lampe, “Unifying the the most thoroughly militarized countries inYugoslav the world.” Economy, military preparations caused it to increase still further. a per On capita Bulgaria basis, one of was proportion that remained approximately consistent upto the eve ofthe First Balkan War, when contractedwas largely formilitary accounted purposes, for44percent ofthe state budget, a their culture own onall Macedonians.” Crampton, Macedonia werenot the Ottomans... but aggressive, assertive nationalist states which wouldimpose the territories acquired werebycontrast backward and expensive... Furthermore the masters new of deprived Bulgaria ofits most advanced agricultural areas and the chief sourceofits grain exports; Bulgaria. in It every was respect a disaster forBulgaria. The ofthe loss southern Dobrudja... witnessed horrific crimes against civilians; and it had produced a secondpartition ofSanStefano Crampton, and powerful a force amongst Bulgarians the as of loss Alsace-Lorraine forthe was French.” of Berlin wereto be rectified in 1885but the pain at the ofMacedonia to loss remain was bitter as the inflicted losses bythe Treaty ofBerlin arousedmassive popular resentment. Some ofthe wrongs than the cause ofpolitical liberation. The rising of1876had not received widespread backing but 1932), 603. Les effets de la guerre en Bulgarie Universitaires (Fontenay-aux Les Roses: Presses de France, The period from 1912-1918 had been an abject disaster for Bulgaria. Successive wars had had wars Successive Bulgaria. for disaster abject an been had 1912-1918 from period The , 35. Stamboliski Chapter 3: Expanding the Nation: Stamboliski's Foreign Policy , 11; “The Second Balkan War had caused more casualties than the first... 92 the successive wars beginning in 1912, and the economic isolation which which isolation economic the and 1912, in beginning wars successive the The Creation of Yugoslavia 1914-1918 90 put the country at the mercy of foreign creditors, lost valuable valuable lost creditors, foreign of mercy the at country the put 39 Diverse paths to modernity in southeastern pathstoDiverse modernity in southeastern A Concise of History Bulgaria 93 , 21-22. , 135. 91 While While CEU eTD Collection 5Ibid, 32. 95 Botev, Khristo,and Stefana Stefanova Tarinska. HristoBotev,94 policy. foreign their of tenant central a as idea the adopted idea, the of proponent a been also however,having BANU, WorldWar. First the survive not ultimately would Socialists the amongst Federation Balkan Turks.” and Albanians the including races, Balkan the all of “fraternity the on based be would which Federation, Balkan a for advocated Warsgroups Balkan these in theBulgarian when 1870s and Serbian socialists argued fora federal Balkan state. primarily lie – movement single a of speak to impossible is it grounds, own their on structure federal a policy efforts and display all ofhisprinciples in spite difficult ofhiscountry's situation. foreign his of all place would Stamboliski that Federation Balkan a of goal this in was It Federation. Balkan a towards drive term longer a in stage. manifest anti-irredentism and European pacifism were principles the These on principles policy foreign its establishing firmly by and will peace good secure international to be would government Stamboliski the of step first The War. World First the after state defeated a as status Bulgaria's with problems accumulated these combining situation, policy sort oranother which are curiously not mentioned in Stavrianos' history ofthe idea. (2004), 55-56; the same several onto sourcegoes discuss other advocacies fora Federation ofone Building upIdentities in the context ofEconomic Development, 1878-1912,” in 3694-3696, here л.3696; cited in Rumiana Preshlenova, “The Close and the Distant Balkans. friendship will want to have all 14,оп. theф. 1,a.e. 4991,л. other great БИА-НБКМ, powers...” “the confederation will transform the small and today despisedstates into a great whose power recommended a wider Balkan federation in the early yearsofthe Bulgarian state byarguing that for example with its mentioning bythe prominent Bulgarian minister, GrigorNachovich, he when many prominent individuals both within the Balkans and wider Europe advocated who forthis idea, 137-65; Cited from Stavrianos, The Balkan Federation Movement, 30-51;there However werealso 1931), 146; Hermann Wendel, (1915), 255-63;Bakaloff, G. "Notre heritage revolutionnaire",la federation balkanique, II(Dec., 1976), I52,208; L. Barbar,"The Early Historyofthe Balkan League", International Review, I The origins of the Balkan Federation movements – as so many political parties argued for such such for argued parties political many so as – movements Federation Balkan the of origins The foreign impossible nearly a faced government his and Stamboliski period, this of out Coming Aus dem südslawischenRisorgimentoAus dem 40 95 However this vision of a multiethnic multiethnic a of vision this However Selected Works (Gotha: F.A. Perthes, 1921), (Sofia: Sofia Press, (Sofia: Sofia Press, Balkan Studies 94 Entering into the Entering into the 3 CEU eTD Collection 100 John Dyneley Prince, U.S. minister to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes1 (1926-1932), Dyneley100 John Prince, minister U.S. to the KingdomCroats and ofSerbs, Slovenes1 (1926-1932), "From the day Stamboliski turned Baron down Aliotti's offer ofa secret military alliance against 99 Todorov, Balkan Firebrand 98 Oren, 97 Frederick B.Chary, 96 powers great hostile vaguely or indifferent of sea a amidst enemy staunch a such terrorists. IMRO the for support military and financial to officials of bribery from everything included tactics Mussolini's had. Stamboliski enemy every aiding by refusal this to responding before refused) categorically course, of he, (which Yugoslavia against alliance an Stamboliski offering by Beginning happening. from this prevent to power his in everything did Mussolini federation, Balkan guaranteed. from far was success it's and policy foreign entire his for hurdle greatest the represented policy this manipulation.” political of the product than rather profound and genuine were people... the moved which sentiments “the Macedonia, Marseilles as away far as violence and out assassinations carrying of capable organization terrorist a (IMRO), Organization Revolutionary Macedonian Internal the as well as country the within actors political many with enemies making meant it decision, small no was This region. that on claims irredentist previous Bulgaria's of renunciation the required several however, were, There with Yugoslavia peace of policy His country. Macedonia. was first The him. against working factors important that with Federation Balkan initial the an to of precursor a establishment as goal policy foreign primary his Yugoslavia with peace made and federation Washington 8December D.C., 1930,dispatch #327,5.Department of State, Records Relating to the in the backyards ofNew York.” Dyneley John Prince, Belgrade, to the Department ofState, “... At the present time a federation ofSlavic ‘republics’ could only be paralleled bya cat convention commented that: Bulgarian reparations." Ibid, 151. Yugoslavia, the Italians set out to destroy him. They had three major -bribery, weapons terror, and The second factor working against him was in fact Mussolini’s Italy. Fearing a strong united united strong a Fearing Italy. Mussolini’s fact in was him against working factor second The the about serious quite was he that administration his of beginning the from proved Stamboliski Revolution Administered The History ofThe History Bulgaria , 137-8. , 4. 97 Despite BANU's electoral success and Stamboliski's popularity, Stamboliski's and success electoral BANU's Despite (Santa Barbara, Calif.: 2011), Greenwood, p.71. 41 96 . When it came to Bulgaria's claim over over claim Bulgaria's to came it When . 100 made Stamboliski's Stamboliski's made 99 Having 98 , CEU eTD Collection 102Stavrianos, 101Ibid, 168. with the actions ofItaly, even this proved too difficult a task. of only Yugoslavia consisting union Slavic South limited Bulgaria. more and a advocating to took Stamboliski Macedonia, over tensions ethnic the to regards in especially situation, political difficult the to response In and Greece, Romania, that. changing were also but nations politics Albania, Slav South the just not include would which one is, that previously, socialists the by advocated union of kind the for support his indicated writings idealistic more earlier his Though somewhat. federation Italian created resources a persistent problem. to access their with combined IMRO the of fanaticism The idea. the to barriers greatest the of some were solve permanently to sought federation Balkan a which claims irredentist irony,very of the hint a With just federation. Balkan a of formation the preventing in impact direct very a had support military IMRO. the control to unable military proved threatened Stamboliski if Romania intervention even and Yugoslavia, Greece, of leaders The it. prevent to together exacerbated hisdomestic situation, ultimately leading to hisassassination. also It impossible. nearly federation, the creating alone policy,let foreign workable a crafting of task Balkans,” 57. and Bulgaria in 1905foritseconomic own reasons; Preshlenova, “The Close and the Distant start, forexample when Austria-Hungary prevented a customs union from forming between Serbia 4 (2006),99; additionally, foreignhad fought powers against further economic integration from the Zaïmova, Francophone“La Presse Bulgare Universalisme: et IdentitéNationale,” BalkanStudies 3- be considered a as forum forthe defense ofthe Bulgarian national cause to foreign countries,” Raïa 1923,” Balkan Studies Mathilde Tchoreloff, “Le Gouvernment Agrarien Stambolijski D'Alexandre et La France 1919- the other hand “acquiesced to sloppyand inappropriate clientalist solutions” (my translation) Yvette- reels), National Archives II, Washington D.C;into response Stamboliski and hisideas, France on Internal Affairs of Yugoslavia, 1930-1944(National Archives Microfilm Publication #1203,28 An interest aspect of the difficulties found in this rapprochement between Bulgaria and and Bulgaria between rapprochement this in found difficulties the of aspect interest An a for ambitions his limited Stamboliski program, his to faced difficulties the to response In work indeed would federation Balkan a of goal Stamboliski's towards barriers two These The Balkan Federation Movement 2-3 (2001), 88; though the French press was somewhat sympathetic and “can 2-3(2001),88; thoughsomewhat the sympathetic was French press and “can , 39. 42 101 In this way, Italy's financial and and financial Italy's way, this In 102 However, CEU eTD Collection 105Jackson, 105Jackson, 104C. Stephanove, "Drifting toward a Federation," Jugoslav Current History, XV (1922), 937. internal own its 103Ibid, 42. face to difficult it found soon it 1921, in Poland and Serbia, Czechoslovakia, from prepared to cope with them. not were they that immediately almost show they ideology, an as agrarianism with link their fundamental of because elements these of importance the downplayed movement the of leaders the While ideologies. agrarian most of content national typically the with ambitions international its all reconcile destroying of goal set the to had with it level theoretical a ideology. Additionally, on agrarian light doctrine comparatively a with oppressions universalist a with competing of task difficult the International. Peasant Red its and Comintern the with compete to founded was International, Green the called organization, This organizations. and states Peasantist of organization international larger a into tied and Bulgaria in reforms internal his on modeled be to was federation smaller Yugoslavia serving more the interests ofa 'Greater Serbia.' a of Yugoslaviapan-Balkan favor united in a of ahead Serbia Greater place definitely to seemed move today.” of Slavdom Balkan the in issues the are these – Serbia Greater versus Jugoslavia united Pashitch-Davidovitch... versus University,Sofiaof “Raditch-Stambolisky one to shifted then debate the from Stephanove Professor a of words the In government. the of control full take to began Alexander King as underground went party The party. Communist the banned and liberties civil limited which state” the of defense the for “law the passed government the 1921, in victories electoral dramatic after Yugoslavia.in high be to appeared move a such for support that meant Communists the to Socialists the from leftists of part the on power in increase power,the victorious a as status their of spite In war. the Yugoslaviafollowing in existed which federation for support the Yugoslaviawas The result was, after Stamboliski founded the group in conjunction with peasant organizations organizations peasant with conjunction in group the founded Stamboliski after was, result The his with, begin to federation of kind any just advocating not was Stamboliski course Of Comintern andPeasant in East Europe 43 , 5. 105 It immediately faced faced immediately It 103 However, soon soon However, 104 This CEU eTD Collection 107 Todorov, 106 Bell, hewhen explains that: direction ofa Balkan Federation. the in direction: positive a in moving was policy foreign his end this of outside spite in that against and Mussolini, defense common their for group could aggressors." peoples Balkan the all which around Slavs million twenty of bloc a constituting Yugoslavia, and Bulgaria between alliance of policy the - succeed to about was policy foreign basic his as just killed was "Stamboliski that autobiography his in writes minister foreign time one His coup. military wider a with conjunction in IMRO the to over handed and agent Italian an by abducted was he when assassinated was he 1923 In agrarianism. for role wider a as well as federation Balkan a at attempt Stamboliski's doomed powers, foreign by fueled BANU the of part the on attention much very government. receive to opportunity the had never program domestic his expand to International Green the use to idea his Stamboliski, for As its it. for had founders visions the of any fulfill and difficulties internal these overcome to the unable were, proved movements organization agrarian these to threats the serious how of realization the to led 1920s mid endorse explicitly character.not Slavic a strong did too had or it independence Croatian because it rejected Others Expansionism. Soviet against bulwark a or Pan-Slavism, for advocate an as alternatively organization the viewed members Different problems. og a ugras polm n hr imdae nihoho eand ursle, hr her unresolved, remained neighborhood immediate her requisite. absolute an remain would Power Great one in least at of protection the on dependence problems Bulgaria's as long in and, original most the many the ways, most ambitious. Intellectually orintuitively, he comprehended full well that, were as problems international Bulgaria's to answers “Stamboliiski's failures and successes policy foreign Stamboliski's summary excellent an offers Oren Nissan ones domestic with in conjunction circumstances foreignstart, very thefromthat then seemed It Peasants in Power 107 Balkan Firebrand Todorov explains here that as the man who delivered Stamboliski was paid by by paid was Stamboliski delivered who man the as that here explains Todorov , 193. , 193. 44 106 The result was that until events in the the in events until that was result The CEU eTD Collection 111 Bell explains that “if Stamboliski can be absolved ofthe charge ofpersonal corruption ,the same 110 See in particular the French journals cited here. 109 Groueff, of Crown Thorns, 68. 108 Oren, party machine, the through occur did which that from aside tampering, Electoral democracy. via revolution permanent a was sought Stamboliski What debated. be to deserves it that say to debatable, only is that however, certainly is solution this of feasibility The identities. and languages of legacy Ottoman ignored. reconciliation ofthe Balkan'sOttoman legacy, the solution offered byStamboliski's policies istoo often policies. Stamboliski's of many as well as Federation, Balkan a about opinions wrote era the of Wester of Europe journals and newspapers the of Many experiment. new strange this towards turned was eye curious a many that true is it however Bulgarian Agrarians” the about talk people world the over all but Europe, in only Not us. towards turned are eyes “all that explained, Stamboliski as These policies werenot insignificant fortheir time. Indeed it during these was fouryearsin that, power seriously. them take to be must point fundamental most the begin, To policies? domestic and foreign may not be true formany ofhiscolleagues.” Bell, Peasantsin Power, 157; he onto goes describe After all, here was an idea on how to solve the problems of nationalism borne out of a complex complex a of out borne nationalism of problems the solve to how on idea an was here all, After 21 a from writing historian a should then How revolutionary his for enough long last intrinsic value ofhisforeign-policy ideas remain true as today they as werefifty yearsago." the and solution not Stamboliiski the of validity basic did the Still, tested. which be to approaches tenure, Stamboliiski's of brevity the was however, important, Most desired…. be to much left diplomacy working his a of into translation ideas the result, a As tactician. political a was he than strategist political better a There hisforeign-policy wereseveral why reasons ideas remained unfulfilled. Stamboliiski was helped power Russian of his thoughts ordiminish the magnitude ofhispolitical courage. originality the from and detract not does formulations German foreign-policy his at arrive of eclipse temporary the Stamboliiski that fact The Powers. Great In this manner he hoped to make possible Bulgaria's escape from entanglements with any ofthe 111 Revolution Administered was not a necessary element to Agrarianism. The overwhelming majority of the peasants in to necessary element a not was in peasants oftheAgrarianism. majority overwhelming The , 172-3. 110 As we study the problems of modernization and the the and modernization of problems the study we As 109 45 To be certain, there is some strong boasting there, there, boasting strong some is there certain, To be st century perspective view both Stamboliski's Stamboliski's both view perspective century 108 CEU eTD Collection national, their content speak to their aims at fundamentally restricting the ways in which people would would people which in ways the restricting fundamentally at aims their to speak content their national, anti- explicitly being as time the at viewed were indeed and nation, the of language the in couched not were programs his that fact the Despite day. this to persists which problem a is context Balkan the in nationhood linguistic and ethnic of conceptions Western imposing of difficulty The formation. that the only to way dothis isto fashion a unique ideology designed specifically fora Balkan context. Essentially Occident. the and Orient the between but Communism and Liberalism between simply not way, third a fashion to that, just do to attempt an constitute Stamboliski of policies and theories the that here argue will I situation? own their to concepts social and economic, political, European Western adapting difficulties wasn't in Western the reconcile society a could then How good? uniformly Europe always clear. not was Europe of rest the the with relationship precise their from sphere, oriental) extension socially by (and Ottoman and economically, psychologically, emerging of process the in still ways many in which were societies existed.For it as society towards suited and ill foreign were modernization and democracy political about ideas imported existing the sense this In laws. natural and realities existing own its reflected better which society,one new into brand but a into not transformed, be would Society time. the at Union Soviet the in happening was what with compared when conservatism of element an was there Yet one. into rolled all revolution political a and revolution, economic an revolution, movements ofits era quite significantly. revolutionary other from it differentiate can we sense this In ideology. his and Stamboliski of side function. Democracy, served that the population on was the based or estatist, remained party it whether these problems manifest ona local level, ibid, 157-160. Beyond this, that the specific instrument which Stamboliski uses through his policies is nation nation is policies his through uses Stamboliski which instrument specific the that this, Beyond extension by then bad, uniformly was character oriental its and past Ottoman the if Indeed, social a be to was this that is conclusion accumulated the facts, simple these beyond Yet 46 CEU eTD Collection the policies in discussed the previous chapters. to related theory this how of discussion a to on moving before theory nationalism relevant the discuss to necessary first is it claim this make to order community.largerHowever,in a as nation the to relate 47 CEU eTD Collection 114 accurately work Hroch's described the early developments ofthe 'national revival' ofthe South 113 The problem been has that the narrative ofthe dissolution of Yugoslavia been has built upon 112 HereIam attempting to avoid the ofthe use term 'trans-national' movements discussing when model, a as seen theory.is nationalism It of framework the within discussed been have they discussed, Hroch. Miroslav like writers of it. theories the into by incorporated destroyed fact in was it our in imagination though popular nationalism, of form a as to referred commonly is Yugoslavism been? have others thishow ispossible along with the wider implications ofthis labeling. of discussion a with concluding before nationalism, of form a as viewed be can Agrarianism national and Yugoslavism, Ottomanism, are these Among Stamboliski's brand oftrans-state Agrarianism Balkans. the in a nationalism show which of movements side numerous different of relationship) downplayed (or rejection its in narrow but incorporates it which movements of breadth the in Broad narrow. but broad become has connotation term's the ideas, irredentist of promotion continued their and parties political wing right contemporary 18 the of (London: & C.Hurst Co.,2003), 13. Ideas Before Yugoslavia,” in ed. Dejan Djkokic, Slavs, howeverit not does explain their later developments. Rusinow, Dennison “The Yugoslav Indecisive Nation Building,” Yugoslavism within nationalism theory in Pieter Troch, “Yugoslavism Between the World Wars: Yugoslavia, this point alongside an excellent analysis ofthe different manifestations ofinterwar artificially bounded and singular conceptualizations ofthe various nationalist movements within describe them in terms which affirm those divisions. Because these movements rejected those very divisions baseduponnations, it wouldbe unfair to statewhich crossed lines and attempted to incorporate what can be called different 'nations.' Yet why are these movements not reflexively labeled as nationalist movements as so many many so as movements nationalist as labeled reflexively not movements these are why Yet branding the From nationalism.” “Balkan term the to attached baggage of shortage no is There th n 19 and th century movements for independence from the Ottoman Empire through to to through Empire Ottoman the from independence for movements century Chapter Nation,Nationalism: 4: New Theory Nationalities Papers 112 . What Iwill argue here isthat, in particular, this trans- 48 Yugoslavism, of Histories aFailed Idea: 1918-1992 38.2(2010),227-244. 113 Yet Yugoslavism has been successfully successfully been has Yugoslavism Yet 114 Though its failures have been well well been have failures its Though CEU eTD Collection 115 B Andrew Wachtel, “The Synthetic Yugoslav Culture ofthe Interwar Period,” ed. Djkokic, to it comparing what thereby of 'official nationalisms,' example calls classic Anderson a as Ottomanism occur. to this for precursor a as system millet the of elimination the for and nationality Ottoman single a for advocated proponents its Yet of nationalism. many of face the in loyalty for exchange in empire the within treatment and status equal grant to designed doctrine a was Ottomanism that is answer short The case? the this is Why seems at times that different ruleslabeling forsuch apply to other would-be nationalisms. today. nationalism as labeled uncontroversially rather is way nationalism federal quasi-official of form complex a into developed ultimately building, nation on models many follow does years early greater genuine some that idea its though which, the ideology this that is here interesting is What forged. with be eventually could community traits, cultural common of terms in framed was nation ideology. the prosperity. and greater stability This of of terms in purposes practical serve would largeridentity this that content the is important but most ones, smaller many of out is identity larger singer a create to what had it that Yugoslavism Yet acknowledged proponents. its of many by way none-the-less. promise great held which one yet elements, problematic contained it because failed which one and 116 Bakic “Jovo ́,forexample, argued has that Yugoslavism shouldbea seenas form ofpan- 117 & StanfordShaw Ezel J. Kural Shaw, Yugoslavism the World Wars,” Nationalities Papers, nacionalizma within the South Slav lands”Bakic Jovo ́, nationalism, subject to competition between the different ethnic nationalisms that had developed University Press, 1977), 127-8,132. University Press, II Reform,Revolution, andRepublic, TheRise of Turkey Modern 1808-1975 Ottomanism, for instance, is usually referred to separately from or in opposition to nationalism. nationalism. to opposition in or from separately to referred usually is instance, for Ottomanism, that framed was it because nationalism of form a Yugoslavism label as to easier is it Certainly 115 , 251. (Zrenjanin: Zˇarko Zrenjanin, 2004).49-50; cited in Troch, “Yugoslavism Between 117 Yet some do discuss it in the language of nationalism. Deringil sees sees Deringil nationalism. of language the in it Yetdiscuss do some 228. History ofHistory the OttomanEmpire Turkey: andModern Volume Ideologije jugoslovenstva izmedu srpskog i hrvatskog Ideologije i jugoslovenstva hrvatskog srpskog izmedu 49 (Cambridge: Cambridge (Cambridge: Cambridge 116 Yet it CEU eTD Collection such a nationalism. To answer this question this thesis will utilize the ideas of the modernization modernization 118 Selim Deringil, “The Invention of Tradition Public as Image in the Late Ottoman Empire, 1808 to the of ideas the utilize will thesis this question this answer To nationalism. a such constitute can what just of parameters the out set to important is it nationalism trans-state of kind the devised,” be can nation the of definition' 'scientific “no that established been long on toStamboliski's aofwhy discussion ideology can function a as form ofnationalism. I move as in mind kept be must questions ofitself, these and in thesis worthy ofa be would comparison direct extensive an While movement?' 'peasant failed a simply is Agrarianism while itself manifest can nationalism how of examples interesting as seen are Ottomanism Yugoslavismthat and it is Why nationalism? of terms in movements, two these and Federation Balkan a of level the on Agrarianism not does Ottomanism constitute a form ofnationalism. or Yugoslavism either that argument the make explicitly to attempted have of authors any appear forms not does it reference, such any without as terms the use simply others and nationalism movements two these discuss authors some while So existence. its threatened which movements national and Arab Balkan various the from Empire the save might which one nationalism; of form this from derived be to intended is legitimacy reciprocal A laws. its of fairness the and state Ottoman the Sultan, the of institutions the around functions hand other the on Ottomanism flourish. to Yugoslavismfor order in modified significantly be still must but exists which core cultural and ethnic similar attempts bythe and Russian Austrian Empires to utilize formsofnationalism. such 119 Seton-Watson, Hugh Imagined Communities 1908,” Comparative Studies in Society andHistory nationalism Moving to the question of definitions, the most fundamental is that of the nation. While it has has it While nation. the of that is fundamental most the definitions, of question the to Moving of form Stamboliski's between difference the is then what is: arises then which question The an term might one what around based nationalism wider So of Yugoslavism form a as functions (Boulder, Colo.: Westview 1977),5. Press, ain n tts neqiyit h rgn fntosadtepltc fNations andstates: anenquiry into the origins of nations andthe politics of , 3 rd ed (New ed (New York: Verso, 2006). 50 , 35.1 (Jan., 1993),3-29;, 35.1(Jan., Benedict Anderson, 119 when discussing discussing when 118 CEU eTD Collection 122 Anderson, continuity, assumptions-boundedness, 121 Miroslav"From Hroch, National Movement to the Fully-formed Nation: The entitivity, Nation-building the respects 120 Gellner, unity group of basis subjective the to appeal "This it. proclaim who those and nationalism of ideology the study who those between nation together, the boundaries ofthe nation, and the question national of a 'core' doctrine. a bind which traits the of that discuss, to wish I particular in areas three are there principles general sovereign.” and limited inherently both as imagined community... political “imagined in reflection consciousness.” collective subjective their and historical), geographical, religious, cultural, linguistic, political, (economic, relationshipsofobjective kinds several of combination butby a not byone group integrated have the capability to offer some general us pointsto forhow view the nation. imperfect. are definitions their that note mention authors the of Many definition. firm no be can Seton-Watson, there by mentioned as Firstly,that regard. this in points similar several acknowledged generally have nation the of to definitions Hroch, and Anderson start. the from nationalism of type this preclude would history, throughout patterns set along evolve they that or timeless, somehow are nations that Assuming possibility. of realm the within brought sense, basic a in least at is, advocating is Stamboliski which nationalism trans-state of kind the that notion the so, doing By constructed. and modern being as nations sees which theory, nationalism of school 1996) 78-97. in Europe,"Process in Gopal Balakrishnan ed., Mapping the Nation (New York and London: Verso, What are the attributes which can bind people together into a nation? There is a relationship relationship a is There nation? a into together people bind can which attributes the are What social “large a as aspect this phrases Hroch important. clearly is community of aspect The community.Gellner a to of Renan that From is nation a of definition useful most the this, From Nations andNationalism Imagined Communities 121 Anderson's more succinct definition puts it simply, that a nation is an an is nation a that simply, it puts definition succinct more Anderson's , 6-7; , 5. 51 120 However, important overlaps exist which which exist overlaps important However, 122 From these these From CEU eTD Collection 124 Gellner, 123 Richard Handler, they fixed, be not may boundaries national while that stating by limits broad and obvious most the out lays Anderson nation? the of boundaries the define we do then how recognition, and community overcome linguistic differences through sharedexperiences and feelings ofbelonging. perhaps can which exist to groups national for door the opening communication, of importance the as much as language of importance the of speak endeavor.not Critically, does this also in Gellner fails it if even nationalism as to referred is and future, the in itself build can it which upon elements basic it as together closer some contains elements it because such as viewed be still can nationalism 'incomplete' those an here develops. Again, draw gradually to deigned is which but elements, linguistic and cultural basic Indeed, some on Yugoslavism based forming. from nationalism either a as viewed is preclude not does but formed, be may nationalism and nation of kind Eastern what determines across only Europe) farmers of those (like background working or 'ethnicity,' language, shared a of out arises that Whether nation. same the of part being as other each view to individuals for allows which recognition. mutual and culture of realm conclusive lists ofwriters like Hroch. more the with contrast in parts, interchangeable occasionally as purpose same the serve all nationhood exist.” to proclaimed be again can group ethnic or nation the and identity, of the sense by a of reestablished sharing is subjective traits objective shared of lack a by denied be may that reality The nations. of reality the of discussions their in presuppose scientists social and nationalists both that homogeneity Wisconsin 1988),8. Press, 123 If the criteria which define a nation are somewhat variable but centered around this goal of of goal this around centered but variable somewhat are nation a define which criteria the If inclusive broadly the towards points Gellner Nationalism, and Nations work seminal his In Indeed some authors go far enough to recognize that the particular traits we choose for for choose we traits particular the that recognize to enough far go authors some Indeed Nations andNationalism Nationalism andthe Politics of Culture in Quebec , 6-7. 124 Here what matters is the end result, that is a shared culture culture shared a is that result, end the is matters what Here 52 (Madison: The University of CEU eTD Collection question for the nation. Put another way, if nationalism can accommodate this variety, can it it can variety, 126 Gellner, this accommodate can 125 nationalism Anderson, if way, another Put nation. the definitional for final question the raises variety this republicanism, to communism from fascism, to liberalism rational upon based be can materialism and nationalism Agrarianism in the Stamboliski way envisioned. not or whether of question the probing involves discuss this of element final The such. as it to refer we not or whether determining in role greater far a play nationalism of example particular a of elements compositional aforementioned the that appear would It nationalism. as it label we not or whether with do to less has it succeed, to nationalism of form a of nationalisms. This tells that us while the question ofboundaries may be highly influential onthe ability them salient over a large population. make and movement national a of elements binding the take to states or and individuals of ability the becomes then limitation The composition. their on depending flexible, entirely are nationalisms and nations of boundaries the outline, broad Anderson's from aside perspective, this From respect. this in function to enough salient no are together nation sense that bind could which realistic elements common the a because in nationalism European be cannot there say, to is That imagined. or real nation, thenboundaries. can How view we boundaries ofvarious nationalisms? state over extend which movements nationalist exist can there limitation, this despite that clear seems to. aspire least at or ones, national to correspond either often boundaries state which race. human entire the encompass possibly cannot 7. Certainly nationalism has been based in the past on a wide variety of ideologies. From From ideologies. of variety wide a on past the in based been has nationalism Certainly them call still we yet regard, this in failed example, for Ottomanism, Yugoslavism Clearly and a comprise which elements particular the of limits the of that be to seems criterion clearest The Nations andNationalism Imagined Communities , 7. , 1; Handler, 53 Nationalism andthe Politics of Culture in Quebec, 125 Gellner and Handler both discuss the ways in in ways the discuss both Handler and Gellner 126 However it it However CEU eTD Collection 130 Benner, “Is There a Core National Doctrine?” ined. & Kovacs Lom ed., 129 Smith,Anthony D. 128 Yael Tamir, that idea the as well as 127 Gellner, perspective this dismisses Benner formation. nation of elements cultural and political between relationship simple seemingly the complicates this nation, a form to order in what politics.” nationalist drives is identities pre-existing those maintain or cultivate to desire the that and scene, the on come nationalists before exist already identities cultural stable clear-cut, fairly that “implies this that out, method ofanalyzing the relationship oftheir cultural and political manifestations. side. political power.” state seize to merely than rather language, and tradition, culture, its preserve community,to particular a of flourishing and existence the assure to desire a by motivated are movements national that claim, political than rather cultural a lies nationalism of core the previously, “at discussed Tamirthat explains the idea doctrine? of a 'core' to relate they do then how but similarities, some be to appear do there indicates, discussion definitional previous the As use? its of limits the identify we do how doctrines, various between similarities some analyzing.” worth hardly are doctrines precise that] [and false-consciousness, pervasive from suffers ideology “national that conclude and diversity this upon look Gellner, like Some, Agrarianism? Stamboliski's accommodate 64 Benner, “Is There a Core National Doctrine?” in ed. & Kovacs Lom ed., Central European 2004),62. University Press, Doctrine?” ined. & MarieKovacs Petr M. Lom ed., Studies onNationalism: From CEU(Budapest: Yet, it is in this very relationship that this perspective brings about problems. As Benner points points Benner As problems. about brings perspective this that relationship very this Yet,in is it 'nation' of definitions the of ideas central the and doctrine core a of idea the Encompassing 128 Smith also sees the cultural element of nationalism as being at its core, from which stems its stemsits which from its core, at being as nationalism of element thecultural sees also Smith Nations andNationalism 129 This perspective seems to give us a solid core for understanding nations, as well as a a as well as nations, understanding for core solid a us give to seems perspective This Liberal Nationalism National Identity 127 130 However, this presents a problem in using the term, if we cannot identify identify cannot we if term, the using in problem a presents this However, If these cultures have to be homogenized and cultivated to some extent extent some to cultivated and homogenized be to have cultures these If (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), xiii; quoted in (Princeton: Princeton 1993), xiii; University Press, quoted in , 124; quoted in Erica Benner, “Is There a Core National (London: Penguin, 1991). 54 Studies onNationalism Studies onNationalism , 63 , CEU eTD Collection 133 John Breuilly,133 John Nationalism and the State (Chicago: University ofChicago 1985). Press, 132 Ibid, 69 131 Ibid, 67. simply not helpful. are elements these Ultimately nation. a is it not or whether determine to order in values and interest collective its determine somehow must we that and explicit, be must nation a that idea the rejecting in correct is Benner nationalism. of understanding our limit unnecessarily does idea older this Yet of attainment the least political sovereignty." at requires that usually This possible. as independent as points, be must nation The three c. around revolves which b. The interests and values ofthis nation take priority over all other interests and values. doctrine core a “a. There exists a nation with an explicit and peculiar character. to attached nationalism something like culture a as core ofnationalism the misses point byfocusing too narrowly. cetera. et globalism, imperialism, trans-nationalism, religious with the par on system of political a constitutes actually many it because previously so mentioned ideologies political incorporate can it that namely, ideas; political other to relationship its explaining clearly more while flexibility its nationalism allows she so doing In chapter. her in earlier described any viable community shouldbe constituted, particularly in relation to other political communities.” that way the terms broad very in describing norm a is, that these norm; constitutive connects a is... “what doctrines diverse that idea the of favor in nation the of core the at be can sovereignty popular Now then we can see nationalism emerging as a flexible meta-system closely tied with culture culture with tied closely meta-system flexible a as emerging nationalism see can we then Now of definition a crafting solution, opposite the with problem same the solve to attempts Breuilly theses problematic various the between difference the split to attempting is Benner so, doing In 133 55 132 From this perspective, focusing on on focusing perspective, this From 131 CEU eTD Collection should bea seenas form ofnationalism. and can ideology Stamboliski's how of discussion a for groundwork the lays This past. the in national as viewed been have not may which movements other view should we how regarding questions open leaving as well as previously, mentioned Ottomanism and Yugoslavism of analysis the of much for explanation good a offers this Critically,while applications. its in limited very not modernity, but and 56 CEU eTD Collection of nationalism which should be discussed and analyzed in its own right. In doing so I hope to to 134 Mitrany, hope I so doing In right. own its in analyzed and discussed be should which nationalism of to together chapters three these form of unique a constituted content anti-nationalist, being from far the government, Stamboliski's how discuss demonstrate will I Now exist. to here for argue will I which nationalism of type the for allows context theoretical the as well as government Stamboliski and cultural circumstances ofthe post-Ottoman Balkans. economic, political, the of out born problems unique the to solution some find to formation nation and nationalism of tools the use to sought ideology grown home a how demonstrating by nationalism and history Balkan on perspective new a about bring does it but division, this BANU challenge not does Stamboliski's certainly of case The populations. and elites of one is Balkans the in nationalism and 20 early the discussing whether Though citizens. average the and elites the to attributed be should which responsibility of levels the and Yugoslavia former of wars the over debates the in intense most is discussion This nationalism. Balkan over debate In the previous chapters I have discussed the range of policies implemented or supported by the the by supported or implemented policies of range the discussed have I chapters previous the In contemporary the of parts enormous comprise to continue sorts of paradox this of Elements they seem nowhereto have led to nationalistic rivalries." are peasants the of roots national the as strong for paradox, this from nationality of nature the about learned be to much perhaps is There ways. national traditional to kept that people the of part only the were often peasants their organization, urban and economic western of imitations bleak into plunged countries developed less the other international the after one As the quick-rising culture. and by traditions these represented everywhere in was genuine paradoxical its in steeped were they most physically, spiritually were, as it as land, their in deep-rooted something its peasants, at was element national there The it aspirations. of face the "On Marx Marx Against the Peasant Chapter 5: Agrarianism Nationalism as , 150-151. th 57 century or the 1990s, the story of nation formation formation nation of story the 1990s, the or century 134 CEU eTD Collection 136 It is not simply that some sources omit this important quote, but that even those which do include it 136 It isnot simply that omit some sources this important quote, but that even those which doinclude it 135 Ihave founddiffering version ofthis quote but alwayswith the same meaning and slightly were contents statement's the that then imagine to difficult is It war. the of duration the for prison in Stamboliski land to helped predictably which parliament Bulgarian the of floor the on made statement public a was it lightly, made was statement the assume simply Wecannot only important. quite is your identity as Yugoslav affirming and identities, layered are these that implying thereby Yugoslav' actively he fact In Federation. Balkan a for support his clear making simply beyond goes statement this that First, beliefs. curiously absent from many onStamboliski. books yet unique, quite something war the that after shortly Minister Prime and became figure war, political that somehow of time a in figure political a by made was statement a such That ire. and eyebrows raise would office in term a after or during, before, president a from statement a of kind this period, interwar the during Balkans the in was where it as issue Union, explosive an of much European as not certainly is the nationality of environment contemporary the in even European, but Hungarian, nor French, neither is he that stating Sarkozy Nicolas course imagine we of if Now were time). the two at synonymous (the of unpatriotic or support Serb, his a that him made [parliament], War World Sobranje First the the during of Yugoslavia floor the on made accusation, an to response both of ideologies Agrarian the of Stamboliski and hisBalkan contemporaries. discussion serious more a for case the make simultaneously tend to note it and then move onwithout critical reflection onits importance. 142. Federation Movement contemporaines Pierre 47,rue Bossuet, de la Gaîté, 1930), 26; Cited from Stavrianos, rapprochement et et de l'unionSerbes Bulgares des le dans passé different wording,presumably from differing translations, Stragnakovitch, D. M. Importantly, from this statement we can make some conclusions about Stamboliski and his his and Stamboliski about conclusions some make can we statement this from Importantly, [Yugoslav].” Slav South a am I Serb, a nor Bulgarian a neither am “I denies , 39; Swire, also seeJ. being a Bulgarian. The difference between saying 'I am a Bulgarian and a a and Bulgarian a am 'I saying between difference The Bulgarian. a being The Bulgarian Conspirac 58 136 (Paris: éditions et publications (Paris: éditions et publications y (London: R. Hale, 1939), y (London: R.Hale, 1939), 135 So went Stamboliski's Stamboliski's went So Oeuvre du Oeuvre du The Balkan The Balkan CEU eTD Collection 138 Spokento a Yugoslav journalist: “Since taken you've Macedonia, don'tyoualso take why all 137 Exemplified bytheir critical role in supporting the 1923coup; Groeuff, of Crown Thorns, 89. is expansion territorial rejected Stamboliski that Stating policies. these of picture deeper the into delve territorial for advocating to failed have historians many where indeed example one is This federation. a of form the in albeit expansion, was Stamboliski he? did Or principle. on claims irredentist all and time resources. of waste a essentially was claim a such that terms uncertain no in stated He Macedonia. about this nationalism perspective. us tell can that what and policies the viewed population the how of question secondary the comes also policies these From Macedonia. on policies his of determination the by overshadowed additionally be WorldFirst the War of should, beginning the from statement his entire of character ethnic the But the peninsula. encompassing federation multi-ethnic broader a to road the on step first attainable more quite was intelligentsia the towards stance damaging. his predecessors, his of policies minority harsh the or religious linguistic ones. This in spite ofthe fact that while there nothing was preventing him from continuing ethnic, than more mattered occupation one's on based divisions that idea his seriously took he that demonstrated intelligentsia the of segments towards policies harsh more his to relative minorities ethnic and religious Bulgaria's towards policies progressive his example, For direction. this in point did domestic and foreign both policies, later Stamboliski's However,of many nationhood. not strongly considered prior to their utterance. Macedonians still who remain in Bulgaria... they have only been a nuisance to us;” Ibid, 76. It is important to note that Stamboliski did not simply renounce Bulgaria's claim over over claim Bulgaria's renounce simply not did Stamboliski that note to important is It a as Federation Balkan Slavic South a saw Stamboliski 3, chapter in discussed as course, Of courseidentifyingOf a as Yugoslav isnot the same rejecting as an ethnic and linguistic for basis 138 137 In this sense he not only rejected this single irredentist claim, but in fact rejected rejected rejected rejected fact in but claim, irredentist single this rejected only not he sense this In 59 CEU eTD Collection 141 By 1913 the share of the Socialists and BANU was at 41%, increasing to 59% with the Bulgarian 141 By1913the shareofthe at Socialists was 41%,increasing and to BANU 59%with the Bulgarian 140 Lampe, The Bulgarian Economy in the Twentieth Century (London & Sydney: Croom Helm, points 139 Crampton, evidence this again, Once implications. their and policies its of understanding some least at increased. rather but decrease, not did support electoral his contents, their over fought were battles as and implemented were policies his as that fact the by evidenced seems This direction. new a in country the move to begin and previously done been had things way the abandon to readiness a indicate to seemed Stamboliski decades. previous the over service military their served and taxes their paid they as this of) because policy.perhaps (or of spite in support electoral enormous received he that is Macedonia to claim country's that renounce Bulgaria of Minister Prime a having than amazing more thing only the that understood then be must It Macedonia. taking of task the to dedicated been had past decades several the of expenditures material and suffering of amount vast a that and alike, peasants and elites by level emotional deep genuinely a on felt was Macedonia to attachment the that is here drawn be issue.” Macedonian the on hinged have 1878 since policy external over decisions great the of Most psyche. national Bulgarian the into deep burnt [is] Macedonia, of... loss “The seriously. such achieving of satisfaction irredentist aims), terms. psychological the to (referring psychological of in future instead prosperous more material, a of vision a and economics by backed when it supported He warfare. simply incorrect, he rejected it it when is justified byethnic conceptions ofnation and achieved through collection ofsmall parties. Bell, Communist party in 1919,and 64.5%by1920. The remainder held was bya deeply fractured 1986), . Many the peasants who were voting for him had seen their material welfare stagnate or decline decline or stagnate welfare material their seen had him for voting were who peasants the Many quite taken be content their that demand to seem policies these of circumstances the Again A Concise of History Bulgaria, 141 It seems then that the peasants were not fooled into voting for BANU, but had had but BANU, for voting into fooled not were peasants the that then seems It Peasants in Power 265-6. 60 , 110, 143,152. 140 Their support for support Their 139 The lesson to to lesson The CEU eTD Collection 143 Christo Christov & Sofia Jusautor, 142 Todorov, his that opposing, was he which claims nationalist and wars the the that supported clear initially had also population and policies, these implementing of purpose the for legitimacy of source main his as it use and democracy preserve to intended Stamboliski that clear was it As whole. a as region the and country the for envisioned Stamboliski future the with comparable something into identities their reorient so doing by and level basic very a on Bulgarians of life the transform to designed Policies Bulgaria's “transforming on intent life.” social and was political economic, He States. United the in normalcy” to “return Harding's already evident in this respect. are trends important some work, archival around focused research depth in more of year planned a to prior preliminary more are conclusions thesis' this of part latter this identity. While national of kind new a up to build policies designed of range a implemented also government Stamboliski's this, beyond goes evidence the However case. strong a present they together taken however nationalism, and nation of notions previous from Taken away shift strong a materialism. such economic demonstrate policies towards these of ideology none individually, in shift wider a and Federation, Balkan wider a of advocacy policies, minority favorable claims, irredentist of rejection the in ways, many in manifest against him. stacked odds enormous the of spite in amazing quite as enjoy did he successes the view authors most Indeed possible. was implementation their life his took which minority tiny a of opposition violent the absent that sense the in feasible but radical as policies Stamboliski's of understanding an towards Printing Sofia Press House, Agency, 1980),44. To be sure, Stamboliski's intention was not something akin to his contemporary Warren G. G. Warren contemporary his to akin something not was intention Stamboliski's sure, be To What can we conclude at this stage isthat this radical break from previous notions ofnation was 142 Balkan Firebrand , 193; 143 To do this he implemented the policies discussed in Chapter 2. 2. Chapter in discussed policies the implemented he this To do Alexander Stamboliiski, hislife, ideas andwork 61 (Sofia: BAP (Sofia: BAP CEU eTD Collection policies had for the Pomak, Roma and Turkish minorities. They may not be full Bulgarians but they they but Bulgarians full be not may They minorities. Turkish and Roma Pomak, the for had policies previous way the in much folds its into somewhat least at them bring to designed clearly were policies these identity, national new this from excluded somewhat were dwellers urban most while Because work. of kind this in up bound identity of sense some sharing to closer them bringing theoretically environments, rural into dwellers city bring also would It backwater. undesirable an remain would and was countryside the that and cities, the in lay prosperity and work that perception the eliminating common experience in this kind ofwork. some with society of member every providing by expanded also but education, like means through reinforced be only not could connections these then peasants, as working experience common their was Balkans the across peasants the connected what If another. one and from isolation policies in these beliefs ideological view cannot we result a As work. in experiences common on based ones were promoting was Stamboliski identities new of kinds the of basis the formed would which connections of kind The development. infrastructure for method a as simply not and construction identity for tool these directexpanded. was ways in people its of identities the shape help to ability state's the of extent the that was result The citizen. became service labor another universal (at least before buyoutsbecame possible) institution which wouldtouch almost every compulsory the time, same the At subjects. practical on more focused now education that of content the time same the At mandatory. made and expanded vastly was education not is way direct and strong very surprising. a in population the influence to intended part in were policies The byproduct of rural infrastructure development then also could serve the function of of function the serve could also then development infrastructure rural of byproduct The a as viewed be should service labor compulsory the that regard this in note to important is It previously, discussed As education. in was manifest was this which in way obvious most The 62 CEU eTD Collection 144 Adrian E. Tschoegl, “Change the regime –change the money: Bulgarian banknotes, 1885-2003” in the whenyears, twentycountry, the rule nationwill the of Party Agrarian people working of the rest the coming the “in that explaining as Christov in quoted is Stamboliski of works collected the from taken section a example, For meaning. and translations of terms in especially sources, primary the into look had corresponding economic groups. Balkans the in country other every as expanded, Federation Balkan prospective the as expand seamlessly to able be would parliament this within factions the Additionally, parliament. new this in faction important most the as prestige of level some achieve would population agrarian the way this In group. national new this together bind additionally to harnessed be theoretically could factions political together bound had which forces same the parliament, of section specific a with coincide somehow could nation a However,if factions. political between nation Bulgarian the ideology, national dividing across cut ideology political system existing the In ideology. political of instead interests economic allegorical female figures and important national buildings with images ofrural Bulgarian life. of images old replacing 1922 in released was bills of set new a as currency, like things to extended also Changes service. labor the and education beyond even extended population the influence directly to government Stamboliski's of ability the sense, this In BANU. of arm an of something as existed but also city, they meant cooperatives the the of activities pro-agrarian to The purposes. relative other serve did additionally countryside the of productivity the increasing of function the performed would still receive have some elements to keep them loyal to the state. Balkanologie Though a further discussion of the nature of this parliament will have to follow a more in depth depth in more a follow to have will parliament this of nature the of discussion further a Though on based parliament new a for vision unrealized the was policies these in element final The also These organizations. cooperative the course, of was, policy this to side other The 8.2(2004),14. 63 144 CEU eTD Collection does not diminish the fact that through a systematic set of policies, and in the face of enormous enormous of 146 The three most common translations into English are “nation,” “people,” or“population.” Inthis face the in and policies, of 145 Stamboliski, set systematic a through that fact the diminish not does difference that However time. Stamboliski's in functioned identities national most how of opposite the quite fact in was policies these by promoted identity of kind The own. their on framework important an out lay policies his necessary, remains regime his of side rhetorical the of analysis depth in more a While ethnicity). (language, others de-emphasizing while interest), self economic experience, (work elements certain emphasized which identity an was build to attempting was he What forest. the not and trees the see to is component this without policies Stamboliski's view To identities. of reshaping a involved Bulgaria in implement to attempted BANU and Stamboliski which change revolutionary thought given to its content beforehand. much without speech impromptu an say, from, resulted perhaps have may they where and changing been have may ideas his where just understand to important remains it so period, long a over evolved ideology Undoubtedly,Stamboliski's words. their also but regime, his and Stamboliski of policies the only not into delving study further for need the towards pointing words, these of meaning and precise context the to as remain questions However end. same the for done was passage the of translation the possible is it so development, economic on thoughts Marxist contemporary his of particulars the to many ways. in translated being of capable and theory, nationalism of terms in ambiguous famously “narod,” word us.” with rule and us join to them invite will we years twenty in And Bulgarian... national, purely become will craftsmen and laborers day – broader look at the context ofthis statement. case the difference between “nation” and “people” or“population” isquite important, necessitating a Despite these persisting questions, the conclusion to draw from these policies is that the the that is policies these from draw to conclusion the questions, persisting these Despite Stamboliski tie toway of his out goes passage,Christov ofthis discussion his in then, In general 146 Selected Works , 414; cited in Christov, 145 The same text in Russian and likely in Bulgarian uses the the uses Bulgarian in likely and Russian in text same The 64 Alexander Stamboliski , 72. CEU eTD Collection 147 Gellner, one might attempt to those commonalities. harness that follow to seems it then Bulgaria in peasant a and lawyer a than common in more have indeed did congruent” unit... national the and political “the make to attempts constituted These state. federal larger a in predominate them make to his attempt in and domestic politics, in nationpredominate new this as sawwhat he make to attempts challenges, the Stamboliski government attempted to construct this kind new ofnation. Nationalism comes into play with both his domestic and foreign policy. Manifest in both his his both in Manifest policy. foreign and domestic his both with play into comes Nationalism Nations andNationalism 147 on both levels. For if a peasant in Romania and a peasant in Bulgaria Bulgaria in peasant a and Romania in peasant a if For levels. both on , 1. 65 CEU eTD Collection 149 Diana Mishkova, “The Normative and the Romantic: Evolutionism, Modernity and the National 149 Diana “The Mishkova, Normative and the Romantic: Evolutionism, Modernity and the National Mazower,148 Mark fromand barbarism backwardness of progress to civilization' path the climbing inc society given any of failure or success the was describing was one 'what that and history, normative or evolution, historical of pattern one was there that granted for it took that one set: mind- specific a to linked inextricably were modernity of advent the with associated transformations “momentous how explains Mishkova era. Stamboliski's of supply” “paradigm lacking somewhat the reflect writers modern effect, In area. this in study further conclusions for need the the towards point certainly drawn paradigms, the into fits Stamboliski how into study preliminary a only represents thesis this nationalism. Although and balkanism, modernization, of context wider the within him place policies and not the ideology which connects them. around based mostly and tentative somewhat are conclusions the Power, in Peasants Bell's with case the was as policies, its and government his analyzing to dedicated are books whole When isolation. taken not in so do simply they policies his of some of often nature remarkable the note authors when Even too enough. seriously are government his and Stamboliski that is conclusion pressing most The analysis. own my and literature existing the of examination an through emerged have patterns clear analysis, Bell's from apart reach my of out remains historiography Bulgarian the of some While discussed. been has Stamboliski which in ways the in problems are there that is start the from clear Self in Balkan Construction ofEurope,” in Indeed, much as Todorova has explained the ways in which the Balkans have been left left been have Balkans the which in ways the explained has Todorova as much Indeed, to neglect they Stamboliski, regarding conclusions authors' most of scope limited the Beyond seems What drawn. be can conclusions firm so not and firm some written, been has what From The Balkans: A ShortHistory Conclusion Balkan Studies (New (New York: Library, Modern 2000),15. 66 148 3-4(2006),180. ” 149 CEU eTD Collection 150 Todorova, Imagining the Balkans to my analysis ofStamboliski and hisideology. depth of layers additionally add and conclusions preliminary these validate will work this hope I grant. research Fulbright a with History of Department University Sofia the with conjunction in Sofia, in year in written literature academic 2012-2013 the relevant during undertaken be will the deficiencies those tackling of as task The Bulgarian. well as writings own Stamboliski's of some at look depth in inter-war Balkans to shapetheir destiny. own the of peoples the of ability the demonstrated and imported been had which those to contrast stark in or keg' 'powder a as stood ideology produced domestically a when instance an control, as similar.outsomething stands Stamboliski self without so does it acts it if Or upon. acted is it acts, that region a not is It writings. historical in agency denied being Balkans the of problems Todorova, by out laid Balkanism of notions the to relates It posterity. simple beyond extends ideologically and historically both context wider a in ideology Stamboliski's of place the understanding of importance the However sake ofideological consistency, orpolitical pressure. the for framework existing an within ideology his fit to simply so doing do, they when or vacuum, a in the of mention no make ideology his placing time, the Stamboliski of currents intellectual greater the of and policies his between relationship analyses of number overwhelming an been has result The forces. greater these of independent look serious a denied Fascism; and Communism, Liberalism, of discourses broad the between place neglected a in left been often too Agrarianism Stamboliski's somewhere in an unfortunate middle groundbetween the Orient and the Occident, As mentioned, this thesis is only a preliminary examination of these issues. 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