Navajo Nation Range Management

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Frank Parrill Range Conservationist Navajo Tribe Window Rock, Arizona

Allan H Blacksheep, Jr. Agricultural Extension Agent The University of Arizona Ft. Defiance, Arizona

Cooperative Extension Service The University of Arizona T81104

Needle-and-threadgrass Stipa comata Atsábik’a’ítł’oh This handbook is dedicated to the memory of Alex Tsosie, Soil Conservationist with the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Window Rock. Alex had a deep love for his Navajo land and its livestock. He had the desire to both improve the future of his land and to stay close to the culture of his ancestors. His dedication to the care of the lands will always be an inspiration to those of us who knew and worked with him.

Alex, we are glad that you passed among us. May your moccasins always walk in the soft green grass and may you never thirst for cool, clear water. Amen.

The Navajo Nation Range Management Handbook has been developed through the efforts of many individuals.

The original manuscript was drafted by Frank Parrill, range conservationist for the Navajo tribe, Window Rock, Arizona. Special acknowledgment is due to Joanne Manygoats, range technician for the tribe, who provided valuable assistance in supplying Navajo names for the plants listed in the publication and proofreading the type. Leo Beno, also a range conservationist for the tribe, served as technical consultant.

At The University of Arizona, Dr. David Bryant, Extension range management specialist and professor in the School of Renewable Natural Resources, critically reviewed the preliminary manuscript and provided valuable experience and practical insights that are incorporated in the publication. Dr. Floyd G. McCormick, head of the department of Agricultural Education, also contributed to the project.

Final editing was completed by Barbara Sears, publications editor in the Department of Agricultural Communications, where type was set by Edwin Tout.

Allan Blacksheep August, 1981 Range—To Have and picking up the animals left behind The U.S. Government, in an at- as the Spaniards were driven south tempt to prevent complete destruc- To Use into Mexico. Many Navajo legends tion of the rangelands, tried to get include livestock along with all of the people to reduce their number What is Range? the other “Gifts from God.” What- of animals voluntarily. This was Range is any large area of level, ever the origin, livestock have been ineffective, and it was then decided rolling, broken, or steep mountain- a part of the Navajos’ life for 400 that the needed reduction would be ous land, usually not adapted to years. made by force. This brought about farming. Because it is land covered the infamous “livestock reduction” with native grasses, forbs, shrubs, By the 19th century, livestock were of the 1930s. This, too, is a bitter and sometimes trees this land is a vital part of the Navajo life and point in the memory of many older best suited for grazing by livestock economy. Large bands of sheep Navajo People. They, along with and wild animals. and many horses roamed the grass- many other people today, look back lands of the reservation. Wealth on this event as a tragic mistake. Does the Range Concern You? and importance were measured by the number of animals a family Today, only about one-third of the Yes, each one of us has a real had. This lifestyle, however, was Navajo People are actively engaged interest in our rangeland. It is the not to last long. Battles with and in a livestock business. Many oth- main source of our meat supply. It ultimate surrender to U.S. troops ers, however, maintain small num- is important in the production of brought an end to the Navajos’ way bers of sheep and horses or a few wool and leather products. It is a of living and to their livestock. The cows. These provide food, wool, valuable source of water, clean air “Long Walk” to Fort Sumner and additional income, and—most im- and wildlife. It offers many types the following period of “captivity” portant—help the Navajos to stay of recreation. It is just as important are still in the memories of the in touch with their old traditions for the non-user of rangeland to Navajo People. and culture. promote its conversation and pro- tection for the future as it is for the Then, after four years, they were The Navajo People today are still person raising livestock and living allowed to return to their homeland criticized for their overgrazing and on the range. with a small number of sheep and the loss of lands through erosion. goats and a few horses. By 1900, It is now being recognized, though, Way Back When... the Navajo People were back in that the problems do not stem so Rangeland—the v egetation, soil, the livestock business. Many fam- much from overgrazing as from and water—is the Navajo’s greatest ilies had bands of 3,000 or more the lack of any form of grazing and most valuable natural resource. sheep. The people were content, management. Changes in attitudes Rangeland has played an import- moving their families from place to of the people, revised tribal regu- ant part in the history, the culture place—following areas of grass as it lations, and new federal programs and the life of Navajo People. would green up in the spring. Soon, are making things look brighter however, it became obvious that the for Navajo livestock and range- According to history, the first number of animals and the system land resources. It is hoped that this Navajo People were not stockmen. of yearlong grazing was taking its generation will adopt new ideas, Before the 16th century, the Nava- toll on the plant cover. The grazing, use the programs and resources jos were a nomadic tribe concerned plus periods of prolonged drouth, available to them, and care for their with hunting and tending small was destroying the cover of their “Mother Earth” so that the future patches of dry farmland. The first “Mother Earth.” generations may also live and enjoy Navajo livestock came through the life of the Navajo. trading with the Spaniards and

3 What is Range Management? about the rangelands and how to soils (gravels and sands) are more Range management is the care and manage and care for them, you drouthy because they do not have use of rangeland to get the highest must have some knowledge of soils, the ability to hold water. Fine continual yield of animal products water, climate and plants. textured soils (silts and clays) are without damaging the soil and generally more productive soils water resources or other uses of the Soils because they can take in and store more moisture. They are also land. Animal products of the range There are many different kinds of generally more fertile. are meat, wool, mohair and hides. soils. They differ from each other in Other very important products are depth, texture, structure and slope. relates to the way water, clean air, wildlife and These are called physical features. Soil structure in which the soil particles are held recreation. We can see and feel them. together. In most soils, we find The goals of management are: Soil depth is the thickness of groups of soil particles “glued” 1. To keep the range covered with together like the grains of a pop- good forage plants. the soil above the parent material (material from which the soil is corn ball. These “popcorn balls” or 2. To maintain a reserve of range chunks of soil are called soil aggre- forage. made). It takes millions of years for bare rock to be turned into rich gates. These aggregates may be in 3. To increase livestock and wild- the shape of blocks, or long tubes, life products. fertile soil that will support plants and animals. As the soil is formed, or flat plates or appear as mix- 4. To reduce and control the flow tures of these. When soils are well of water from rangelands. it is deposited in layers. The upper layer is called topsoil; and the aggregated, air, water and plant 5. To control soil erosion on roots can move through the soil rangelands and watersheds. second layer is called the subsoil. Below the subsoil is the parent easily. These soils can take in and Have you ever noticed when a material. store moisture, and they are not as rancher sells his product, he is paid easily damaged by water and wind for the pounds and not for the erosion. number sold? Pounds of products In most areas, it takes 500 years to sold (meat, wool, mohair) are the change bedrock into one inch of Slope refers to steepness. Slopes best measure of a good range man- topsoil. Under the dry, desert-like may vary from level and gently agement plan. conditions on the Navajo Nation, rolling to steep and broken hills and it would take even longer. When mountains. The steeper the slope, Know Your Range! the plant cover is removed or the more easily it erodes. Slope destroyed, this valuable topsoil is You can keep the range healthy also makes a difference in the kinds carried away by erosion from water and productive by knowing the and amounts of plants that grow and wind. One storm can carry plants and animals that live there in the soil. Soils on south-facing away more topsoil than it took 500 and how to manage them properly. slopes produce different kinds and years to form. This loss is the result Plants and animals live together amounts of forage plants than will of poor management. as a “community.” When livestock be found on north-facing slopes. or game animals graze an area, These differences are the result of Soil texture refers to size of the changes take place in the plant higher temperatures and less fa- soil particles. There are four main community. To be a good range vorable moisture conditions on the textures or sizes; gravel, sand, manager, you must recognize the southern slopes as compared to the silt and clay. Gravel is the largest changes that result from grazing. cooler and more shaded northern particle and clay is the smallest. You must be able to tell why the slopes. Most soils are a mixture of the changes took place and whether the different-sized particles. Coarser changes are good or bad. To know

4 Organic matter is dead and ally falls back to the land as rain, the soil. A good plant cover also decaying plant and animal material snow, hail, sleet or fog. Some of keeps the soil surface cooler and on the soil surface and down in this moisture evaporates as it falls. reduces the loss of moisture from the soil. Leaves and plant tops That which reaches the ground will evaporation. dry out and fall on the surface either move down into the soil, or to form a layer called mulch, it will be lost as runoff. The water Range Plants a protective cushion on the soil that moves down into the soil is ei- It is important that the rancher surface. Plant roots die and furnish ther used by the plants, or it moves become familiar with the plants food for millions of tiny living deeper into the soil and helps to re- growing on his range. He should animals called . charge underground water supplies. soil organisms know them by name and be able These organisms work all the time This underground water keeps our to recognize their importance as to break down the soil mineral springs and wells flowing. forage producing plants (Figure 2). particles into a form that can be used as food for the plants. Some of the water that is held in Plants will tell you what kind of the topsoil is lost through evapo- range you have and how good a Generally, the more organisms in ration. Water is also lost into the manager you are. Each plant will the soil, the better the production air by plants through a process tell you a story of what is happen- of the range forage. To keep soils called . On Navajo transpiration ing. The presence or absence of productive, we need to return rangelands, with the high daytime certain plants tells the condition of something to the soil every year. At temperatures, low rainfall and dry- the range, how the range is being the end of the grazing season, some ing winds, the loss of soil moisture used and what needs to be done to dry plant material should be left on through evaporation and transpira- improve and protect the range. On the range. This “left over” material tion is extremely high. the next pages is a list of the most helps to prevent erosion and in- common of hundreds of range creases the movement of water into The moisture which is lost through plants that grow on the Navajo and through the soil. surface runoff is of great impor- Reservation (Table 1). tance to the rancher, the farmer, the range manager and to all the Water This list is intended to be of assis- people. This “lost” water could Water is the one factor which usual- tance to Navajos in knowing both have been used by the plants to ly limits production on rangelands. Navajo and English names for the produce more range forage. In- Water is needed for the growth of plants they encounter and also as stead, it is lost to the plants. Even range plants just as it is for the veg- an aid to those working with Nava- more seriously, it erodes the land etables or flowers in your garden. jos. In discussing range or livestock and carries away the valuable When there is a shortage of water, it is often necessary to refer to a topsoil. all plants and animals suffer. specific plant by name, and this should provide a means of knowing It is necessary that we find more Have you heard about the water cy- some of these names in Navajo so and better ways to save water and cle? It begins at the ocean, goes to the Navajos involved will know ex- reduce this surface runoff. The the sky, falls back on the land, then actly which plant is being referred good range manager knows that the flows back to the ocean (Figure 1). to. This is strictly a preliminary list. best way to do this is to maintain a Water evaporates from the surface Many of the plants will be known healthy cover of range plants. This of the ocean into the atmosphere. by other names, either Navajo or good cover helps to protect the soil The moisture is lifted by air cur- English, in other areas. from the force of falling rain drops rents, and as the warm, moist air and slows down the movement of rises, it cools and forms clouds. The You do not need to know all of water over the soil surface. This clouds are carried by wind over these plants. You should know allows more moisture to soak into the land, and the moisture eventu- those which furnish the most and

5 best forage for livestock. Generally, ant. You should know these plants livestock and livestock products and there will be 10 to 15 plants on any and how to manage them so they still protect the land. one range area that will be import- can be made to produce the most

Rain clouds

::.: •:• ":: ..· · :: ·.• Soil percolation

Rock Ground water Deep percolation Figure 1. The water cycle.

Table 1. Navajo Range Plants * This list was compiled in 1981 and some plants are now known by altered scientific names. We have retained the original 1981 list here. —Ed. (2018)

Alder K'ish Alnusspp. Algerita Tsintitsoi Berberis Fremontii Alkali cordgrass T1'ohda'akaTiitsoh Spartina gracilis Alkali sacaton T1'ohda'aka1iitsoh Sporobolus airoides Antelope bitterbrush Tsek'ina'a1ch'izhii Purshia tridentata Antelopehom Azee'fa'dilt'e'he Ascelpidora decumbens Arizona fescue Tsinyaatr'ohyilzoff Festuca arizonica Arrow grass TY,ohk'aa'f Triglochin maritima Aster (devilweed) Nil0 yii1tY'iihii Aster spinosis Baltic rush Teehtfoh Juncusspp. Sixweeks fescue Tfohyilz6li'dijoolf Festuca octojlora Beeplant Waa' Cleome lutea Big rabbitbrush Ts'i1diilyesiitsoh Chrysothamnus spp. Big sagebrush Ts'ahtsoh Artemisia tridentata Bigelow sagebrush Ts'ahfiba'hi' Artemisia Bigelovii Birdbeak Tsesnadaa' Cordylanthus spp.

6 Bisquitroot Nimasiichili'' ' Lomatium spp. Bitterweed Ch'ilbilatahfitsxoidichi'i'i' Hymenoxys odorata Blackbrush Ch'ilTizhini' Coleogyne ramosissima Black grama T1 'ohnas tasi1izhini' Bouteloua eriopoda Black sagebrush Tsetah Ts'ah Artemisia nova Blanketflower Ch'ilbila tah6zh66n Gaillardia spp. Bluebells Dahiitiihi'daa'dootf izhi' Mertensia arizonica Blue grama TT' ohmistas'r Bouteloua gracilis Blue-eyed-grass Azeet1'oh( Sisyrinchium demissum Broadleaf milkweed Ch'ilabe 'ebit'aa'niteelf Asclepias latifolia Buckwheat Bisnideeshchii' Eriogonum racemosum Bundle flower K'ei'chili' Desmanthus spp. Camelthom Ch'ilhoshi' Alhagi camelorum Canadian wildrye T1'ohndt1'izitsoh Elymus canadensis Cheatgrass Shiyinaldzidi' Bromus tectorum Chokecherry Didzedik'6zhi' Prunus virginiana Cholla Hoshdi1sahii' Opuntia spp. Cliffrose Aweets'aal Cowania neomexicana Cocklebur Ta' nii ts'enii Xanthium saccharatum Colorado pinyon Cha'o1 Pinus edulis Common purslane Tsiighaji]chii~ Portulaca oleracea Cottonwood tree Ts'iisbit'aa'niteeli' Populus spp. Cop1>9rweed K'iiJtsoinit1'iz( Oxytenia acerosa Cow parsnip Azee'haagai Heracleum lanatum Crazyweed loco Ch'ilaghani't:soh Oxytropis /ambertii Crested wheatgrass T1'ohdeindt1'izi' Agropyron desertorum Curleycupgumweed Ch'ilbilatahalts6ii Grinde/ta squarrosa Daisy Nicuyilii7igaii Erigeron spp. Dandelion Beeshyilt'aa'( Taraxacum officinale Death camas Ytif tsiniitsoh" Zygadenus spp. Desert needlegrass T1'ohtsahi' Stipa speciosa Dropseed, Giant TT' ohyilz6li't:soh Sporobolus giganteus Dropseed, Pine T)''ohyilz6li' Blepharoneuron Tricholepis r Dropseed, Spike T1'ohyilz6lioeenini' Sporobolus contractus Ellis loco Ch'ilaghaniooolgas( Astragalus spp. Evening primrose TJ'e'yiigahii Oenothera spp. Filaree Dahii'' tiihi'daa'Jikani',, Erodium cicutarium Four O'clock K 'iheeshdlishiidaa'1igai Allionia incarnata Four-winged saltbush Diw6zhii1beu " A triplex canescens (Chamiza} Foxtail barley Azee'iilwo'iitsoh Hordeum jubatum Fremont cottonwood Ts'iis Populus fremontii l' I Fringed sagebrush T6yikaal Artemisia frigida Galleta T1' ohdich'1zhi' Hilaria jamesii Gambel oak Tsech'ilnit1 'iz1 Quercus gambelli Geranium Dahiitiihi'daa'tsoh Geranium richardsonii f Gilia Azeehaaleeh" " Cilia spp. ' 7 Goldenweed Tee¥ yilt'~ft Haplopappus spp. I~ Grama, sideoats T1'ohJ'ichN Bouteloua curtipendula Greasewood Diw6zhiishjiin Sarcobatus vermiculatus j: Horsemint Ket1oh Menthaspp. t' Horsenettle Naa]tsoi Solanum elaegnifolium Horsetail Ch'ilabe'ets'66z Equisetum spp. i, Indian ricegrass Ncli'dlidii Oryzopsis hymenoides f~ i Indian paintbrush Dahii tiihioaa'tsoh Castilleja spp. ~ Iris Bilatahy(gaii" " Iris missouriensis ' Cliff fendlerbush K 'iishzhini' Fend/era rupicola "~- Jacobsladder Azee'naachii • Polemonium spp. Jimsonweed Ch'6hojileeh Datura stramonium Junegrasss T1'oolets'6zr Koeleria cristata Juniper Gad Juniperus monospenna Kentucky bluegrass Tsetahtl'oh Poa pratensis Lambsquarter T1'ohdeina1gai Chenopodium album ~ Larkspur Tadi'cliihdoot!'izh Delphinium spp. Lichen Ni'hadlaad Various genera v little bluestem T1'ohdei1ichi'1 Andropogon scoparius Llttle rabbitbrush Ch' ildiil yesiiyazhi' Chrisothamnus spp. \:, Little ricegrass Ndiolioiidijooli' Oryzopsis micrantha > Lupine fji'daa' Lupinus sparsijlorus ~·J Sandhill muhly Bee'e" zh66' Muhlenbergia pungens {f- ...,,. I Milkweed Ch'ilabe'e Asclepias spp. f Mormon tea T1'ohozihii Ephedra spp. Mountain brome T1'ohtsohndtf'izi' Bromus marginatus Mountain mahogany Tse'asdaazii Cercocarpus montanus Mountain muhly Be'ezh66' Muhlenbergia montana Mullein Biihyiljaa'i' Verbascum thapsus Mutton grass T1"'o hnikani' Poa fenderliana , Mustard Oostse' Brassica spp. Navajo tea Ch'ilgohwehi' Thelosperma subnudum Needle-and-threadgrass Atsabik'a'iU''oh Stipa comata New Mexico feathergrass T1'ohdit'6di'tsoh Stipa neomexicana Nightshade Ma'iidaa'" ,, Solanum nigrum Oregon grape Tsech'ilndt)''iziyil t 'aa'i' Mahonia repens " Patterson loco Ch'ilaghani' Astralagus pattersonii Penstemon Tsediaeeh Penstemon spp. Pinque Ch'ilJibahilatahtsoi Hymenoxys ri.chardsonii Poison hemlock Didzedaa' Conium maculatum " Poison ivy K'ishishjiin Toxicodendron radicans Ponderosa pine Ncli'shchit..., Pinus ponderosa Pricklypear Hoshniteeli' Opuntia spp. Puncturevine Ch'ilhoshi'-Naakaibihosh Tribulus terrestris Quaking aspen Ts'iisbeii' Populus tremuloides Rabbitbrush Ch'ildiilyesiits'66z Chrysothamnus spp. Rattleweed Da'aghalii Rhinanthus rigidus

8 Rayless goldenrod K 'ii, tsoi!izhini' Haplopappus heterophyllus Redtop T1'0Watahyichii'1 Agrostis alba Redstem peavine Ch'ilna'at'6'i' Lathyrus spp. Ringmuhly Be'ezh66',ichir1 Muhlenbergia torrevi Rocky mountain birch K'ishch.tT Betula occidentalis Roundleaf buffaloberry Dibedaa' Shepherdia rotundifolia " Rubberweed Ne'eshjaa'yilkee'e Hymenoxys richardsonii Rush, bull Lok'aatJ'ohtsoh Scirpus spp. Rush,sun Lok'aatf'ohts'66z Juncus spp. Rushes, wire Lok•aa'bits'66z Juncus balticus Russian knapweed Ch'ildich'i'iJibaru Cent®rea picris Russian thistle Ch'ildeenihi' Salsola kali Russian wildrye T1'ooletsohndtr•izi' Elymus juncus Saltgrass U'ohdik' ozhi:tr•ooledich 'faru Distichlis stricta Coyotewillow K'ei'Jibahi' Salix exigua Sand dropseed Tf 'ohtsohzh66' Sporobolus cryptandrus Sandsagebrush Ch'ilzh66' Artemisia filifolia Sand verbena K'ineeshdlishiidaa' Abronia spp. Scarlet globemallow Azeenit1'inii " Sphaeralcea parvifolia Scribner Needlegrass T1'ohtsaru Stipa scribneri Sedges Teehtf'oh Carexspp. Sego-lily GaagiibitJ'ohchin Calochortus nuttallii Senecio Ch'ilbilatahaltsoi Senecio spp. Serviceberry Didzedit'odi' Amelanchier spp. Shadscale Da'ak'66zhdijoou A triplex con[ertif olia " Skunkbush Ch'ilJichiin Rhus trilobata Slender wheatgrass Tf'ooleyilts'oozr Agropyron trachycaulum Smooth horsetail K'iif tsoi Jizhini' Equisetum laevigatum Sneezeweed Nii1ii'ni.1 Helenium spp. Spike muhly Be'ezh66' tsaru Muhlenbergia wrightii Squirreltail, bottlebrush Azee1iilwo'iindtsaai' Sitanion hystrix St. Johnswort Bi1haazhch'ih Hypericum perforatum Subalpine fir Ch'odeeninf A bies lasiocarpa Sunflower Nidi'yilii Helianthus annuus Sunflower, giant Nidi'yiliitsoh Helianthus spp. Tall mormon tea T1'ohozihiitsoh Ephedra spp. Saltcedar K'ei'fichii'its'66z Tamari.x pentandra Tansymustard Ostse'tsoh Descurainia pinnata Thistle Ch'ildeeni'ni' Cirsium spp. Threadleaf groundsel Azeehaaldzidt Senecio longilobus Threadleaf sedges Teeht1'ohts'6zt Carexspp. Three-awns Azee'iilwo'iiyazhi' Aristida spp. Tobacco DziJnat'oh Nicotiana spp. Tufted hairgrass rr'oh Deits'66zf Deschampsia caespitosa Water hemlock Shashdaa' Cicuta douglasii Wax currant K'iniji]aru" Ribes cereum Western wheatgrass T1'oole Agropyron smithii

9 Western yarrow Teehch'ih66zhood Achillea lanulosa Wild carrot Chaasht'ezhiitsoh Lomatium dissectum Red plum rnctze" Prunus americana Wild rose Chooh Rosaspp. Winterfat Gahtsohdaa'" Eurotia ceratoides Wolfberry Haasch'eehdaa' .. Lycium spp. Wormsweed Tse'azhiih Chenopodium ambrosioides Wooly lndianwheat Azee'haat1'inii Plantago purshii Wooly loco Ch'ilaghani' Astragalus mollissimus Yucca Tsa'aszi' Yucca spp. ' Range plants are so numerous Shrubs are plants with woody Introduced plants are those and so different in their forms and stems which live over from year which have been brought into an growth habits that they need to to year. Usually, these plants have area from some outside source. be grouped for easier identifica- many branches coming out from They did not grow there originally. tion and management. One type the base of the plant. Examples Examples are crested wheatgrass, of grouping is by kind of plants. are big sagebrush, sand sagebrush, Russian wildrye and Kentucky There are four main kinds four-wing saltbush, greasewood, bluegrass, Russian wildrye and (Figure 2). rabbitbrush and snakeweed. Kentucky bluegrass.

Grasses are plants with jointed, In addition to being grouped as Cool season plants are those usually hollow stems. The leaves kinds of plants, plants may also be which begin growth early in the are in two rows on the stem, and grouped another way: spring and make most of their leaf veins are parallel. Grasses are growth during the cool weather the most important range plants. Annual plants are those that of spring and early fall. Examples Examples are western wheatgrass, live only one year. Examples are are western wheatgrass and Indian Indian ricegrass and blue grama. sunflowers and mustard. ricegrass.

Grass-like plants look like Biennial plants are those that Warm season plants are those grasses, but they have solid stems begin growth one year and die which begin growth and make which are sometimes triangular the second year. Examples are the most of their growth during the (three-sided). The stems have sweet clovers. hot summer months. Examples are no joints. The leaves are paral- blue grama and sand dropseed. lel-veined like grass leaves. Exam- Perennial plants are those ples are baltic rush, bull rush, sun which live over for several years. Plant Parts sedge and threadleaf sedge. They produce stems and leaves Plants are like people—they have from the same crown—or base — bodies and parts. Each plant has are plants with annual for many years. Examples are Forbs some parts that are different from stems or tops and net-like veins in Indian ricegrass, blue grama and those of all other plants. Since the leaves. These plants are usually western wheatgrass. grasses are the most important called “weeds.” Many of the forbs range plant, we should first learn are valuable as forage for livestock, are those plants Native plants their parts and compare these with especially for sheep and goats. Ex- which originally grew on a certain the parts of other plants. Plants amples are western yarrow, lambs area. Examples are western wheat- usually have stems, crowns, roots, quarter, kochia, sunflower and grass and Indian ricegrass. leaves and flowers. To tell one dandelion. plant from another, we need to

10 know the names of the main parts, identify these parts. nodes (joints) and internodes (the where the parts are located, and stem between the nodes). They how to identify differences. Figures Stems hold the plants up to the are usually hollow, but sometimes 3 and 4 will help you to locate and sunlight. They are made up of have pithy (fleshy) centers like corn

GRASSES GRASSU KE EORBS SHRUBS S ed~3'~ s Rushes

s T - ,~· ' .f/o... ~ E A ;: M Ja;,der/ • • g•r o1.V t h r ings s Hollow Sol,

L Pa ralle l Ve ,·ns E A V s/e,n /eQF s c12'1? __WJ ~eoF s t:e"?_ le,QF E s ~ -01==<-- ~·~ ~ -- ~

Le aves on leaves on Leaves on 2 s,"des 2 si"de s of s lern 3 s,des oF siem of' sie"rn; rounded

stame n F L 0 w E t1fi ,)~ R male Female s (tlorel:-) {ma3 l:,e ~omln'ned) L/suall!J shory

t

X ...... A C . ': \,.: • • )., j M . . ;~.:. '!/, p •• , ... "X. L E ' ~tl ThreadleoF Sed_qe Yarrow : 8 /g Sagebrush ( twi3) Figure 2. A classification system for range plants.

11 Basic Inflorescences

II

Spike Raceme Panicle

Stolon - Modified, trailing above ground stem that roots at the nodes

Rhizome - Modified underground - stem that roots at the nodes

Spike/el-

Figure 3. Illustrations of range plant parts.

12 Wheatgrass Tribe Spikelets with many florets, these crowded and overlapping. Glumes about equal, about ½ as long as spikelet. Spikelets placed sideways on rachis (stem). Heads spike-like (finger-like). Examples: western wheatgrass, crested wheat­ I grass.

Galleta Tribe Spikelets in groups of three, long hairy at base. Spikelet falls entire, leaving a zig-zag rachis (stem). Flower heads are spike-like, purplish in color. Has a perfect floret (1} and sterile florets (2,3). Examples: galleta grass, tobossa grass.

Grama Tribe Spikelets have one perfect flower and one-two partial flowers. One or two (sometimes more} comb-like spikes per stem. Glumes are narrow and unequal, usually awned. Spikelets in two rows along one side of rachis. Examples: blue grama, black grama, sideoats grama.

Ricegrass Tribe Spikelets with just one floret. Glumes about equal, generally shorter than spikelet. Flower heads finger-like or much spread out. Examples: Indian rice­ grass, needle-and-thread grass, sand dropseed, mountain muhly, three-awn.

Oat Tribe Spikelets with two to many florets, close and overlapping. Glumes about equal, much longer than spikelet. Flower heads finger-like or much spread out. Examples: wild oats, parry oatgrass, June grass, tufted hairgrass.

Fescue Tribe Spikelets with many florets, these close together. Glumes unequal, much shorter than spikelet. Flower heads finger-like or much spread out. Examples: Arizona fescue, bluegrasses, smooth brome, saltgrass, cheat grass.

Figure 4. Important Navajo grass tribes.

13 stalks. Stems transport water and Some grasses have two finger-like Now that you have some knowl- plant food from the roots to the projections or tips on the outside edge of the parts of plants, you leaves and return manufactured of the collar which tend to reach can use this information to help food from the leaves to the roots. around the stem. These “fingers” identify some plants. Since grasses are called auricles. are the most important range for- Roots, unlike stems have no age plants, practice identification joints, no leaves and no flowers. The flowering parts of a grass with these plants. The growing point of the root is at plant are called the inflorescence. the tip. The main functions of the The inflorescence is made up Generally, it will be more conve- roots are to transport water and of many smaller units known nient for you to place grasses into minerals from the soil to the stems, as spikelets. At the base of each groups called “tribes” as you get to store plant food and to anchor spikelet are two leaf-like bracts to know their characteristics. This the plants in the soil. called glumes. A single grass flow- will help you to place an unknown er is called a floret. Where there grass into a group with its nearest Rhizomes are actually creeping is more than one floret in each “relative” and will help you to underground stems with joints and spikelet, each floret is attached to a identify it. There are six import- leaf-like scales. Rhizomes can store short stem called the rachilla. Each ant grass “tribes” on the Navajo food and also produce new plants. floret, when it is mature, produces Nation. In learning grasses, it is a seed. The seed is enclosed by helpful to first place them in their Stolons are like rhizomes except two leaf-like bracts called the lem- proper “tribes.” that they grow and creep on top ma and the palea. In some grasses, of the ground. They do the same such as western wheatgrass, the The simple “key” below and the things and have the same proper- lemma and palea remain with the sketches and descriptions found ties as rhizomes. seed after it matures and falls. In on page 13 will help you to place other grasses, such as sand drop- an unknown grass in its proper Above ground, a grass plant may seed, the seed falls free from the “tribe.” be divided into two parts—vegeta- lemma and the palea. tive (growing) and flowering parts. The vegetative part includes the Key to Grass “Tribes.” stems and leaves. la. Stems ending in a single spike (head). 2a The stem is made up of nodes 2a. Spikelets placed sideways on rachis (stem). Wheatgrass tribe (joints) and internodes (between 2b. Spikelets in clusters of 3, long hairy at base. Galleta tribe the joints). At each node on the stem, there is a bud which may 1b. Stems not ending in a single spike. 3a produce a new leaf or may remain 3a. Stems with side spikes, comb-like. Grama tribe dormant. The leaf is made up of 3b. Stems ending in branching flower heads. 4a two parts—the sheath, which fits 4a. Spikelets with a single flower or seed. Ricegrass tribe closely around the stem, and the blade, which is the long expanded 4b. Spikelets with more than one flower . 5a part. The two parts are joined to- 5a. G lumes longer than lemmas. Oat tribe gether at the collar. On the inside 5b. Glumes shorter than lemmas. Fescue tribe of the collar, next to the stem, is a small leaf-like projection known as The sketches shown in Figure 4 will help you to identify the flower the ligule. The ligule may be skin- heads of the six different tribes. like or it may be a tuft of hairs.

14 How Plants Live, ent parts of the plant. Most of this a shortage of oxygen to breathe. water is taken in through the roots, Grow but a small amount also enters Minerals taken from the soil are Range plants are living things through the leaves. The young also an important element in the which require light, water, air and green leaves contain more water manufacturing process. As many food if they are to live and repro- and nutrients than any part of the as 36 different minerals have been duce. If any one of these items is plant. Grasses—like all plants— found in plants, and it is known missing, the plant will weaken and require large amounts of water to that 11 of these are needed for die. Each year, most of our range produce one pound of dry forage. plant growth. These are calcium, plants will produce seed which On the Navajo rangelands, grasses nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, can sprout and grow into mature need from 300 to 1,200 pounds iron, sulphur, silicon, magnesium, plants—if they are managed (36 to 145 gallons) of water to zinc, boron, and manganese. Each properly. produce one pound of dry forage. of these minerals in small amounts This seems like a lot, but when we has a definite place in the life and A green plant is nature’s automatic realize that it takes from 2,000 to growth cycle of a grass plant. food-making machine. For power, 3,000 pounds (240 to 360 gallons) When any of these minerals is it uses energy from the sun. Water, of water to produce one pound of missing, some part of the growth air and minerals are the raw mate- twigs and leaves of big sagebrush cycle is stopped. rials used in this food manufactur- or greasewood, we can readily see ing process. Some of the finished that grasses are very efficient users Plant Communities products are sugar and starch (for of water and that brush plants are Different kinds of plants “group” energy) and proteins (growth). The very wasteful (Figure 6). into communities just as people waste products are oxygen and Air is the next most important do. Have you noticed that the water (Figure 5). “group” of plants on a north slope I I I I I I I I I I I I are different from the “group” of I/ 1 I I I I plants on the south slope? Plant “groups” on a loose sandy soil are 111'',"''' I I I different than the “groups” on a I/, heavy clay soil. These “groups” 36 to 145 gallons 1 pound of dry forage of rain water are called Plant Communities. Figure 6. Grass uses water efficiently. The kinds of plants in a commu- element needed for grass growth. nity are determined by the type of The plant “breathes in” carbon soil and by climate. Even though (:i~pllf dioxide through small openings on PoC1n h1m the plant community never seems Bulfor the bottom side of the leaves. In- Calalufii to change, it is never standing still. O

15 because of management methods. growth each year so that the plants Good condition range exists where can continue to manufacture food 50% to 75% of the plant cover is Changes in the plant community for their growth and storage. This made up of plants that are native are usually the result of flooding, stored food is vitally needed by to the site. Short-growing grasses, long and severe periods of drouth, the plant during the dormant or forbs and shrubs become more fire or grazing. The most important winter season and for early, healthy numerous. of these is grazing—because it can growth the next spring. A plant be controlled by man. with very little top growth has only Fair condition range exists where a weak and shallow root system. A only 25% to 50% of the plant When rangelands are grazed by plant with a weak and shallow root cover is made up of plants that are livestock, the balance of nature is system cannot compete and will native to the site. The site is now disturbed. Some plants are grazed eventually die out. dominated by low-growing and un- more readily than others. Some are palatable plants and shrubs or trees. not grazed at all. If the plants are Range Sites kept closely grazed, the roots are To provide a good method for Poor condition range exists where damaged. This makes the grazed inventorying and studying range- less than 25% of the plant cover is plant weaker and less able to com- lands, they have been broken into made up of plants that are native pete for moisture and plant food. range sites. A range site is an area to the site. The site is now covered The ungrazed plants remain strong of land that is capable of growing a mainly with shrubs, trees, annual and healthy. certain kind and a certain amount weeds, and low-growing, less desir- of native vegetation. The kind and able forage grasses. On rangelands that are being amount of vegetation are deter- grazed, the shorter plants and mined by the type of soil, topog- Range site descriptions and con- those that are not liked by livestock raphy and climate. As you might dition data have been developed have a big advantage over the guess, because of the wide variation for much of the rangeland of the taller grazed plants. For example, of soils, topography and climate, Navajo Nation. These descrip- consider an Indian ricegrass plant there are many different range sites tions contain a list of the kinds and blue grama plant growing side on the Navajo Nation. and amounts of different plants on by side. If these plants were both the site, a description of soils, the grazed to the same height—two Range Condition amount of erosion, and how much inches, about 25% of the blue of the ground surface is covered Range condition is the “health” of grama top growth would be re- with living vegetation. These the range. It is a comparison of the moved. However, grazing Indian descriptions will help you to “inven- range as it is today with what it was ricegrass to a height of two inches tory,” to better understand and to in its original state before drouth, would remove over 75% of its top manage your range area. grazing, or other man-related activ- growth. It is easy to see that the ities caused it to change. There are taller Indian ricegrass would be at a Range trend is the direction of four main range condition classes; disadvantage because its food-mak- change in range condition, whether excellent, good, fair and poor. ing machinery is reduced too much stable, toward (upward) or away to provide food for growth and for (downward) from the site’s poten- Excellent condition range exists storage. The plant becomes weak tial. A range trend guide is illustrat- where 75% to 100% of the plant and may even die. Its place will be ed in Table 2. cover is made up of plants that are taken by short-growing blue grama native to the site. They were the or some other ungrazed plant. The present condition of each dominant plants found there before The careful range manager always range area is a history of past the site was disturbed. plans to leave enough of the forage management. The future condition

16 Table 2. U.S. Soil Conservation Service Range Trend Guide Range Trend—Improving, Declining, Stable Things to Look for: 1. Seeding plants Yes or No 2. Mulch or litter on the ground Yes or No 3. Erosion—Sheet and Gully a. Are plants spreading down from soil pedestals? Yes or No b. Is gully erosion being controlled? Yes or No 4. Plant vigor or health considerations a. Number of seed heads b. Length of stems c. Amount of leaves and length d. Length of rhizomes or ground runners. Are the plants healthy? Yes or No 5. Plant composition Is there a variety of perennial species of plants? Yes or No Is there less than 205 annual weeds? Yes or No

In General: • If you answered yes to all questions; range trend is improving. • If you answered no to all questions; range trend is declining. • If you answered yes to half and no to half; range trend is probably stable.

17 or any improvement of the range for different parts of the range. is up to the user. lmprovements in Also, different parts of the range Rest-rotation grazing is similar range condition through proper will produce plants that are best- to the deferred-rotation system management will provide for more liked and best used at different pe- except that one of the units is and better livestock forage; for riods of the grazing seasons (early deferred from grazing for an entire improvements to the land, to the spring, summer, fall or winter). year. All other units are grazed on soil, and to the plants; for better a deferred rotation system. healthier livestock; and for greater Another important part of the profits to the land user. grazing plan is the system—or In summary, there are four main manner—by which the livestock factors to consider if a grazing Rangelands cannot be improved will graze—or harvest—the range program is to bring about an im- in the same manner as farmlands. forage. There are five primary provement in range condition: They cannot be irrigated and grazing systems which are most 1. Balance between livestock fertilized; it is difficult and expen- commonly used: numbers and usable forage sive to control weeds, brush, and 1. continuous or year-long produced, erosion and they generally cannot grazing, 2. Give attention to “range be made to grow other kinds of 2. deferred grazing, readiness,” soil building crops. 3. rotation grazing, 3. Proper season of use, and 4. deferred-rotation grazing, and 4. Develop a grazing system that The best way we have of im- 5. rest-rotation grazing. fits your particular range unit. proving these valuable lands is to graze them properly. The amount Continuous grazing on the Range Improvement of grazing should always be in Navajo Nation generally means Practices stocking the range with the proper balance with the amount of forage The most common and most number of animals and leaving produced. A good rule to follow is needed range improvement prac- them there for the entire year. to “take half and leave half ’ of the tices on the Navajo Nation are current season’s growth. erosion control, brush control, Deferred grazing means leaving livestock water developments, a range unit ungrazed until after A good grazing plan, based on boundary and cross fences and seed maturity so the desired plants range condition and forage types range seeding. will help to maintain and im- can build up vigor, make seed and increase in the stand. prove range condition. A good Erosion Control grazing plan will consider the proper season of use for each Rotation grazing consists of Each year tons of valuable top- part of the range. Grasses should dividing a range unit into smaller soil and thousands of gallons of not be grazed in the spring un- units and grazing each unit for a life-giving water are lost through til they have made enough leaf short time, then moving to another runoff and erosion from both growth to replace food reserves unit. wind and water. One storm can taken from the roots to start their carry away more topsoil than can early growth. Since the seasons Deferred-rotation grazing is a be developed in 500 years. This of growth of grass plants vary combination of two systems. The priceless topsoil is carried down- (cool-season and warm-season), range is divided into smaller units stream where it is deposited as this time of “range readiness” will and one unit is allowed to produce sediment in reservoirs, ditches, vary according to the main species mature seeds before it is grazed. water channels and on valuable present; and the grazing plan will All other units are grazed for short farm lands and floodplain areas. consider different “starting times” periods on a rotation basis. Both areas—the lands where the

18 soil is removed and the lands where themselves naturally, thus speeding because they are easier to control it is deposited—are being damaged up the natural healing process. and they can be done during most and, in some cases, being perma- any part of the year. Late fall and nently destroyed. Contour terraces or furrows winter are good times to plan for are dikes or ditches built on the mechanical brush control because The best control against erosion— contour (across the slope) to pre- the plants are relatively dry and from both water and wind—is vent runoff and erosion on some of brittle during this period. There is a healthy, deep-rooted cover of the more gentle slopes. also less chance of damaging the native vegetation. This is nature’s soils during this period. No me- own way of protecting the soil Pitting is the construction of small chanical control methods, however, and the land. When this cover of pits or trenches on the land to form should be used when the soils are vegetation is damaged or destroyed, hundreds of small reservoirs to wet. we must use other methods to hold hold back moisture, prevent runoff the water and topsoil in place and and to permit more of the moisture Some sprouting brush species, protect our lands. A few of the to penetrate into the soil to re- such as oak brush, rabbitbrush and most common methods of erosion charge ground water supplies. wolfberry can only be controlled control are listed below. effectively with the use of chemi- Brush Control cals. 2,4-D mixed with water is the Earthen dams are constructed on Thousands of acres of valuable most widely used and most effective the larger, more active gullies and Navajo rangelands are covered chemical to use for brush control. washes to store or hold back wa- with thick stands of pinyon, juni- Chemicals may be applied with ter and to prevent further erosion. per and different kinds of brush. ground spraying equipment or by These dams should be used only Some of the brush plants, such as airplane. Considerable caution is when other measures will not ac- fourwing saltbush and winterfat, needed, however, since this materi- complish the job. They involve the are valuable livestock feed. Others al may “drift” onto areas where it use of large earth-moving equip- such as sagebrush, rabbitbrush, may cause more harm than good. ment, they are expensive to build, greasewood, snakeweed, golden- It should also be noted that tim- and many times they cause more weed, and wolfberry are almost ing, stage of growth, climate and lands to be damaged and laid bare, worthless as forage plants. They are weather conditions are all very encouraging even more erosion. grazed only when no other feed is critical for good success. available. Brush plants also provide Debris basins are probably the very little protection against ero- Regardless of the methods used, best and the cheapest structures sion. Even more serious, however, is any area that is treated for brush used to control erosion. They may that they are deep rooted, and they control should be deferred from be built out of rocks, brush, trees, rob the grasses of moisture needed grazing during the first full growing logs, fence posts and wire, con- for plant growth. If these worthless season following the control. If pos- crete blocks, or even plain trash. brush plants can be removed—or sible, two years of deferment are The purpose of debris basins is at least reduced—moisture would even better. The rest from grazing not to impound or store water; but then become available for increased after brush control is needed to give rather to slow the water down and grass growth. the understory grasses a chance reduce its “cutting” ability. When to take advantage of the addition- the water is slowed down, sediment Unwanted and useless brush plants al moisture, develop deeper and can settle to the bottom, eventually can be controlled by mechani- healthier root systems, and to build filling the gully. Since this sediment cal methods, by chemicals, and up their vigor before being grazed. generally carries a lot of seed with sometimes by controlled burning. it, these areas are able to reseed Mechanical methods are desirable

19 Livestock Water Development most dependable. Usually, it is wise Fencing Most of the Navajo rangelands to drill the well on high ground and Fencing—although disliked and are lacking in sufficient water for pump the water into a huge stor- rejected by many of the Navajo livestock; water sources are few age tank. Plastic pipelines can then people and by Navajo Tribal regu- and they are great distances apart. be laid out to carry water to other lations—is an important range im- Even in areas of good forage, desired and needed locations. provement practice. This includes livestock many times must travel both boundary and cross fences. It great distance to water. They tend Springs, where they exist, are also is difficult—if not impossible—to to graze areas close to water again an excellent source of water. Many obtain good grazing and range and again, rather than move a long of these, however, will tend to go management without some means distance to other, and perhaps even dry during the hot summer period. of controlling livestock. The main better, forage. This results in heavy It is also difficult, and often impos- reasons for fencing are: sible, to pipe spring water for any use on some areas and almost no 1. Fences help prevent straying or great distance or to any location be- use on others. More watering fa- trespassing of livestock. cause of the low quantity of water cilities lead to better animal distri- 2. Fences help to distribute live- and the fact that springs sometimes bution, better livestock gains and stock and provide more uni- are located on lower ground. better grazing management. form grazing of all the range. 3. Fences make deferred and rota- Open pits or dams have been used The amount of water needed by tion grazing possible in the past to collect and store livestock differs with the kind of 4. Fences make it possible to runoff and the water from wells or forage, the amount of salt being prevent grazing in special or springs. These, however, are of lim- eaten, the climate, the season of problem areas, such as reseeded ited value because of the seepage use and the kind of livestock. The areas, critical erosion sites or losses in most Navajo soils. Open amount of water needed per day is poisonous plant areas. tanks or ponds also lose a lot of about twelve (12) gallons for cattle 5. Fences make it possible to sepa- water into the air through evapo- and about one (1) gallon for sheep rate kinds of animals or classes ration. They are also a poor choice or goats. of livestock. because: (1) there is very little run- off on good condition ranges, and Cattle like to drink daily during the Barbed wire fences are generally (2) the ponds tend to fill with silt hot summer months. They usually used for controlling cattle, while and sediment to a point where little drink every other day during the woven wire is used to control sheep or no storage capacity remains on cooler months in fall and winter. and goats. Regardless of the type poor or low condition ranges. of fence built, a few guidelines Sheep may go without water for should be followed. one or two days during summer The use of horizontal wells into the 1. Fences should follow the natural and for even longer periods during sides of some of the broken and lay of the land. the cooler months. fractured hills and the development of catchment basins offer excellent 2. Fenced-in areas should have uniform vegetation of the Water developments on the reser- possibilities for additional livestock whole area. vation are mainly wells and tanks, water. Developments such as these 3. Fenced-in areas should have spring developments, live streams are an advantage because they are access to water. (in a few areas), water catchments cheaper to install, they require no 4. Pastures should be about equal and earthen pits or tanks. Wells are source of power, and they require in the number of animals that generally used because they can be little or no maintenance. can be grazed safely. located in desired places—where 5. Special use areas (spring pas- water is needed—and they are the

20 tures, hay fields) should be eroding areas, rangelands that grass, intermediate wheatgrass fenced separately. have been misused for many years and smooth brome are adapted to 6. Fences should be built so as not and lands that have been invaded moister areas. Regardless of spe- to interfere with the movements by worthless brush plants, pinyon, cies, it is always important to plant of wildlife: and juniper. The combination of a high quality seed (seed having high a. Deer areas—top wire should lack of grazing management and rates of purity and germination). not be over 48” from the the prevailing desert like climate The seeding chart that follows lists ground. has resulted in the loss of a good some of the most used species, b. Antelope range—bottom vegetative cover and low forage where they are best suited, and wire should be at least 18” production. gives their seeding rates. from the ground surface. Seeding is an expensive and risky Preparing a Seedbed. A good Salting range improvement practice. seedbed is absolutely essential for Grazing animals generally need Therefore, it is recommended only the establishment of grass seed- more salt than they can get from as a “last resort” —only on sites lings. Many seedlings fail or are plants. The lack of salt causes where the native vegetation has unsatisfactory because of poor animals to lose their appetite and to been destroyed to the point that seedbed preparation. lose weight. good grazing management will not bring about range improvement. A good seedbed must be firm, as Proper distribution of salt is one of smooth as is possible and free of the best and cheapest methods of Where range seeding is needed, weeds or other vegetation. Newly obtaining good livestock distribu- good planning is necessary to plowed fields should be dragged tion and even range use. Livestock insure success. Plans for seeding several times to make them firm need salt—just as we do—and they should include: before the seed is planted. A firm will travel a long way to find it. 1. Select the right species or mix- seedbed will stay moist longer than ture for the site. a rough, loose one. A firm seedbed Salt grounds should be located 2. Prepare a good seedbed. also helps to prevent planting the away from water and in areas of 3. Seed the proper amount. small seeds too deep. good forage. Salt blocks should be 4. Use proper seeding method. On loose, sandy soils and on steep- moved as often as is necessary to 5. Seed at the proper time. er eroding sites, it will be necessary obtain even use of all forage areas. 6. Protect and manage the new to cover the soil with a straw mulch They should not be located on seeding. to keep the soils cooler, to prevent areas that are easily eroded. the soil from drying out too fast and Plant Selection to prevent losses from wind and Cattle generally require about two It is very important to select plants water erosion. (2) pounds of salt per month. For that are adapted to the soils and sheep, one half pound per month climate in a specific area. Grasses Seeding Rates. Seeding rates for is adequate. Salt blocks should be such as western wheatgrass are the most commonly used species at least one-quarter of a mile from well suited to heavy bottom land are shown on Table 3. Seeding water. soils, while Indian ricegrass and rates are shown in pounds of pure sand dropseed are well adapted live seed (PLS) per acre. These Range Seeding to the deep sandy soils. Crested rates are based on planting 20 to 25 Thousands of acres of Navajo wheatgrass and Russian wildrye are PLS per square foot using a regu- rangelands are in need of seed- adapted to the drier sites, hav- lar grass drill. If the seed has to be ing. These areas represent small ing less than 10 inches of annual broadcast, the seeding rate should abandoned farm fields, critically precipitation. Pubescent wheat- be doubled.

21 Seeding Methods. Grass seed Broadcast seeding (spreading the up” comes. October plantings will should be planted with a drill seed on top of the ground) is not rely on snow cover and moisture equipped with depth regulator a good practice. In steep or rough the following spring for germi- bands. Seeds planted too deep will country, however, this may be the nation and growth. Always try to never make it to the surface. Nei- only way to get seed on the ground. avoid planting on any site or soil ther will seeds planted too shallow. when it is extremely dry. It is necessary to plant the seed Time of Seeding. The best time deep enough to have moisture for seeding most of the Navajo Management on New Seeding and yet shallow enough so it can rangelands is from June 15 to July 1 While new seedlings are getting emerge through the surface. Small or in the month of October. Most established, they should not be seeds should be planted ¼ to ½ of the summer rains come during grazed. New range seedings should inch deep, the larger seeds about July, August, and early September. not be grazed during the growing one inch. Double this depth when June plantings can take advantage season (May 1 to September 1) for seeding on coarse sandy soils. of this moisture to develop good two years after planting. Light graz- top and root growth before “freeze- ing in the fall or to control weeds is

Table 3. Range Seeding Rates for Pure Live Seed The first few years of a new seeding is the most critical time, and all efforts should be made to insure success of the stand.

Seeding Rate Inches of Species (Native) Where Adapted (lbs. PLS/Acre) Rain Western wheatgrass 9 Loam, clay: upland, bottom 6-14 Galleta grass 5-6 Sand, loam, clay; upland, bottom 6-14 Indian ricegrass 4 Sand, loam, clay; upland, bottom 6-14 Blue grama 1-2 Sand, loam, clay; upland, bottom 6-14 Sand dropseed 1/4 Sand, loam, clay; upland, bottom 6-14 Thickspike wheatgrass 7 Sand; upland, bottom 6-14 Alkali sacaton 1 Sand, loam, clay; upland, bottom 6-18 Vine mesquite 6 Loam, clay; bottom 6-14 Streambank wheatgrass 6 Loam, clay; upland bottom 6-14 Basin wildrye 7 Loam, clay, salty, bottom 6-18 Smooth wildrye 7 Loam, clay, salty, bottom 6-14 Spike muhly 1/2 Loam, clay, shallow; upland 6-14 Sideoats grama 6 Loam, clay, shallow; upland 10-14 Black grama 3/4 Sand, loam; upland, bottom 10-14 Little bluestem 3-4 Sand, loam, shallow: upland 6-14

22 Seeding Rate Inches of Species (Native) Where Adapted allowed if it is found necessary. (lbs. PLS/Acre) Rain Big bluestem 7 Sand, loam, shallow; upland 6-14 Arizona fescue 2 Loam, clay; upland 6-14 Sheep fescue 1 Loam, clay; upland 10-30 Mountain muhly 1 Loam, clay, shallow; upland 10-30 Mountain brome 7 Loam, clay, shallow; upland 10-30 Timothy 3/4 Loam, clay, wet; bottom 18-30 Redtop 1 Loam, clay, wet; bottom 18-30 Giant dropseed 2 Sand, loam; upland 6-14 Giant wildrye 8 Sand. loam; upland 6-14 Big bluegrass 1 Loam, clay; upland 10-30 Fourwing saltbush 4-5 Sand, loam, clay; upland. bottom 6-14 Winterfat 6 Sand, loam, clay; shallow; upland 6-14

Seeding Rate Inches of Species (Introduced) Where Adapted (lbs. PLS/Acre) Rain Crested wheatgrass 6 Sand, loam; upland, bottom 6-14 Siberian wheatgrass 6 Sand, loam, clay; upland 6-14 Russian wildrye 5 Loam, clay; bottom, salty 6-14 Tall wheatgrass 12 Loam, clay; upland, bottom 6-14 Pubescent wheatgrass 11 Loam, clay; upland, bottom 6-14 Intermediate wheatgrass 10 Loam, clay; bottom, salty 6-14 Tall fescue 5 Loam, clay; bottom, salty 6-18 Meadow fescue 4 Loam, clay; bottom, salty 6-14 Smooth brome 7 Sand, loam, clay; upland, bottom 6-14 Meadow brome 7 Sand, loam, clay; upland, bottom 6-18 Orchard grass 2 Sand, loam, clay; upland, bottom 6-14 Reed canarygrass 2 Sand, loam, clay; wet bottom 6-14 Creeping meadow foxtail 4 Sand, loam, clay; wet bottom 10-14 Alfalfa 4 Sand, loam, clay; bottom 10-14 Sweet clover 3 Sand, loam, clay; upland, bottom, shallow 6-14 Cicer milkvetch 6 Sand, loam, clay; wet bottom 6-14 Sanfoin 12 Sand, loam, clay; upland, bottom, shallow 6-14 Alsike clover 2 Sand, loam, clay; wet bottom 10-30

23 Glossary

Aggregate - A mixture or grouping of soil particles. Pistil - The female part of a flower. Annual - A plant that completes its life in one year. Plant Community - A group of plants growing (living) together on a given area. Atmosphere - The air surrounding the earth. Raceme - A narrowly branched flower head. Auricles - Finger-like tips on the collar of some grasses. Rachilla - The “stem” connecting a floret to the rachis. Awn - The long bristle or thread-like tail on some grasses. Rachis - The main stem of a flower head. Biennial - A plant completing its life in two years. Range Readiness - Refers to the time that plants have grown enough to allow grazing and the soils Blade - The part of a grass leaf extending away from are dry enough to prevent damage from livestock the stem. trampling. Collar - The point where the leaf blade bends away Rhizome - An underground stem with nodes which from the stem. give rise to new plants. Culm - The stem of a grass plant. Sediment - Soil which is carried in water and settles Evaporation - The loss of water from a surface as to the bottom when the movement of water is slowed vapor. down. Floret - The flower of a grass plant. Sheath - The part of a grass leaf which wraps around the stem. Glume - The outer bracts of the grass spikelet. Soil Organisms - Small living bodies (insects, lnternode - The space between nodes or joints of a worms, etc.) within the soil. stem. Spike - A finger-like flower head. Lemma - The lower bract of a grass floret. Spikelet - A part of a grass head made up of one or Ligule - The skin-like or hairy growth inside the more f1orets. collar of a grass plant. Stamen - The male part of a flower. Mulch - Dead plant material remaining on the plant or on the ground surface. Stolon - An above ground stem, trailing along the surface, that takes root at the nodes and develops new Node - The swollen “joints” of a grass stem. plants. Organic Matter - Decayed material lying on and Structure - Refers to the way soil particles are down into the soil. “glued” together. Palea - The top or inner bract around a grass floret. Texture - Refers to the size of soil particles. Panicle - A wide and much branched flower head. Transpiration - The loss of moisture from the surface of plants. Pedicel - The “stem” which connects a grass floret to the main stem. Perennial - A plant that lives for several years.

24