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Home , Peanut oil

THE , A GREAT AMERICAN FOOD.

By H. S. BAILEY, Chemist in Charge, , , arid Wax Laboratory, and J. A. LE CLERC, Chemist in Charge, Plant Chemical Laboratory, Bureau of Chemistry, AT THIS lime, when conservation of all our foodstuffs is necessary, special attention should be given to iho. peanut, one of America's best and cheapest foods. Not only can it be used in the place of wheat, thus saving a large amount of this cereal for tlie aJiics, but, being rich in proti^n and in fat, it may also serve as a meat substitute. The peanut is one of the most nutritious foods knowm to man, and possesses a very wide range of food possibilities. In one form or another it is almost universally eaten and enjoyed in this countr}", and it promises eventually to occupy an important place in the average well-balanced ration, as it now does in the dietary of a great many persons. Indeed the demand for this legume for human food purposes is increasing by leaps and bounds. A pound of whole , as used in confections, peanut , etc., contains nearly one-half pound of fat and one- fourth pound of , both the oil, or fat, and the protein being of a very high grado and readily digestible. One pound of peanuts furnishes about 2,700 calories, while 1 pound of beefsteak yields less than one-third as much, and 1 pound of eggs less than one-fifth that amount. If the peanuts are pressed and the flour and oil utilized separately, a delicious wheat substitute is obtained, in one case, and a sweet, whole- some table and , in the other. Peanut meal rivals meal in popular favor. Both the peanut itself.and the meal or flour are cheap sources of energy and protein, and lend themselves well to all sorts of culinary purposes. It should be understood that the peanut is a food, not a condiment, and therefore can be used to replace flour, meat, or fat. The oil extracted from the peanut is already one of the most import- ant of the world's food . 29190*^—y BK 1917 19 289 290 Yearbook oj the Department of Agriculture, THE PEANUT . Like the pea and bean, the peanut is a legume, but differs from other legumes in that its fruit or seed matures beneath the surface of the soil, whence its name Aracliis liypogea, which means growing below ground. Other names commonly applied to the peanut are ground nut, earthnut, ground pea, pindar, goober, goober pea. Probably a native of tropical America, it was introduced into the during the early colonial days. Only within thelasthalf century, however, has the peanut assumed any commercial importance. Great strides have been made in its culture and consumption with- m the last decade, and in 1916 the South, which raises about 99 per cent of all the peanuts grown in this country, devoted over 1,000,000 acres to the culture of this plant, the yield being 34,600,000 bushels. So popular is this nut becoming that the number of acres planted to peanuts in the United States alone, in 1917, was estimated at over 2,000,000. Tlie peanut is grown commercially not only m this country, but also in Central and South America, Algiers, Mozambique, , West Africa, and . In Marseille, the center of the European oil industry, m 1912, over 120,000 tons of peanuts in the shell and about 240,000 tons of shelled peanuts were crushed, yielding over 15,500,000 gallons of edible oil. It is estimated that 26,000,000 pounds of oil were produced in 1916 in the United States. The average yield per acre in the United States is about 34 bushels of peanuts in the shell. A good yield is 60 bushels, with 1 to 1^^ tons of hay. Yields of 160 bushels, with 2 tons of hay, per acre are on record. The estimated crop for 1917, in the United States, is approximately 60,000,000 bushels of peanuts in the shell, which would yield 20,000,000 bushels of shelled nuts. In practice, a mill can produce 1 gallon of oil from 1 bushel of peanuts in the shell. One acre of land that will produce 20 bushels of wheat, 40 bushels of oats, or 40 bushels of peanuts wiU yield 154 pounds of digestible protein in the form of wheat, 149 pounds in the form of oats, or 186 in the form of peanuts. It will yield 24 pounds of fat in the wheats 61 in the oats^ or 300 in the peanut. As fat and protein are the most valuable and expensive foods, it is apparent that the peanut should form one of the country's most important food . The Peanut, a Great American Food. 291 TYPES OF PEANUTS GROWN. Two different types of the peanut are grown in the United States—the Virginia, or Jumbo, type, which includes such well-known varieties as Virginia Bunch, Virginia Runner, North Carolina or Wilmington (African), and the Spanish type, which includes the true Spanish, the Georgia Red, Valencia, and Tennessee Red. The Spanish type is peculi- arly adapted to the production of oil, while the best grades of the Spanish and the cheaper grades of the Virginia are com- monly employed for the manufacture of peanut butter. The Spanish type contains from 55 to 80 per cent of kernel, with an average of about 70, while the Virginia type contains somewhat less, from 50 to 75', with an average of 65 per cent. To a large extent this variation is due to the difference in the soil and climate prevailing in the various localities where peanuts are grown. The results of many analyses of the two types of peanuts give the following as the average com- position of the kernel: Average composition of the peanut kernel.

Calories Type, Water. Ash. Fat. Protein Fiber. Carbo- per (NX6.25). hydrates. pound.

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Spanish 4.2 2.6 50.0 26.0 2.1 15.1 2,870 Virginia 4.2 2.7 43.7 29.0 2.8 17.6 2,709 Shell 1. 5.0-5.8 3.3-6.8 0.10-0.5 5.1-8. 2 66. 7-78.3 Skin I 9.6 7.7 14.2 15.5 23.4 1 1 The shell and red skin have a certain food value, as shown by these analyses. The oil content of the shell may, however, fall as low as 0.1 per cent. USES OF THE PEANUT. The roasted peanut, the most popular of the different pea- nut foods, may be obtained at stores and of street vendors everywhere. It is easily eaten and forms a most important article of diet, being especially well adapted as a sort of emergency ration. There is no definite rule as to the time of roasting. The usual practice in the case of peanuts in the shell is to main- tain a temperature of from 400° to 450° F. for about 30 to 35 minutes, depending somewhat on the condition of the peanuts. Most peanut roasters merely gauge this by sam- pUng them from time to time. When the shelled peanut is being roasted the temperature should not exceed 320° F. 292 Yearioolc of the Department of Agriculture, The salted peanut is another form which is growing very rapidly in popular esteem. The peanuts are first roasted, then shelled and salted. The blanched peanut, used in making brittle candy, cakes, and cookies, is prepared as follows: The blanching, which consists of removing the red skin and the germ, can be ac- compUshed by rubbing the roasted and shelled peanuts by hand over a wire-bottomed screen or sieve. This rubbing removes the skin and separates the kernels into halves, at the same time removing the germ, which falls through the screen if it is of proper size. The skins can be separated from the meats by pouring the nuts from one vessel to another in front of a fan, which blows out the light seed coats. During recent years great quantities of shelled peanuts have been converted into peanut butter, which has become very popular for use in soups, gravies, in connection with macaroni, and for sandwiches. The Spanish nuts, wliich give smoothness to the product, and Virginia nuts, which give flavor, are used for this purpose. In the process of manufacture the shelled and blanched roasted kernel is ground to a pulp by means of a special grinder similar to that used for chopping meat, about 1 to 3 per cent of salt being added during the grinding. (PL XLV, fig. 1.) The Office of Home Economics, which is studying the digestibility and food value of peanuts along with methods of cooking them, has suppUed the following-recipes. Some of the dishes suggested are suitable for luncheon or supper, others are substantial enough to serve as a dinner dish in place of meat. The muñins, salad, and sweets show how they may also have more extended use in the family diet. PEANUT BUTINER. Peanut butter can be made at home by grinding the roasted peanuts through the food chopper several times, using the nut knife. Add salt to taste. This makes a paste which may be thinned with a little cream or milk, if desired. Another sandwich filling may be made by the following recipe : 1 cup milk or water. 1 tablespoon . 1 tablespoon flour. 1 tablespoon butiter or other fat. J tablespoon water. J cup vinegar. 1 egg. Red pepper. 1 teaspoon salt. 2 cups roasted peanuts ground fine. The Peanutj a Great American Food. 293 Heat the milk and while it is heating mix the flour with the water and add eggs, salt, and sugar. To this mixture add the heated milk. Cook five minutes, stirring constantly. Then add butter, vinegar, and ground peanuts.

CREAMED PEANUTS ON TOAST.

2 cups milk. 1 teaspoon cornstarch. 1 cup finely ground roasted peanuts. 1 teaspoon onion juice. 1 teaspoon salt. j Clip chopped stuffed olives.

Canned pimentas, choi)ped green peppers cooked until tender, or cooked celery are equally as good as stuffed olives. Scald milk in the double boiler, reserving a tablespoon of cold milk to mix with the cornstiircli. Add with onion juice and other seasonings to the hot milk. JjOt come to a boil and finish cooking over the double boiler. Add the peanuts the last thing before serving. Serve on toast. Good for a luncheon dish.

CREAMED PEANUTS AND.RICE.

1 cup rice (uncooked). White sauce: 2 cups chopped peanuts. 3 tablespoons flour. \ teaspoon paprika. 3 tablespoons fat. 2 teixspoons salt. 3 cups milk (whole or skim).

Boil the rice and make a white sauce by mixing the flour in the melted fat and mixing \y\t\\ the milk. Stir over fire until it thickens. Mix rice, peanuts, and seasoning with the sauce, place in greased baking dish and bake for 20 minutes.

PEANUT FONDU.

1 cup finely ground peanuts. IJ cups milk. 1 cup dried Liberty-bread crumbs. 1^ teaspoons salt. 1 iîgg- Dash of paprika. Grind the peanuts fine. Mix all the ingredients except the white of egg. Beat egg Avhite very stiff and fold in. Bake in a buttered baking dish for 30 to 40 minutes in a moderate oven.

PEANUT LOAF.

1 cup chopped peanuts. J teaspoon salt. 2 cups'Liberty-bread crumbs. \ teaspoon pepper, 2 tablespoons melted fat. i to I cup milk. ^ egg.

Mix, using enough milk to make a moist loaf. Put in buttered pan and bake an hour in a moderate oven, keeping covered the first half hour. Baste once or twice with melted fat. Turn into a hot platter and sprinkle with chopped peanuts. 294 Yearbook oj the Department of Agriculture.

PEANUT-POTATO SAUSAGES. 1 cup mashed potatoes. 1^ teaspoons salt. 1 cup ground roasted peanuts. i teaspoon pepper. 1 egg, well beaten. Salt , , or other fat. Mix the mashed potatoes and seasonings with the ground nuts. Add beaten egg. Form into little cakes or sausages, roll in flour, meal, or Liberty-bread crumbs, and place in greased pan with a small })iece of fat or on each sausage. Bake in a fairh^ hot oven until brown.

PARCITED CORN-MEAL BISCUITS (WITHOUT WHEAT). ^ cup yellow corn meal. : 1 cup peanut butter. 1 teaspoon salt. I 1^ cups water. Put the meal into a shallow pan, heat in the oven until it is a delicate brown, stirring frequently. Mix the peanut butter, water, and salt, and heat. While this mixture is hot, stir in the meal, which also should 1)0 hot. Beat thoroughly. The dough should 1)0 of such consistency that it can be dropped from a spoon. Bake in small cakes in an ungreased pan. This makes 16 biscuits.

PEANUT MUFFINS.

I cup corn meal. 1 teaspoon salt. l{ cups rye flour. 1^ cups milk. 1 cup finely ground peanuts. 4 teaspoons baking powder. 1 egg. Add liquid to dry ingredients and mix well. Bake in well-greased muffin pans. PEANUT BROWNIES.

(These use no sugar, no white flour, and no .)

J cup corn sirup. i teaspoon baking powder. 2 tablespoons strained honey. 1 cup chopped peanuts. 1 square chocolate. ^ teaspoon salt. f cup buckwheat flour. 1 teaspoon vanilla. Melt the chocolate and mix with the corn sirup and honey. To this add 1 teaspoon vanilla and the dry ingredients—flour, baking powder, salt, and nuts. Mix well and drop by the spoonful on well-greased pan. Bake in a moderate oven.

PEANUT SALAD W^ITTI BANANAS.

Slice bananas through the center, spread out on lettuce leaves and sprinkle liberally with chopped peanuts; serve with mayonnaise or plain salad dressing. Peanut candies are always popular. Such sweets can be made at home with no sugar. The Peanutj a Great American Food. 295

PEANUT BRITTLE.

1 cup white com sirup. 1 teaspoon vanilla. 1 tablespoon vinegar, 1 cup freshly roasted peanuts halved. i teaspoon salt. Cook the corn sirup, \'inegar, and salt in a saucepan until a little dropped in cold water forms a soft ball. Put the peanuts and this simp into an iron skillet and stir until the sirup becomes a golden brown. Remove from tlic fire and stir in vanilla. llave ready a shallow buttered pan, pour candy in and spread out in a thin sheet. Allow to cool, then remove from pan and crack into x>ieces.

P[':AXUT-POP CORN BALLS.

2 quarts freshly popped corn. 1 tablespoon vinegar. 2 cups freshly roasted peanuts. ^ teaspoon salt. 1 cup corn sirup. 1 teaspoon vanilla. Boil the sirup, vinegar, and salt until the sirup hardens when dropped in cold water. Add vanilla. Pour, while hot, over the pop corn and peanuts, and mix well, ^'licn cool enough to handle, grease the hands and form into balls. PEANUT FLOUR. The flour or meal, obtained either directly from the peanut roasted or raw, or from the peanut-oil cake, is now on the market in some places, and may be expected to be available in increasing quantities during the coming year. Tliis prod- uct is especially well adapted to serve as a part substitute for wheat flour in the making of bread, biscuits, cakes, gems, griddle cakes, and waflles, and m this regard the peanut may be said to have a direct bearmg on the war problem of saving wheat. Flour obtained by grinding the roasted or unroasted peanut has the same composition as the peanut kernel. When, however, it has been prepared from the pressed cake, after most of the oil has been removecJ from the peanut, the flour contains a very high percentage of protein. (See accompanying table.)

Composition of peanut flour and wheat flour.

Protein Carbohy- Calories Flour from— Water. Ash. Fat. Fiber. per (NX 6.25). drates. pound.

Per cent. Percent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Peanut cake 8 4.8 8 48 4.7 26.5 1,722 Shelled nuts 4 2.7 47 28 2.5 13.8 2,877 Wheat 12 .5 1 11 .2 75.3 1,647 296 Yearbook oj the Department of Agriculture, It will be seen that peanut flour from the peanut pressed cake, which is the usual source of this flour, contains over four times as much protein, eight times as much fat, and nine times as much ingredients as white flour. The amount of flour available depends upon the nature of the peanuts pressed. When shelled nuts are used", the pressed cake is practically all available for flour purposes. Wlien the nuts in the shell are pressed, the oil cake, containing the hulls and red skins, must be purified before the flour can be used for human food. (PL XLVI.)

PEANUT BIIKAD (THREE LOAVES).

2^ quarts sifted flour. 3 tablespoons sugar. 1 pound roasted and hulled peanuts. IJ tablespoons salt. 2 cakes compressed yeast, or 3| cups lukewarm liquid (water, 1 cake dry yeast, or milk, or equal parts of water and 2 cups liquid yeast. milk). Break peanuts into small pieces and mix thoroughly with the flour that has been weighed out. When liquid yeast is used its volume must be included in the total liquid required. Measure out Uquid yeast, dissolve sugar and salt in the rest of the Hquid and add to yeast and set aside for an hour in a wann place. Or, if compressed yeast is used, soften the cake in a little lukewarm liquid and add to the remainder of the liquid in which the sugar and salt are dissolved, and set aside for an hour in a warm place. At the end of the hour add this ferment to the measured flour in the mixing bowl and mix thoroughly. Knead about 15 minutes, until s nooth and elastic. Cover the bowl and let rise If hours—usually it has trebled its bulk in this time. If desired, knead down and let rise a second time until very light. Then knead lightly, mold, place in a greased pan, cover, and let rise until two or three time the original bulk. Bake 50 to 60 minutes in a moderately hot oven. If dry yeast is used, soak one yeast cake in water as usual for 1 hour. Use this in making a sponge with IJ quarts of sifted flour and the required amount of sugar. In the morning, or when this sponge is light, stir it until smooth, add the salt, and finally the well-blended mixture of three-fourths quart of flour and three-fourths pound of crushed roasted peamit meats. Knead until smooth and elastic, adding flour or water, if required to make a dough of the proper consistency. Cover and allow to rise again until quite light. Divide and mold into loaves, allow to rise until two and a half time^ the original volume, and bake as directed above. When bread is made from 1 part of groimd peanuts (from shelled nuts) and 3 parts of wheat flour, the product is very rich in protein, fat, and mineral constituents, as may be seen from the foUowing table: Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1917, PLATE XLV.

FIG., l._PEANU i S FOR MAKING PEANUT BUTTER ARE RGAjiL^^ ,N REVOLVING DRUMS, THEN DUMPED INTO LARGE TRAYS AND COOLED BY A BLAST OF COLD AIR.

FIG. 2.—EXPELLER USED IN PRESSING PEANUTS AND OTHER OIL- BEARING PRODUCTS. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1917. PLATE XLVI.

FIG. 1.—BREAD MADE FROM WHEAT FLOUR.

■C^_*-- ■KHII^^H ---^^^^^^^^H ■-

"■ ^^^. - ^-% ^^H HI'*'' ^^H B>. my ■ FIG. 2.—BREAD MADE FROM FLOUR CONTAINING 25 PER CENT OF PEANUT MEAL. TTie Peanut, a Great American Food, 297 Comparison of composition of 25 per cent peanut bread and spring-wheat , flour bread.

25 per cent Composition. peanut bread.

ïlQtalash ". ...' ...percent, Salt-free ash do.. Tat do.. Fiber -do.. Protein (NX6.25) ..do.. do.., Calories » • • Nutritive ratio Water ^ per cent

Such bread is far more nutritious than white flour bread. A study of the protein of the peanuts has shown that it is especially rich in basic amino acids^ and therefore resembles the proteins of meat to a large extent. The peanut might therefore prove highly effective in supplementing flour made from wheat whose proteins are deficient in these valuable basic amino acids. CakeS; especially smalï cakes, can be made in the usual way, by using almost any combination of wheat flour and peanut flour. Biscuits, of the baking-powder variety, can be made with one-half peanut flour and öne-lialf wheat flour. An even larger proportion of peanut flour and a correspond- ingly smaller amount of wheat flour can also be used with excellent results. PEANUT OIL. . Not all the peanuts which this country is now producing are marketed for the purposes already mentioned. There is a limit to the small boy's appetite for roasted peanuts, and his big sister can not eat all the salted peanuts which might be made. Neither are there enough picnics, school lunches, and vegetarian homes to consume the thousands of pounds of. peanut butter which could be made from the harvest of our southern fields. Even before the Great War there was an increasing demand for vegetable- and oils. Furthermore, new uses for vegetable oils were being dis- 298 Yearbook oj the Department of Agriculture, covered, and the rising of butter, coupled with a better understanding of the food value of , had brought about an increase in the consumption of peanut and other vegetable oils. These and other causes, such as the inroads of the boll weevil in portions of the cotton belt, have led to a very surprising increase in the quantity of peanuts pro- duced in America and in the proportion of our annual crop '^[hich is pressed for oil. The production of peanut oil is an old-fashioned industry in Europe, and for years large quantities of African and East Indian nuts have been pressed in France and Holland. In making those grades of oil which are used for food pur- poses, the French have always used the cold process, and made what is called a virgin oil. Just as in the production of the highest class of , the better grades of fruit are cold pressed at relatively low pressure, so with peanut oil, the higher qualities of oil are made by cold pressing sound nuts. But the yield of the oil from the cold pressing is, of course, lower than when the nuts are first cooked in order to start the oil, and then subjected to great pressure. There are, then, two distinct processes for making not only peanut but other vegetable oils: First, the cold process, giving a comparatively low yield of oil, which, however, requires no further treatment to render it satisfactory for table use; and the hot process, which yields more gallons of oil per ton of the peanuts pressed, but-an oil with such a strong taste that it must be refined and often also deodor- ized. (PL XLV, fig. 2.) The refining of crude peanut oil consists simply in treating it with the proper amount of caustic-soda solution to remove what fatty acids may be present, and then separating the soaps thus formed from the unaffected oils. The most common method for deodorizing vegetable oils is to pass a current of superheated steam through them, and carry off by vacuum the vapors arising from the oil. Oils which have been subjected to these processes lose nearly all of their characteristic flavor, and become so bland that the ordinary individual finds it difficult to distinguish between highly refined olive, cottonseed, peanut, and . To those who like for their salads, and even for cooking, an oil which carries a taste of the fruit from which it was The Peanut, a Great American Food. 299 produced; the virgin oils will be more acceptable. Many- people, however, do not like the taste of olive oil, or virgin peanut oil, but prefer for shortening and table uses a bland^ nearly tasteless product, and to such the refined peanut oil will appeal more than the virgin grade. There seems to be some prejudice against peanut oil, based upon the idea that it will not keep well, that it becomes rancid more quickly than other oils. This may be due to the fact that until the last few years practically all of the peanut oil on the domestic market was imported from Europe, such oil being seldom of the first grade, since both France and Holland had a local demand more than equal to the supply of first-pressing oil. Experiments in the labora- tory, and the experience of a number of housewives who have used properly made peanut oil, have shown conclusively that, if reasonable care be taken to keep the oil in a cool, dark place, it will not spoil within a year's time» For the making of salad dressings, either of the ordinary. French type or those in which the oil is mixed with other ingredients to form a homogenous emulsion, as in mayonnaise and cooked dressings, peanut oil will be found thoroughly satisfactory. Some grades of peanut oil apparently form a permanent mayonnaise dressing more readily than other salad oils. The difliculty sometimes experienced in making mayonnaise that will stay smooth and uniform is seldom encountered when peanut oil is used, even thougli the oil is added to the other ingredients without the precaution often necessary with olive oil. For cooking purposes, such as deep frying, and as a short- ening, in cakes and other baked goods where a butter sub- stitute is desired, peanut oil will be found very satisfactory. To Saratoga chips and French-fried potatoes it imparts a slightly nutty flavor which many people think exceptionally fine, and sweet potatoes, cut in cubes, or strips, and cooked to a rich brown in this oil, will be found delicious. substitutes,—Among those who prefer a solid fat to a liquid oil for cooking purposes the so-called lard substitutes or compounds are becoming increasingly popular. Until very recently, most of the compounds on the American market have been mixtures of and the harder portion of known commercially as oleostearine. 300 Yearbook oj the Department oj Agriculture. . The discovery of a process by which a liquid, such as cotton- seed or peanut oil, can be made into a solid fat by treating the oil with hydrogen in the presence of a catalytic agent, usually nickel, has made it possible for manufacturers to produce, at a price which permits them to compete with the older style of compounds, products which contain no animal fat. To this class belong many lard substitutes sold under trade names. While many of these are made from vegetable oils other than peanut, this particular oil is becom- ing more and more popular with the manufacturers of hydrogenated compounds. Margarines,—Another class of products which has only recently been manufactured and used in the United States includes the vegetable margarines. These are butter sub- stitutes, manufactured usually from a mixture of coconut and peanut oil which has been ripened in skimmed or partly skimmed milk and then churned in a manner very similar to that used in the production of butter. The true oleomargarines, which have been used in this country for many years, are made in a manner similar to that employed in the manufacture of vegetable or nut margarines, as they are sometimes called, except that instead of , neutral lard or oleo oil is used. It has been said that a largo proportion of the peanut oil which this country imported before it began producing peanut oil itself was used by the packing houses and other manufacturers of oleomargarine. Many inquiries as to the relative food value of different animal and vegetable fats are received by the Department of Agriculture. So far as the chemical analysis is concerned they all have practically the same fuel value. Experiments made by the department ^ indicate that all the fats com- monly used for edible purposes are digested with practically the same degree of completeness. Very recently it has been discovered that butter contains a growth-determining sub- stance which appears to be absent from the vegetable oils and from the ordinary commercial animal fats. However, the fact that this substance, the exact nature of which has not yet been determined, does not occur in peanut oil need not deter anyone from the use of this valuable oil either for cooking purposes or in butter substitutes, as the ordinary

1 Office of Home Economics, States Relations Service. The Peanut, a Great American Food, 301 diet of the average American household contains a sufficient quantity of other foods in which this growth-determining material occurs. SUMMARY. To sum up, the use of the peanut and peanut products as food may be highly recommended for the following reasons : (1 ) The oil is most valuable as a table oil, equal to other oils in digestibihty and food value. (2) The sheUed nuts are a splendid food, cheap and nutritious. (3) The salted nuts are equally nutritious. (4) Peanut butter is highly useful in many ways besides being rich in fat and protein. It is a butter substitute and likewise a substitute for meat. (5) The whole sheUed nuts as well as parts of nuts are well adapted for use in candies, cakes, cookies^ wafers, etc. (6) The flour from the peanut itself or from the oil cake is a good part substitute for wheat flour for bread making or for maÈng baking-powder biscuits, cakes, gems, waffles, griddle cakes, etc. Its high content of protein makes it a meat substitute as well. (7) The use of such flour in bread making wiU save an equivalent quantity of wheat for the allies.