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A Publication of The Forces of Change in the Transformation Age the Computer Making Make Software: Change the World! History Museum Designing a New Space for Learning Cover: Make Software: Change the World! exhibition This page: Brain MRIs. THIS ISSUE MUSEUM UPDATES 2 4 8 12 28 66 Contributors The Forces of Launching Introducing the Center Software Everywhere Recent Artifact 3 Change in the Exponential: A Center for Software History Donations Transformation Age For Entrepreneurship CEO’s Letter 18 68 and Innovation New Shustek Center Ray and Meredith Promotes Acquisitions, Rothrock Archives, and Access 69 Museum Donors

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The Forces of Change in the Designing a New Space Make Software: Research & Insights @CHM Transformation Age for Learning Change the World! Research conducted by the As computing continues to Opening in fall 2017, CHM’s new Preview CHM’s newest major ex- Museum illuminates the trans- impact our world at an unprec- 3,000-square-foot Education hibition, Make Software: Change formation of computing in the edented rate, CHM fi nds itself in Center will house the Museum’s the World!, with an introduction world through careful analysis a unique position as both a story- extensive slate of educational by David C. Brock and a candid and interpretation. Gain unique teller of this epic saga and as an offerings, from K–12 workshops look at the exhibition’s fi ve-year insights into this transformation institution in the midst of its own to programs for business leaders development by Kirsten Tashev. with articles by CHM’s John growth. Learn more as John C. and young entrepreneurs. Go Discover select artifacts and im- Markoff, Marc Weber, and Hollar defi nes the Transforma- behind the scenes with Lauren agery from the exhibition’s seven Hansen Hsu. tion Age in parallel to the current Silver as she talks design, plan- galleries and see examples of

OPPOSITE: PHOTO BY KEN GLASER VIA MEDIA BAKERY OPPOSITE: PHOTO expansion underway at CHM. ning, and implementation of the interactive activities in our CHM’s new learning space. Stata Family Software Lab.

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 1 CONTRIBUTORS

Editor-in-Chief John C. Hollar

Managing Editor Jennifer De La Cruz

Executive Editors Carina Sweet DAVID C. David C. Brock is an historian of technology and Kirsten Tashev director of the Center for Software History at the BROCK Computer History Museum. Specializing in oral his- Contributors tory, his books include Thackray, Brock, and Jones, Andrew Berger DIRECTOR, CENTER FOR SOFTWARE HISTORY Moore’s Law: The Life of Gordon Moore, Silicon David C. Brock Valley’s Quiet Revolutionary (Basic Books, 2015) Elena Colón-Marrero Stephanie Corrigan and Lécuyer and Brock, Makers of the Microchip: Chris Garcia A Documentary History of Fairchild Semiconductor mit 2010 Marguerite Gong ( Press, ). Hancock John C. Hollar Hansen Hsu Hansen Hsu is curator of the Center for Software HANSEN Karen Kroslowitz History at the Computer History Museum. Hsu David Laws 1999–2005 os x HSU worked at Apple from on Mac as John Markoff qa p d CURATOR, CENTER FOR a engineer. He received a h in science and Pamela Gesme Miller SOFTWARE HISTORY technology studies from Cornell in 2015, studying Jon Plutte the culture and values of the Mac and iPhone Emily Routman developer community. Lauren Silver Dag Spicer Kirsten Tashev JOHN Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist John Markoff Marc Weber joined the Computer History Museum as an Design MARKOFF historian in 2017, after nearly three decades as Studio1500 a technology writer for the New York Times. His AUTHOR & HISTORIAN books include What the Dormouse Said: How Photography the Sixties Counterculture Shaped the Personal Douglas Fairbairn Computer Industry (2005) and Machines of Loving Photography Grace: The Quest for Common Ground between Studio Dizon Humans and Robots (2015).

KIRSTEN Kirsten Tashev, vice president of Collections & Exhibitions, led the development of Make Software: © 2017 Computer History TASHEV Change the World! from its inception in 2011. She Museum. The Museum is a nonprofi t 501(c)(3) VICE PRESIDENT OF directs the Museum’s exhibitions as well as the organization. All artwork is EXHIBITIONS & COLLECTIONS curatorial, collections management, and media copyright of the Computer teams. She has played a key role in the Museum’s History Museum unless strategic development since joining in 2000. otherwise credited. For reprints and permissions, contact core@computer history.org. Subscriptions MARC Marc Weber is founder and curatorial director of the are a member benefi t. This Computer History Museum’s Internet History Pro- issue of Core is available at WEBER gram. He pioneered web history as a topic starting computerhistory.org/core. Address changes and other in 1995 with crucial help from Tim Berners-Lee and CURATORIAL DIRECTOR, written correspondence INTERNET HISTORY PROGRAM other early developers, and co-founded two of the may be sent to: Computer fi rst organizations in the fi eld. Weber writes, speaks, History Museum, Public and consults widely on the history of the online world. Relations, or emailed to [email protected].

2 CORE 2017 INSIDE THE CEO’S TRANSFORMATIONLETTER

When Francis Ford Coppola agreed to accept as an element of computing’s story. Both centers Paramount Pictures’ offer to write and direct The focus not only on what happened and what Godfather in the early 1970s, he painstakingly matters, but also on the people at the center of cut the pages out of Mario Puzo’s epic novel and that change. pasted them into a large, blank notebook. He an- In January 2017, we opened a new $7 million notated each page to produce the screenplay and exhibition, Make Software: Change the World!, the shooting script, and, from that text, Coppola which brings many of these stories to life by distilled the story down to a one-word theme: examining software’s impact through the lens of succession. He later said that he believed every seven iconic applications in use around the world. great project benefi ted from such focus and an Make Software opened to great public acclaim easily understood theme. and will anchor the west wing of our Shoreline In this issue of Core, you may discern a similar building for years to come. focus, and a similar theme: transformation. We Adjacent to Make Software, a new multimil- have focused on transformation on two levels. lion-dollar Education Center is taking shape. The fi rst is the transformation computing is When completed, it will give our rapidly growing bringing to the world. Hardly any aspect of the education programs a permanent state-of-the-art world’s economy, technological progress, social home. It will also be equipped from end to end fabric, or political change is immune from com- with the technology necessary to take our pro- puting’s reach. In turn, computing has unleashed grams out to the world and to bring the world to one of the greatest periods of creativity in human our community of learners. history. The story is epic, ongoing, and accelerat- All of this is made possible by a legion of do- ing. It’s a challenging time for the Computer nors, our wonderful Board of Trustees, our staff, History Museum (chm), and yet also a time of and our volunteer corps. They are the beating exhilaration and heightening public interest. heart of our transformation. It’s a privilege for The second level of transformation, I’m happy me to present their work to you in this issue of to say, is a major change in the Museum as an Core. I hope you enjoy it. institution. We are well into a $30 million cam- paign that is transforming chm on every level. Yours sincerely, We have opened a new Center for Software History to tell the continuing story of code’s im- pact on the world—and to preserve and extend our world-class archive of operating systems, applications, and other creations by some of computing’s greatest minds. Alongside that center, we’ve opened Exponential, a new center focusing JOHN C. HOLLAR on the history and impact of entrepreneurship PRESIDENT & CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 3 CCHMHM THE FOFORR OF CCHHA IN THE TRANSFORM

4 CORE 2017 A RRC M NGN ATI CE

HUMANHU PROGRESS O GE E N A TIME S E GGE E “transformation” isthatword. PRESIDENT &CEO BY JOHNC.HOLLAR Valley, The transformationistechnological,economic,and The challenge and opportunity for CHM in the future future the in CHM for opportunity and challenge The view ofcomputing’s history, itssweepingimpact From ourvantagepointintheheartofSilicon and societal—for thefuture. and theimplications—technological, economic, and story-tellforasingularpurpose: weseekto attempting toworkoutthemeaningofthisongoing of theevenmoreprofoundchangetocome. derlying principleshardtograspandinterpret.The of aneye.Becauseitspace,historicalrootsare present itevenastheforcesof changeshapeevents permanent, andtheyareaccelerating.Scienceshows enhance ourunderstandingof this modern-day era oftransformation—toidentify, preserve, and eryone onEarth.Theresultingforcesofchangeare enable transformationarenowwithinreachofev- in realtime.We collect,exhibit,educate,publish, ing backonavastperiodofcomputinghistory. Itis is notsimple.Fortwodecades,however, wehave formation Ageisbeginning.Ifweassignaone-word is this:theInformationAgeending,andTrans- implications forthefuture—economic,technical, believed ittobeworkworthdoing.Today weknow because ofcomputing’s ubiquity, weareallpartof not widelyunderstood.Itskeylessonsareessential computing racedfromnonexistenttoubiquitous. computing ataninexorable,exponentialrate.And more likelythatwearemerelywitnessingthedawn transformation. We dosobytakinga to ustodaythatwearestandingonaplateaulook- this workisgrowinginimportance.Itmayappear theme tothenextstrategicphaseforMuseum, the horizon. to know, butalsostillemergingandnotcommonly tory, thetransformationhashappenedinblink the transformationnow. the futureasMoore’s Lawdrivesthecapacityof that theseforceswillcontinuetoacceleratefarinto Building a Historical Platform Platform aHistorical Building societal. Itisuniversal,forthecomputingtoolsthat societal, positive,negative—areamereoutlineon shared. Itsrelentlessaccelerationcanmakeitsun- We liveinatransformationalera:theerawhen Measured againstthespanofrecordedhumanhis- In thiscontext,theworkrequiredofMuseum chm isthemajorinstitutioninworld COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 360 -degree 5 If we view our work and our place in the world to global online gaming communities to spyware HISTORY against the backdrop of today’s ongoing transforma- embedded in nuclear control systems. tion, the next strategic phase of the Museum must The impact story must necessarily include the rise embrace and be more expansive in the following of entrepreneurs—their spectacular successes, their ways, beginning with history. frequent failures, the lessons they’ve learned in the IMPLICATIONS IMPACT FOR THE FUTURE History is not only central to our mission, but a process, and the ecosystems in which they fl ourish. platform for all our work. History provides us, as Entrepreneurs in the Transformation Age are some scholars and educators, with a context for illuminat- of the greatest problem-solvers of any age. When ing the forces of change that computing and human they pick the right problems, are suffi ciently persis- imagination have unleashed together. Our task is tent and visionary, and encounter a stroke of luck,

October 30, 2014 not to adopt a strategy that diminishes our work they produce transformational breakthroughs of Museum Board presentation as collectors, chroniclers, and historians, but to historic proportions. Those breakthroughs, in turn,

Step by step, through reframe that work to meet the interpretive and edu- produce landmark companies and industries, just as these lenses, we cational requirements of impact today and implica- their predecessors in other fi elds—manufacturing, will transform our tions tomorrow. petroleum, retailing, and fi nance—produced com- understanding of One important aspect of the chm history platform mercial enterprises that changed the global face of computing—its history, chm its impact, and the is our collection of computing technology itself—the society in the last century. ’s Exponential Center, implications for society artifacts that exemplify how the world moved from the fi rst museum center of its kind, will explore the in the future. the Antikythera mechanism of ancient Greece to the people, companies, and communities transforming autonomous cars of 2016. Our world-class collec- our world through innovation and entrepreneurship. THE ENVIRONMENT tion, which numbers more than 75,000 physical This impact story is more fundamental and more Regis McKenna, objects and more than 150,000 items of code and pervasive than simply business history. It is an “CHM: Chronicler or Driver?” October 19, 2015 recorded media, gives us a rich “green fi eld” that impact story of creativity, persistence, and sweeping Museum Board presentation we can explore ourselves, open to others, and use to technical and societal change. Nowhere are those illustrate our interpretive work as we seek to bring characteristics more evident in the computing fi eld “Static history and/or understanding to our times. than in software. In 2001, only one software com- archives” will not turn on connected, diverse, A second important aspect of our platform is the pany—Microsoft—ranked as one of the fi ve largest mobile, distracted, stories of the men and women doing the pioneer- companies in the world as measured by market over-saturated, living in ing work of computing—in both the past and today. capitalization. In 2016, all fi ve of the largest compa- the now, novelty-seeking consumers. They have become some of the most compelling and nies were either entirely rooted or deeply involved in infl uential fi gures of the modern age. Their stories, “apps,” search, e-commerce, operating systems, and The museum of the their experiences, their vision, and their lessons for other software-driven innovations—and each com- future must turn itself other generations help to explain the road we’ve pany, in turn, exerts a global infl uence. Companies inside out and make its ge at&t content and role in the traveled to today, the change we feel now, and the that have tumbled off the list— , , Citi, and community it serves implications for tomorrow. We bring those fi gures to others—are striving to put software and applica- relevant to the present. life in multiple ways, from exhibits to oral histories tions at the center of their businesses and human to live events. resources for the future. We bring the history and CHM’s community has impact of this transformation to light in multiple many time demands, choices of activities to History Alone is Not Enough: ways, with our new Center for Software History participate in, distrac- Impact and Implications now at the heart of the effort. tions, constituents to We now know as an institution that history alone The third essential element of the Museum’s please, as well as committed obligations. is not enough. The demands of the fi eld we chroni- work is convening an ongoing conversation about cle and the demands of the modern-day museumgoer the implications of these trends for the future. We The geography is call for more. Our founding vision statement seek to extend chm’s reputation as a neutral, skilled, expanding and has always challenged us to explore the impact of and infl uential home for intelligent conversations diversifying yet Silicon Valley is still a synonym computing on the human experience. This ongoing about new directions in computing—the transfor- for innovation, entrepre- exploration of impact is the second vital element of mations they continue to produce and the possible neurship and view of the our work. change to come. future—we can get The impact story applies computing’s history to A major virtue of this strategic element is that it is attention but not necessarily their time the way we live today. It is “the history of now,” media-centric and has global appeal. Our power to and money. from artifi cial intelligence and Photoshop imaging convene through live events also has a second virtue:

6 CORE 2017 TOP 5 PUBLICLY TRADED COMPANIES (BY MARKET CAP) The oil barons have been replaced by the whiz kids of Silicon Valley Tech Other

it allows us to illuminate future issues without tak- #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 ing an institutional position. Our brand, therefore, is created through our editorial choices—selecting the “right” stories to tell and attracting the “right” fi gures to tell them on stage. The third obvious vir- 2016 APPLEALPHABET MICROSOFT AMAZON FACEBOOK tue is live events produce an archive of almost evergreen content that can be repurposed in many $582B $556B $452B $364B $359B ways. We can place it in multiple distribution partnerships and reversion it ourselves into many digital formats. This content, coupled with our 2011 EXXONAPPLE PETROCHINA SHELL ICBC other digital assets and artifacts, provides us with an almost limitless supply of media with which to reach $406B $376B $277B $237B $228B both serious chm enthusiasts and, in the words of Regis McKenna, “connected, diverse, mobile, over-saturated, living-in-the-now, novelty-seeking 2006 EXXONGE TOTAL MICROSOFT CITI consumers.”

Our Education Imperative: $446B $383B $327B $293B $273B Humanities and Technology Intersect The Museum’s educational voice speaks with our 2001 GEMICROSOFT EXXON CITI WALMART audiences through our exhibits, our digital content, our live programming and, most of all, through our education programs. What began as a series of $406B $365B $272B $261B $260B experimental programs in 2009 now fl ourishes as a connected system of formal and informal programs that engage every age level in problem-solving and are already asking for formal programs structured computational thinking. As such, education at chm around the history and impact of entrepreneurship. draws on the lessons of the past and marries them Some of the work will be the responsibility of the with stories of impact and imagination to help learn- Center for Software History, which is assimilat- ers of all ages recognize the transformational forces ing all of the Museum’s extensive assets into new of change that are sweeping through the world. insights about software’s impact on end users and Demand for these programs has surged since makers alike. And some of the work will involve the 2011—in part because the programs are fundamen- expansion of our core education programs within tally grounded in both stem (science, technology, the new ideo-inspired Education Center taking engineering, and mathematics) principles and in the shape on the Museum’s fi rst fl oor. liberal arts. Education at chm is one part problem solving, one part design thinking, and one part Transformation Moving Forward understanding human behavior. chm is a natural In 2017, many of these strategic elements became home for programs that meet the increasing need for vivid for the museum-going public with the unveil- learners inspired to pursue computer science, engi- ing of Make Software: Change the World!, a new neering, and mathematics—and it is also a natural $7 million exhibition and web portal. Make Soft- home for programs that connect those concepts to ware demonstrates many of the elements of our new broader principles drawn from history and other strategy: the history, impact, and future implications areas of the humanities and arts. of computing’s transformative power. Make Soft- Even more broadly, the next phase of the Museum ware closes with the prophetic words of Marshall presents us with an opportunity to practice “trans- McLuhan: “We are what we behold. We shape our formation explained” as part of our larger educa- tools, and then our tools shape us.” The work of tional mission for the broadest possible audience. both refl ecting the history of our technological tools Some of this work will be done through the Expo- and interpreting how those tools are, in turn, shap- nential Center’s work with business executives and ing us will be at the center of our creative work

CHART ON PREVIOUS PAGE: WAITBUTWHY.COM / THIS PAGE: VISUALCAPITALIST.COM / THIS PAGE: WAITBUTWHY.COM CHART ON PREVIOUS PAGE: government offi cials from around the world, who as we move forward as an institution.

COMPUTERCHM HISTORY MUSEUM 7 In June 2016 CHM launched the Why the Exponential Center? Exponential Center, the fi rst “Entrepreneurs and computing LAUNCHING EXPONENTIAL: museum institution devoted go hand in hand. Across the to capturing the legacy—and world, people want to under- A CENTER FOR advancing the future—of en- stand why that is, how it trepreneurship and innovation happens, what is special about ENTREPRENEURSHIP in Silicon Valley and around the way it works in Silicon the world. The Exponential Valley, and how past entrepre- AND INNOVATION Center informs and inspires neurship and innovation con- CENTERS the next generation of change- nects to the future,” said John makers through fi ve integrated Hollar, the Museum’s president BY MARGUERITE GONG HANCOCK initiatives: Collections & and ceo. “The Exponential EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR, Exhibitions, Research & In- Center is preserving history, EXPONENTIAL CENTER sights, Education, Events, and making forward-looking con- Thought Leadership. nections, and inspiring next generation entrepreneurs, in- novators, and leaders.”

8 CORE 2017 Left to right: MyFitnessPal founders Mike and Albert Lee on stage with legendary venture capitalist John Doerr during the Exponential Center’s launch symposium on June 3, 2016.

Many historians consider leading museum center explor- Early Progress in Five Key a billion devices, or gener- the Digital Age the most trans- ing and engaging the people, Areas of Work ate a billion dollars. Artifacts formational era in recorded companies, and communities Already the Exponential Center included an HP Model 200 history—unprecedented in driving exponential change. has started to deliver on its Oscillator (1939); a selection of its power to change human Exponential tells this world- mission and fi ve integrated Fairchild engineering notebooks experience in pace, personal- wide story in new and compel- initiatives. Below is a selection (1957); a roll of Micro-Soft Altair ization, scope, and scale. The ling ways to help inspire and of highlights from each area. BASIC paper tape; an early result: technological innovation, inform future changemakers. Apple advertising proof along- economic value creation, and side the company’s preliminary social impact affecting billions Founding Advisors and Support Collections & Exhibitions offering memo (1978); a Cisco of people, including how they As part of a major strategic AGS Router (1986); a Facebook live, work, and play each day. expansion of the Museum, the Oral Histories motherboard (2011); and a For more than the past Exponential Center benefi ts • Gordon Moore (founder) and Google bicycle (2011). half century, Silicon Valley from the active involvement Arthur Rock (venture has been epicenter and model of a circle of Silicon Valley capitalist) on Intel for this activity, illustrated veteran leaders. chm Trustees • John Chambers (former Events in generations of companies Steve Smith and Dave Martin CEO, Cisco) and Don Exponential and its associated from Fairchild Semiconductor co-chaired the Founding Advi- Valentine (venture capitalist, NextGen Advisory Board have to Facebook. New companies sors to bring the Exponential Sequoia) on Cisco organized 17 events, which create on average three million Center to life. In November • Roger Smith and Bob have attracted more than 2,500 new jobs a year in the United 2016 they passed the baton Medearis, co-founders, people, with attendees from States. Entrepreneurs, startups, to Larry Sonsini, chm trustee Silicon Valley Bank more than 350 companies and and rapidly growing new busi- and chair of law fi rm Wilson • Gil Shwed, founder, organizations. Selected events nesses create 70 percent of all Sonsini Rosati & Goodrich, to Checkpoint Software include: new jobs in the world and up chair the Exponential Advisory • Pradip Sindhu, founder, •“Alibaba and Jack Ma: Beyond to 90 percent in some emerging Committee for the next phase Juniper Networks E-commerce and China—Impli- economies. Now innovation of growth and impact. cations for Silicon Valley,” with and entrepreneurship are a To date, $2.75 million of ear- Artifacts author Duncan Clark global phenomenon, spanning ly stage support has been raised • First business plans of •“Pioneers of the Possible: from Apple to Alphabet, from as part of a $10 million cam- NetApp from former CEO Women Entrepreneurs on Inno- arm to Alibaba. paign for the first phase of the Dan Warmenhoven and vation and Impact,” with DFJ’s Yet the Exponential Center is center’s development and pro- of Sun Microsystems from Heidi Roizen and Cloudfl are’s the first museum institution in grams. Major funders include investor Gary Kalbach Michelle Zatlyn Silicon Valley with this focus. Veritas Software founder Mark • 85 original ads from early •“Day of the Dead: Postmortems The driving force for change and Debra Leslie, pioneering years of Intel and Apple, on Silicon Valley Failures,” with in the Digital Age era is the venture capitalist Franklin donated by Regis McKenna Garage Technology Ventures’ combination of innovation and “Pitch” and Catherine Johnson, Bill Reichert, CrowdStreet’s entrepreneurship. Each alone and Venrock veteran Ray and Exhibit Kim Polese, and Twitch’s Justin is potent; multiplied together Meredith Rothrock. They are “1 to 1 Billion” display, featuring Kan (jointly organized with they can create exponential joined by a growing circle of eight iconic artifacts from the NextGen) progress. As part of chm, in generous supporters of leaders Museum’s collection that illus- •“The Next Billion,” with Kiva the heart of Silicon Valley, the from Silicon Valley and beyond. trate how one idea, combined Executive Chair Julie Hanna Exponential Center is uniquely with entrepreneurial spirit, can positioned to become the touch a billion people, create

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 9 Education and Looking ahead, the Expo- About the Exponential Center: The Research & Insights nential Center will build on Exponential Center at the Computer In 2016 Exponential welcomed positive momentum to expand History Museum (CHM) is capturing attendees from 35 countries its work and impact through its the legacy—and advancing the fu- ture—of entrepreneurship and inno- for its executive education five areas of work at the Muse- vation in Silicon Valley and around briefi ngs and events. The center um as well as through extensive the world. The center explores the also started developing a new collaboration and partnerships. people, companies, and communi- educational curriculum with The center is a platform to ties that are transforming the hu- content that includes video collect and share the legacy and man experience through technology clips and discussion guides. lessons of exponential impact innovation, economic value creation, in the past. Exponential is also and social impact. The center’s at the nexus for innovators work focuses on fi ve integrated ini- Thought Leadership and entrepreneurs who will tiatives: collections and exhibitions, Private roundtables have in- lead the way in the future to research and insights, education, events, and thought leadership. cluded discussions for create new technologies, new Our mission: to inform, infl uence, Silicon Valley leaders with economic value creation, and and inspire the next generation us Department of Commerce new ways to improve people’s of innovators, entrepreneurs, and Undersecretary Stefan Selig lives around the world. As leaders changing the world. Visit as well as us Chief Data summed up by iconic venture our website: computerhistory.org/ Scientist dj Patil. Exponential capitalist John Doerr: “What exponential. has also hosted international we know and what we believe government leaders, such as about Silicon Valley is the fol- Exponential Center Executive Sweden’s hrh Princess Victoria, lowing: Silicon Valley is not a Director Marguerite Gong leading entrepreneurs from place. It is a state of mind. It Hancock with Renault execu- China, and consuls general can be everywhere. It can uplift tives after a briefi ng on Silicon 30 Valley startup culture and from more than countries. everyone. That is the idea of digital innovation, June 2015. Exponential.”

In March 2015, the Exponential Center hosted its fi rst “360” event with an in-depth look at NetApp.

10 CORE 2017 EXHIBITING A HISTORY OF ENTREPRENEURIAL GROWTH & INNOVATION

BY DAVID LAWS SEMICONDUCTOR CURATOR

HONORING THE FOUNDERS AND Sixty years after its founding in 1957, Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation is celebrated as “The First Trillion Dollar Start- BUILDERS OF THE DIGITAL AGE up.”1 Through an unprecedented series of technical, business, and cultural innovations, the company spawned hundreds of ventures that established Silicon Valley as a world center of BY MARGUERITE GONG HANCOCK entrepreneurial activity and technological leadership. Although EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR, EXPONENTIAL CENTER the fi rm’s market valuation never exceeded $2.5 billion, its surviving combined progeny have been estimated to be worth On June 2, 2016, Exponential hosted its launch gala, “1 to 1 Billion: over $2 trillion. Celebrating the Founders and Builders of the Digital Age.” The Fairchild’s role in stimulating the explosive entrepreneurial center convened 250 founders, partners, and early team members growth of Silicon Valley since the 1960s is the basis for the involved in more than 400 companies, including Fairchild, Intel, Museum’s exhibit, The Trillion Dollar Startup: Fairchild, Fair- Google, Apple, Cisco, Microsoft, Motorola, Intuit, NVIDIA, SanDisk, children, and the Family Tree of Silicon Valley, developed by the Sunpower, 23andme, and Intuitive Surgical. Managing partners Exponential Center and launched on December 20, 2016. and senior leaders also participated from leading institutions in The exhibit features a display case with the patent notebooks the entrepreneurial ecosystem, such as Stanford University, UC of Jean Hoerni, Gordon Moore, and Robert Noyce, chosen from Berkeley, Draper Fisher Jurvetson, Khosla Ventures, NEA, Sequoia, the Museum’s collection of nearly 1,300 Fairchild patent and Fenwick & West, and Wilson Sonsini Goodrich & Rosati. laboratory notebooks. These three notebooks exemplify key Six pioneering honorees, who established the foundation of discoveries—like the fi rst expression of the planar process—that Silicon Valley’s entrepreneurial economy, shared their insights transformed the Valley from just another emerging hub of the throughout the event: electronics industry into a world-renowned center of innovation • Gordon Moore, on becoming an “accidental entrepreneur” and entrepreneurial activity. Growing out of those Fairchild roots, a towering 30-foot-high • Jay Last, on the “driving force for the original transistor silicon mural in the CHM lobby illustrates a giant high-tech tree, business” laden with a harvest of 36 spin-off companies selected to repre- • Arthur Rock, on the importance of “having luck early” sent the hundreds of successful ventures spanning six genera- • Regis McKenna, on “helping people around the world better tions of key Silicon Valley technology eras, from semiconductors understand what it is to be an entrepreneur” to social media. Fairchild alumni founded infl uential tech fi rms such as Intel and AMD in addition to pioneering venture capital • Larry Sonsini, on “capturing and sustaining the recipe of fi rms Sequoia Capital and Kleiner Perkins Caufi eld Byers. Silicon Valley” Today Google, Facebook and more than 92 public companies • John Doerr, on Silicon Valley as “a state of mind” that can be traced back to Fairchild, which fostered multiple genera- “can uplift everyone” tions of high-value innovative companies and the culture of Special tributes honoring Intuit CEO Bill Campbell and Intel co- entrepreneurial growth that today we celebrate as the Silicon founder and CEO Andy Grove were given by Numenta CEO Donna Valley way. Dubinsky and Breyer Capital CEO Jim Breyer. Refl ecting on the event, the vice president of strategy at a 1 Rhett Morris, “How Did Silicon Valley Become Silicon Valley,” Endeavor Insight, (July 29, 2014). multibillion dollar fi rm at the intersection of robotics and health, shared: “The honorees were some of Silicon Valley’s titans . . . who were instrumental in building the culture of entrepreneurship. . . . This is part of what is so amazing about exponential change. The origins of Silicon Valley were wandering around the room, and the changes brought on by the Digital Age have happened so rapidly that it was possible for them to be alive to see the worldwide effects of the things they had done.” The Exponential Center’s launch marked the beginning of its major effort to capture the legacy and lessons of the people and companies who have founded and built the Digital Age.

11 12 CORE 2017

© ADOBE SYSTEMS INCORPORATED/COURTESY OF BRYAN O’NEIL HUGHES packaged programs, from de- documenting software history. BY DAVID C. BROCK velopers to entrepreneurs, from There is, of course, a pro- DIRECTOR, CENTER FOR mainframes to microprocessors. found concern spurring the SOFTWARE HISTORY Computer programs are software center and its work: inherently performative. People the fragility of our digital create code so that a computer heritage. Historical software is might run it. The fullest mean- ironically at great risk for loss, ing of software can be found and the challenges of preserv- INTRODUCING in its performance, which pres- ing it and making it accessible ents great challenges and op- are formidable, without clear THE CENTER FOR portunities for software history. solutions. chm is one of a At the Center for Software very few cultural institutions History, we are simultaneously worldwide actively collecting SOFTWARE HISTORY exploring the pursuit of these software for permanent pres- people-centered stories and ervation. Similarly, the Center filming software in action to for Software History may be preserve and present software the only organization devoted history and its implications to to the pursuit of collections- No people, no code. Apps, Software—as pattern, al- diverse publics. based software history, one programs, code, software—call gorithm, service, or even as But why a Center for Soft- that incorporates insights from it what you will, it is created thought—seems intangible. But ware History now, and why at examining code, software by people. Software is what from another perspective, soft- chm? Foremost is the tremen- performance, documents, oral computers do, from supercom- ware is concrete, even personal. dous opportunity to build on history, publications, and au- puters to smartphones. Human Software history is built of the momentum of Make Soft- diovisual materials alike. With lives everywhere are shaped by people-centered stories because ware: Change the World!, the this unique position comes people’s use of software, and always and everywhere, it is most ambitious museum exhi- the opportunity to break new this in just a single lifetime, the ultimately people who create bition on the story of computer ground and serve a global seven decades since computers software. The existence of code software undertaken in recent community that is looking at ran the earliest programs. reflects the story of the people years, perhaps ever. Another preserving and interpreting its At the Center for Software who made it. positive motivation is the desire digital heritage. History, our teams build, se- The profound social implica- to build upon and make best At the Center for Software cure, and study the Museum’s tions of software are, will, and use of the Museum’s impressive History, we are at work on two remarkable collections to have always been the conse- existing holdings of software— pilot projects that make good understand and tell the story quence of people’s decisions in ranging from the first magnetic use of particularly rich clusters of software. Our mission is making and using code. In the tapes from Whirlwind to well of materials in the Museum’s to preserve this history for stories of people, then, lie the over a hundred thousand collections spanning hardware, posterity while putting it to technical, business, intellectual, floppy disks of personal com- software, documents, photo- work today, asking where we social, and cultural histories of puter software—as well as oral graphs, audiovisual materials, are, where we have been, and software—from timesharing to histories, archival collections, oral histories, and the possibil- where we might be going. the cloud, from custom code to and audiovisual materials ity of running historical soft-

The Center for Software History col- lects and preserves software stored on a full range of historical media, including paper punched cards as pictured here.

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 13 ware on its original hardware. How did they work technically the Museum’s vibrant oral his- These are pilot projects in the and socially? Our PowerPoint tory program. The Museum’s sense that we are charting a Project is using oral history, oral histories are an incredible new path for collections-based text archives, source code list- historical resource in their software history, and we expect ings, video documentation of own right and serve as vital missteps along with successes. historical software in action, resources for interpretation and Our experience in these pilot and digital preservation to get exhibits. As a collections-based projects will help guide our at these questions. We are be- institution, the curatorial team future projects. ginning to communicate what of the software center—Hansen We began with an effort to we have learned and preserved Hsu, Al Kossow, and my- document and interpret the through the @CHM blog. Our self—are actively building the origins, development, and second, more ambitious Alto Museum’s software holdings, expanding use of PowerPoint. System Project is detailed else- with an approach that could be PowerPoint, and its rivals in where in this edition of Core. described as “comprehensively Software preservation at CHM’s the realm of presentation soft- With a people-centered ap- representative.” That is, we are new Shustek Center includes ware, have become ubiquitous proach to software history and looking to collect historically software curator Al Kossow’s facility for the recovery of data cultural tools. Where did they our projects, the software cen- important software—source from the oldest of media. come from? Who made them? ter is actively contributing to code and executables—as well

14 CORE 2017 The Museum’s vast software collection includes, among scores of others, landmark examples of packaged busi- ness software from the 1980s. Pictured here: TurboTax, PowerPoint, AutoCAD, Word, and Windows.

as software that is representa- deep, curated collections of digital assets from oral history tive of major types or genres source code and early software. recordings to event video, and of computer programs across Substantial text and AV collec- from scanned papers and pho- possible taxonomies, geogra- tions connected to the story of tographs to born-digital files. phies, and eras. software in the Museum collec- Our digital collection team in- The work of the Center for tion came from years of efforts cludes Paula Jabloner, director Software History’s curatorial by the Museum’s curators and of digital collections; Andrew team builds on a longstanding from the Museum’s Software Berger, senior digital archivist; tradition of engagement with Industry Special Interest Group and Elena Colón-Marrero, Games, encyclopedias, and si sig si sig the history of software and the ( ). The , along with digital processing archivist. For educational programs in the software industry at chm. The other Museum volunteers and years, the Museum’s efforts Museum’s collection document Museum’s collection of tens of staff, built a remarkable collec- at software preservation by the development of software as a resource for recreation thousands of computer pro- tion of hundreds of software- collecting programs on original and learning. grams from a variety of media related oral histories, freely storage media has been ac- was built from large donations and openly accessible today companied by efforts to safely from major collectors and through the Museum’s website. “read” this data, and preserve institutions, as well as smaller The Center for Software it as well. Today, the Center donations from individual History has, in addition to a for Software History’s digital contributors and members. The curatorial team, an expanding collections team is actively Internet History Program has and active digital collection digging into the technical, legal, pursued years of collecting, team, responsible not only for and logistical challenges for oral history, and interpretive the long-term digital preser- the long-term preservation and work. The Museum’s Software vation of historical software, accessibility of software. Preservation Group assembled but also for all the Museum’s

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 15 Importantly, the software institution has established de- center is undertaking what we finitive best practice. The Cen- call “interpretive outreach” ter for Software History will be across several fronts. As part leading by example, with our of chm’s live programming, failures and successes leading we are pursuing speakers to to our own learning and the address the theme of “Why benefit of broader communities Software Matters” on every- concerned with preserving our thing from world hunger to digital heritage. space exploration and climate science. We are hosting and About the Center for Software helping to organize a signifi- History: The purpose of the Center cant conference of computing for Software History at the Com- historians, Command Lines, puter History Museum (CHM) is to with a software focus. We are collect, preserve, and interpret the collaborating with the si sig history of software and its transfor- mational effects on global society. on two workshops, one of Software is what a computer software industry historians to does. The existence of code refl ects assess the state and direction the story of the people who made of the field, and the other of it. The transformational effects of desktop publishing pioneers. software are the consequences of We are presenting our work people’s creation and use of code. and experiences on our pilot In the stories of these people lie projects and software presenta- the technical, business, and tion at scholarly conferences cultural histories of software— like the Society for the History from timesharing services to the cloud, from custom code to pack- of Technology and the Society aged programs, from developers for the Social Studies of Science. to entrepreneurs, from smart- In early planning stages are col- phones to supercomputers. laborations with our education The center is exploring these team for opportunities to draw people-centered stories, docu- on our Alto System Project to menting software-in-action, build engaging experiences of and leveraging CHM’s rich collec- software history in the Mu- tions to tell the story of software, seum’s new Education Center. preserve this history, and put it to work today for gauging where From collections-based we are, where we have been, software history to software and where we might be going. preservation and interpretive For details, see computerhistory. outreach, all are challenges for org/softwarehistory. which no other organization or

Punched paper tape was a dominant medium for the storage of programs and infor- mation from the emergence of digital computing through the 1970s, from Colossus to Altair.

16 CORE 2017 RESTORING YESTERDAY’S COMPUTER SYSTEM OF TOMORROW: THE ALTO SYSTEM PROJECT

PRESERVING SOFTWARE WITH DIGITAL FORENSICS

BY ELENA COLÓN-MARRERO DIGITAL PROCESSING ARCHIVIST

BY DAVID C. BROCK DIRECTOR, CENTER FOR SOFTWARE HISTORY

Between 1972 and 1978, staff of the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) created what Butler Lampson (one of these staff) later described as a “whole complex of hardware and software,” also known as the “Alto system.” Weaving together and creatively extending many important threads from computer science and engineering research, the Alto system and its manifestation of what its makers called “personal distributed computing” served as an exemplar, inspiration, and template for much of personal computing that would follow. Direct lines of historical development lead from the Alto system to everything from the CHM is using digital forensics to preserve the vast amounts of Apple Macintosh to Microsoft Windows, from laser printers to historical software found within its collection. Digital forensics, the Ethernet, from Adobe Postscript and PDF to Microsoft Word, originally developed for criminal investigations, has emerged as and many, many others. a promising source of tools and approaches for facilitating digital These lines of development were intentional, but not specifi - preservation. The tenets of digital authenticity, accountability, and cally foreseen. The philosophy of the Alto system’s builders was accessibility translate to the work done in many museums and that it would serve as a “time machine”—it would be “tomorrow’s” archives. At CHM, we’re developing digital capture and cataloging system, but in hand today. In short, the Alto hardware represent- workfl ows to guide our preservation work. The creation of digital ed what the PARC staff believed would be commercially viable forensics workstations will allow the Museum to preserve the a decade hence, that is, sometime in mid-1980s. With it, they thousands of pieces of software in our collection at a faster rate. would develop the software and practices of the “offi ce of the Without these additional resources, our ability to make the software future.” The Alto system would allow them to live in a future that in our collection accessible to researchers and curators is hindered. they would thereby and simultaneously help to create. One could In a cooperative effort between IT and the digital collections reasonably argue that this is precisely what happened. group, two custom digital forensics workstations were built to con- The Center for Software History’s Alto System Project seeks duct CHM’s digital preservation work, including capture, read, and to restore, as well as we are able, yesterday’s “computer system process disk images of 5.25-inch fl oppy disks, 3.5-inch fl oppy disks, of tomorrow.” With functioning Alto hardware and original Alto and CD-ROMs. The fi rst workstation is a Windows-based computer software, we plan to use archival-grade video to document and and the second is a Linux computer mounted with BitCurator, an preserve the performance of the Alto system, including demon- open source Ubuntu environment specially designed for archives. strations and discussions with its builders, for today’s future. Materials processed on these machines will be placed into the Museum’s digital repository for safekeeping. Processed software will be cataloged and described to aid discovery.

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 17 BY KAREN KROSLOWITZ DIRECTOR OF COLLECTIONS

NEW SHUSTEK CENTER PROMOTES ACQUISITIONS, ARCHIVES, AND ACCESS

Every exhibition deserves a Mountain View location as lections in an offsite facility in beautiful space. The open- its forward-facing fl agship Milpitas. Its high bay racks are ing in January 2017 of Make was an obvious choice. There- best suited to the storage of Software: Change the World! fore, once again, the recent expansive mainframe systems, brings renovations to chm, just acquisitions and archives supercomputers, and other as the Revolution exhibition housed in what would become objects that require infrequent The Shustek Center is a did in 2010. Coupled with the the new exhibition needed to access. But it’s incompatible state-of-the-art research and Museum’s ongoing successes be moved offsite. with archives—the software, storage facility, housing the in educational and public pro- Since 2007, the Museum documents, images, and oral Museum’s acquisitions, ar- chives, software preservation, grams and event venue rentals, has been consolidating its histories that researchers and research operations. the strategy to maintain the hardware and ephemera col- request most often. The bulk of

18 CORE 2017 After a surprise unveiling in August 2014, Board of Trustees Chair Len Shustek poses with early design concepts of the Shustek Center.

unprocessed archival collec- hatched a secret plan to name In August, a small group of ont Drive in Fremont. Over tions were inaccessibly stored the building for her husband donors and staff gathered the course of several months in Milpitas and, in its existing and Museum board chair with Donna and President and the building then underwent confi guration, the facility was Len Shustek in honor of his ceo John Hollar to unveil a systems upgrades and was out- reaching its maximum capacity. leadership of the Museum for mock-up of the Shustek Center, fi tted with new offi ce furniture, Clearly, it was time to acquire more than 20 years. Naturally, complete with dedicated park- lighting, and shelving. In De- a third building. Donna’s idea was well received ing for Len’s beloved Tesla. To cember, it was fi nally ready for Immediately following the and she personally began everyone’s delight, the covert collections and staff to move board’s approval in 2014 fundraising. In a few short plan was still a secret. Len was in! Registrars, archivists, and to purchase another prop- months, Donna had raised the visibly surprised and delighted professional movers packed erty, Trustee Donna Dubinsky majority of the capital needed. by the honor. boxes of archives and cartfuls By November, Vice President of artifacts from Mountain of Operations Gary Matsushita View and shifted pallets of identifi ed a possible East Bay boxed documents and software property. Several Collections from Milpitas. staff and trustees toured the By April 2016, several staff freshly painted offi ce building. had relocated to new offi ces. At 50,000 square feet, it was New acquisitions receiving larger than originally planned and cataloging operations but satisfi ed several require- also relocated to the Shustek ments: staff offi ces, a research Center, so several volunteers room, and a loading dock settled in to assist. For the for receiving new acquisi- fi rst time since the Museum tions, plus large open areas was established on the West where several exciting archives Coast, defi ned workspaces for processing projects could be collections processing properly achieved simultaneously. Con- equipped with large tables sidering future growth of the for sorting and packing plus archives and staff, the board’s a modern, dedicated scanning Finance Committee with ceo lab were fi nally established at John Hollar and cfo George the Shustek Center. Holmes confi rmed the pur- One of those defi ned spaces chase was a sound investment. is the Bernard L. Peuto Soft- In February 2015, the ware Preservation Lab. The Museum offi cially purchased Software Preservation Lab is the property at 48431 Milm- a dedicated laboratory where

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 19 software curator Al Kossow W. Mellon Foundation adminis- the papers of Adele Goldberg, processes and reads the Mu- tered by the Council on Library Esther Dyson, Jim Porter, and seum’s historical software col- and Information Resources Community Memory. Re- lections, in a variety of formats (clir), the Museum’s fi rst ma- searchers and museums have from paper tape and punched jor archives processing project quickly shown interest in these cards to magnetic disks and has been underway since April previously hidden materials. more. Once read, fi les are pre- 2015. Designed by Senior Without the elbow room served in the Museum’s digital Archives Manager Sara Lott to now available at the Shustek repository for long-term preser- signifi cantly reduce text and Center, the Museum could not vation. As a means of short- photographic backlog through simultaneously uncover the term preventive conservation, the widely employed archival archives most closely associ- all magnetic-, polyester-, and “more product, less process” ated with the software industry. acetate-based media, such as approach. The two-year project In an intensive one-year effort “mag tape” and photographic requires the efforts of two initiated with funds raised fi lms, will be physically stored full-time archivists and a small by the Museum’s Software in a new media vault where the army of volunteers to sort and Industry Special Interest Group, climate can be strictly regu- organize documents, transcribe an archivist is processing 50 lated. Mobile compact shelving identifi ers for the people and linear feet of documents, slides, maximizes space and houses places depicted in still images, and software and more than these materials. and create catalog records. 800 digital fi les. As with the As with software, accessibili- The largest collection is from clir grant, fi nding aids for ty to chm documents and imag- Digital Equipment Corpora- each minimally processed col- es is also continuously increas- tion (dec): nearly 700 boxes of lection are published on the ing. Of particular interest to text, 7 pallets of boxed moving Museum’s website, on the On- academics and hobbyists alike, images, and 19 four-drawer line Archive of California, and the Shustek Center’s Research fi ling cabinets of photographic on WorldCat via the National The Shustek Center provides Room is open by appointment prints and negatives. The dec Union Catalog of Manuscript study space for visiting schol- to anyone eager to delve into collection is one of 26 being Collections, where researchers ars and climate-controlled clir storage for the Museum’s digi- the Museum’s unique holdings. processed as part of the can easily locate the records via tal and archival collections. With funding from the Andrew grant, which also includes any search engine.

20 CORE 2017 Dedicated workspaces along- side digitization and scanning labs promote greater access and preservation of CHM’s CHM IN THE NEWS world-class collections. Here, Project Archivist Bo Doub studies a negative from the BY DAG SPICER Digital Equipment Corporation SENIOR CURATOR corporate photo library. As computer technology continues to spread around the world and into our daily lives, CHM has become a trusted source among the world’s media for factual accuracy and a global, long-term perspective on computing and its implications. Over the last year, CHM curators have responded to inquiries from dozens of journalists, editors, and media outlets, including the Guardian, the New York Times, NPR, Agence France-Presse, Voice of America, Travel Channel, Fast Company, USA Today, Popular Mechanics, Bloomberg, and many more. A few brief examples. Senior Curator Dag Spicer and Curator Hansen Hsu consulted on two articles on Chinese supercomputing for the scholarly journals Foreign Affairs and Foreign Policy. Curator Chris Garcia spoke about computing and the countercul- tural scene of the San Francisco Bay Area in the 1970s with the Financial Times. Additionally, Marc Weber, curatorial director of CHM’s Internet History Program, contributed to articles on internet history for the New York Times, the Guardian, and the Discovery Channel. Director of the Center for Software History David C. Brock also consulted with National Public Radio (NPR) on their “Market- place Tech” radio show about the future of Moore’s Law. Keeping abreast of the latest technologies and their roots in our past, CHM provides a unique perspective to the world’s media, linking today’s technologies to the histories of the people and institutions who made them happen. As the world continues to make sense of our rapidly changing world, CHM curators honor the role of history in their interviews as a guidepost to the present and the future. During the opening of the About the Shustek Center: CHM Media Interactions Foreign Affairs building in September 2016, The Shustek Center, located in KGO/CBS Foreign Policy Len recounted how he has al- California’s Silicon Valley, is the San Francisco Chronicle Voice of America ways eschewed naming spaces state-of-the-art research and stor- age facility of the Computer History Guardian San Jose Mercury News for himself. However, he grate- Museum (CHM). Established in USA Today Agence France-Presse fully accepts this dedication as 2015 and named for Museum Discovery Channel Popular Mechanics an honor to his family’s legacy founder and chairman Len Shustek, Fast Company The New York Times and its unusual name, about the Shustek Center houses the The Financial Times National Public Radio (NPR) which the genealogical research Museum’s acquisitions, archives, Travel Channel The Wall Street Journal he has done provides only a software preservation, and re- partial history. Whether for search operations. With study space family genealogy or computer for visiting scholars, climate-con- history, preservation of and trolled storage for digital and archi- access to archives is core to our val collections, artifact acquisitions receiving, and digitization worksta- ability to know our roots, and tions, the Shustek Center promotes benefi ts all of society. Thank greater access and preservation you to Len, Donna, and all the of CHM’s world-class collections. supporters who, through the Access by appointment only. creation of the Shustek Center, leave for all a great contribu- tion to the historical record.

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 21 EDUCATION DESIGNING A NEW SPACE FOR LEARNING A NEW ERA FOR EDUCATION AT CHM

BY LAUREN SILVER VICE PRESIDENT OF EDUCATION THE DIGITAL REPOSITORY AT CHM Later this year, the Museum live programs, from events will open a 3,000 square-foot BY ANDREW BERGER and research by our Center for SENIOR DIGITAL ARCHIVIST Education Center on the fi rst Software History and Expo- fl oor, directly adjacent to Make nential Center to public tours Launched in April 2015, CHM’s digital repository provides stable, Software: Change the World! and workshops for students, chm long-term storage for the Museum’s digital collections. It is This is a signifi cant milestone educators, and families, chm designed to meet the complex needs of CHM’s growing collec- in the evolution of as a is all about presenting, ques- tions, especially the moving image and software collections. world-class institution greatly tioning, and experiencing Data is stored in the form of archival packages, which can be re- advancing our educational transformational technologies, trieved by authorized users as needed. The system also includes mission to enable all people people, and ideas and their built-in monitoring capabilities that allow staff to check the to make personal connections impact on our lives. Since the status of the data. with the history of computing opening of Revolution: The In line with data storage best practices, the repository does and understand technology’s First 2000 Years of Comput- 2011 not have a single physical location but is spread across the role in shaping our world. ing in , public demand Museum’s main Shoreline campus and the Shustek Center in Every facet of the Education for these opportunities has Fremont. In terms of hardware, the repository consists of three Center will exemplify the grown signifi cantly, and our servers plus a tape backup system. Each server contains a collaborative, inquiry-based commitment to provide them redundant array of disks and uses a fi le system called ZFS, approach to teaching and has expanded accordingly. The which provides built-in protection against data corruption. learning that is the Museum’s decision to create a dedicated These multiple layers of redundancy mean that the repository strength and maximize op- space for educational activities never stores just one copy of the collection, which reduces the portunities for connected, is a natural extension of this risk that a failure of part of the system will result in permanent technology-rich, learner- commitment. data loss. The repository’s current capacity is approximately centered education that are the The fi eld of education is 114 TB and can be scaled up as needed. hallmarks of education in the undergoing radical change, 21 Ultimately, the goal of the repository is not just to provide stor- st century. much of it driven by comput- age, but to ensure that the Museum’s digital collections remain Fundamental to the Educa- ing, the effects of which are accessible into the future. tion Center is the Museum- not yet well understood. As wide recognition that learning an educational institution is at the heart of everything focused on the impact and we do. From exhibitions to implications of technology,

22 CORE 2017 COURTESY OF IDEO chm and experimentingwithnew ary boundaries,forexample, of “formal”education,wecan free ofthetypicalconstraints in ongoingdialoguesabout have animportantopportunity cannot—bridging disciplin- modes ofteaching andlearning take risksthatmostschools tions.” Asamuseum,wealso these contemporary“disrup- hasacriticalroletoplay without worryingaboutstan- of currentevents andissues, open-ended, andintrinsically advantages, however, comecer- dardized testresultsorhewing learning isinherentlysocial, lum requirements.With these choice” learning,itdemands motivated; oftentermed“free- that westayrelevant,aware tain responsibilities.Museum to externallyimposedcurricu- what criticaleye.We must age, ability, culturalback- of alllearners,regardless and abletoaddresstheneeds effectively, wemustalsostep living throughwithasome- back abitandapproachthe contextualize andinterpret ground, orinterest. these transformations fromthe sweeping changesweareall To contextualizehistory workstations. arena seatingandmodular model byIDEOincludes This early EducationCenter COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 23 IDEO designs promote a dy- perspective of what has come that history be integrated into fi rm ideo as a partner to help namic entry to the Education before and what we might be science, technology, engineer- develop the physical envi- Center from Make Software heading toward, and help oth- ing, and mathematics (stem) ronment. ideo is known for and a research lab that allows visitors a behind-the- ers do the same. Additionally, programs to help elucidate transforming business, technol- scenes look at teaching and as technology becomes more the origins and methods of ogy, and education through the learning in the Museum. deeply embedded in our lives, it contemporary stem inquiry application of their “design becomes increasingly important and practice, and their roles in thinking” methodology—a for chm to contribute to the the development of cultures.1 human-centered process that creation of a computationally Indeed, chm itself was founded focuses as much on the users literate global society. on this principle, as a resource of a space as on its structure. Computational literacy is for engineers to learn about the Over the course of several just beginning to be under- roots of their profession. weeks last fall, a team of de- stood, but we know that it goes As we move into the next signers immersed themselves beyond simply using computers phase of the Museum’s devel- in all facets of the Museum, and even beyond learning to opment, the Education Center learning about our culture and code. Rather, it encompasses will become a much-needed re- mission, exploring our realities skills and concepts that enable source for innovative programs, and constraints, and leading critical thinking about the tech- research, and partnerships that staff and community members nological tools we have at our will both broaden our reach in a series of collaborative exer- disposal and the ability to ap- and deepen our impact. One of cises meant to uncover previ- ply them in truly unique ways its most exciting features will ously unimagined possibilities. to arrive at creative solutions be the space itself. To benefi t What resulted was a design that for real-world issues. For these from the most up-to-date ex- utilizes the space in unexpected reasons, education researchers pertise in learning space design, ways, optimizing fl exibility,

and policymakers recommend we engaged the award-winning social interaction, and hands- OF IDEO COURTESY

24 CORE 2017 on learning. Mark Horton/Ar- practices related to comput- chitecture, with whom we have ing history and the ways in collaborated on many projects, which we learn with and about INTERACTIVE WORKSHOPS is in charge of making the ideo technology in our increasingly OFFER HANDS-ON LEARNING concept a reality, ensuring that connected world. As we are the Education Center will be fond of saying, we envision the beautiful, forward-thinking, Education Center as a new way BY STEPHANIE CORRIGAN and eye-opening. to bring the world into chm MANAGER OF SCHOOL & TEACHER PROGRAMS BY DAG SPICER It is important to note that and, through cutting-edge tech- SENIOR CURATOR we embarked upon this project nologies and expanded global with the intention to push our- relationships, to bring chm out What might autonomous vehicles look like in 2040? Can a selves out of our comfort zone, to the world beyond our walls. computer tell you if someone was in your room? How are pro- emphasizing experimentation We are excited for this next im- gramming languages like other forms of communication? These and risk-taking, and inviting in portant step and look forward are just some of the questions explored during hands-on work- new collaborators and receiv- to the new opportunities it will shops at CHM. Since the launch of Revolution in 2011, we’ve ing unexpected results—in afford for the Museum and our offered interactive workshops to school groups. In 2016 the effect, living the innovation communities in Silicon Valley Education team developed a new slate of offerings, broadening process that we explore in our and beyond. workshop themes and activities to include CHM’s newest exhibi- exhibitions and programs. Like tion, Make Software: Change the World!, and a range of important computing concepts. These new workshops expand options for the engineers whose work we About Education at CHM: collect, preserve, and present, Education enables people to make school groups and make it possible for families and non-school we became aware of a need, personal connections with the his- groups to participate as well. articulated a possible solution, tory of computing, broadening their Each workshop emphasizes critical thinking and incorporates and are now ready to imple- understanding of how technology the engineering design process and collaborative problem solving is transforming our world. Through ment; after opening, we will into its activities. The programs also highlight how an understand- innovative programming, research, evaluate, seek feedback, and ing of computer history can help us prepare for the future. In every and a dynamic interactive space, workshop, participants explore the Museum’s historic artifacts and iterate as needed to meet future Education at CHM allows visitors to work in groups to complete hands-on challenges. challenges. We believe this is dive deeply into the processes and Each workshop also has a different theme. One encourages an important process to share, outcomes of technological innova- as well: early conversations tion and provides opportunities for students to imagine and design computers of the future. Another with colleagues in universities, educators and scholars to develop, explores language as code, with computer programming languag- k–12 schools, museums, and test, and assess new ways of teach- es as just one of many forms of code that people use to communi- tech fi rms indicated that we ing about these ideas. Education cate. Still others use Raspberry Pi computers to explore the power could provide a great service by serves our diverse community, of software and to control different input and output devices. including K–college students and publicly sharing our experience. School workshops are available for students in grades 3–12 and teachers, families, global business Building on their enthusiasm, are a great option for classes looking for an interactive Museum leaders, and young entrepreneurs, experience. Workshops are also now offered for families on select we hired Scott Burg, senior to facilitate new experiences and weekends throughout the year and can be reserved by visiting the researcher at San Francisco– insights at the intersection of tech- Museum’s website. based consulting fi rm Rock- nology and learning. man et al., to document every phase of the process. Burg will 1 See “Chapter 6: Science Content measure the outcomes against Standards” in National Science our own internal goals and Education Standards (Washington, publish the results, allowing us DC: The National Academic Press, to learn from our experiments 1996), nap.edu/read/4962/chapter/8 and providing valuable insights and American Association for the Advancement of Science, Bench- for others who are interested marks for Science Literacy (New in how learning happens in a York: Oxford University Press, 1994), major educational institution. project2061.org/publications/bsl/. On every level, the Educa- tion Center is poised to affi rm the Museum’s position as a thought leader on issues and

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 25

Computers help us design safer cars, diagnose disease, and battle Orcs. They manage our business by day and enter- tain us at night. Smartphones can hail a cab, send a text, or play a tune. All thanks to software. Software enables computers, tablets, even appliances to touch and transform nearly every aspect of daily life. Our devices brim with extraordinary potential. Software unlocks that potential. On January 28, 2017, the Computer History Museum (CHM) opened its major exhibition on software, Make Software: Change the World! Enjoy this behind-the-scenes tour of Make Soft- ware with feature articles by Center for Software History Director David C. Brock and Vice President of Collections and Exhibitions Kirsten Tashev. The Museum’s ambitious new exhibition, Make Software: Change the World!, opened to the world at the start of 2017, but readers of Core were fi rst introduced to BY DAVID C. BROCK its themes and its stories in 2013. In an es- Where does the top news on “software” DIRECTOR, CENTER FOR say in that issue, Senior Curator Dag Spicer take you? It takes you literally everywhere, SOFTWARE HISTORY addressed “Why Software History Mat- geographically and culturally: An “Aus- ters.” In short, Spicer argues that software tralian cloud technology company” raises history matters because software itself mat- money from a New York City private eq- ters—it is inextricably bound to computing uity fi rm. MIT researchers make new code devices, it touches and shapes our lives for 3-d printing with mixed materials. A truly from life to death and is a human Russian fi rm takes a leap forward in facial creation fi lled with promise and peril. recognition software, amid worries about Software has a rich history, opening up and its use. Professors at Imperial College answering important questions about how London ponder how to best teach contem- computing has shaped our world. porary software development. Facebook There are as many ways to approach aims to take on Slack for business com- software history as there are ways in which munication and collaboration. Microsoft our contemporary world and lives are and Salesforce crow about their use of entangled with it. But one revealing way artifi cial intelligence in business software. to distill the story of software history is a Critics take aim at software-as-a-service as simple, two-word phrase: Software, Every- a panacea. Airport management software where. It’s catchy and easy to remember, made in Germany and used everywhere but what does it really mean? from Bahrain to Singapore, from Prague to To simply type the word “software” into Sydney, and from Athens to Zurich, fi nally the search box of Google News is a great arrives in the United States. The “Auto place to start. Here, a web browser (soft- industry heads into fi erce software race.” © 2015 THE FIFTH ORDER/JEFF HUANG. COMMISSIONED BY HARPER COLLINS. PHOTO COURTESY OF JEFF HUANG COURTESY BY HARPER COLLINS. PHOTO © 2015 THE FIFTH ORDER/JEFF HUANG. COMMISSIONED ware) relays the query (using elements of New software is released for comparing the operating system software and an isp’s the performance of other software that server software) to Google’s global net- drives scientifi c instruments at the heart of Visualization of MRI data ICE LIKE FIRE by software allows doc- work of data centers and their server soft- life sciences and synthetic biology research. tors to look inside the ware. The results from Google’s software Silicon Valley investors are now paying bodies of their patients, scouring of online news sources connected particular attention to the “game engines” while Photoshop serves as a new medium for to the word “software,” are relayed back at the heart of video and computer games, visual artists to express to the browser (through software), which which is a $100 billion global market. their creativity. the browser and other software render as a China is hailed as the new center of gravity

collection of news articles on the screen. for open source software. / RON LEVINE VIA GETTY IMAGES Because Africa is inadequately covered by the news media, type “software Africa” into Google News: the Wall Street Journal reports that the “Tech Talent War Moves to Africa,”as us fi rms seek software devel- opment workers in Africa. A South African startup uses an Android mobile app to diagnose hearing loss. Small- and medium- size businesses in East Africa increasingly into all aspects of society. Billions of these are using legal copies of software, as losses silicon computers are manufactured each mount from malware embedded in illegal and every year with only one purpose: copies. “Africa Code Week” is underway, to run software. The suffusion of silicon with coding instruction experiences for electronics and digital computing into our youth across the continent, sponsored by lives is exactly the process through which, German software giant sap. as Marc Andreessen has said, “software is Searches for news about “software Arctic” eating the world.” and “software Antarctic” even return re- Make Software: Change the World! sults. Facebook’s data center above the Arc- draws visitors in with compelling examples tic Circle takes advantage of the ambient of how software impacts their lives and temperatures for cooling its servers running those of other people across the globe— Crash simulation software Facebook’s services (software). Researchers from mobile banking by text messaging in helps engineers to design are now using software, instead of fi eld- Africa to the alternative reality of World safer cars. To validate work, to count Antarctica’s penguins. of Warcraft, in which millions of players these simulations, cars are fi xed with sensors This simple experiment reveals the extent engage worldwide; from simulation soft- before test crashes. to which software is now everywhere, geo- ware that helps engineers make cars graphically and culturally. People’s creation safer to imaging software that allows and use of software is now, directly or indi- doctors to peer inside of our bodies; and rectly, an integral part of education, work, from Wikipedia as a collective store of politics, entertainment, discovery, inven- people’s knowledge to Photoshop as a tion, and creativity. The story of “Software, powerful tool for creative visual works Everywhere” is nothing less than the story of incredible variety. of computing itself. Software is exactly that which computers do—no more, no less. As the technical and economic dy- namic of Moore’s Law has dramatically re- duced the cost of digital computing across the past half century, people have incor- porated digital computers—in the form of microprocessors and microcontrollers,

GAUTIER STEPHANE / ALAMY STOCK PHOTO STEPHANE / ALAMY STOCK GAUTIER most often embedded in other products—

29 BY KIRSTEN TASHEV VICE PRESIDENT OF MCOLLECTIONS & EXHIBITIONSAKIN

Make Software: Change the World! is a 6,000-square-foot exhibition, designed by fi rm Van Sickle & Rolleri, that explores the history, impact, and technology of software through seven game-changing applica- tions: Photoshop, MP3, MRI, Car Crash Simulation, Wikipedia, Texting, and World of Warcraft.

30 CORE 2017 MAKE SOFTWARE

An exhibition about the history of software. On fi rst blush, it sounds like one of the hardest exhibition topics of all time. Many years ago, at a museum conference, G I attended a session called “Exhibiting Challenging Topics.” The idea was that the audience would propose a list of dif- fi cult topics and the group of professionals would brainstorm solutions. People called out “the Holocaust” and “racism” and “photosynthesis.” I lifted my hand and said “the history of software,” to which there was an audible groan. Needless to say, it wasn’t chosen as one of the “diffi cult” topics to workshop. People tend to think museum exhibitions are about artifacts and physical objects, but there are plenty of museums without objects, like science centers. Ultimately museums are about storytelling and engag- ing visitors with different expertise and learning styles. I never really felt that an exhibition on the history of software was impossible. After all, artifacts are just one trick in the museum exhibition developer’s toolkit. The key is choosing stories that ignite visitors’ imaginations and creating an exhibition with multiple entry points— including text, images, media, interactive, and objects—if possible.

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 31 Fast forward to January 2017. chm story.” For these reasons, combined with opens a major exhibition about software: the Museum’s larger initiative to explore Make Software: Change the World! How the history of software, we decided to did this exhibition happen? shine a special light on software and create For years, the Museum has collected a groundbreaking exhibition. hardware and software. While the Mu- During this same time, the Museum’s seum’s permanent exhibition, Revolu- educational programming was taking off. tion: The First 2000 Years of Computing, The Education team developed compelling features many software stories, including stem-inspired programs for students and a software theater, for the most part, the families, including Design_Code_Build, 1,200 artifacts showcased in the exhibition a series of workshops for middle school carry Revolution’s story. And, for those students to see science, technology, engi- of us in Silicon Valley at least, artifacts = neering, and mathematics as an exciting hardware. Additionally, while developing adventure in which they can participate. the storylines for Revolution, the inter- The new software exhibition, Make pretive team found that the Museum’s Software: Change the World! is a natu- holdings were, for the most part, from the ral partner to the Museum’s educational technology creator’s perspective—who we programming, featuring storylines and call “makers.” In attempting to show the hands-on interactives that would appeal to impact of technology for the visitor, the middle school students, families, and tech team struggled to fi nd “user” stories in the enthusiasts alike. collection. Out of this came a commitment The Museum’s interpretive team was to collect a more rounded story about challenged to come up with an exhibition computing of both makers and users. In that would highlight the impact, technol- addition, an evaluation of Revolution after ogy, and history of software in fi ve to eight it opened revealed that our visitors wanted case studies (not covered in Revolution) to learn more about how technology demonstrating the breadth and depth of impacts their lives. We call this the “impact software’s impact on people’s lives. In The exhibition’s unique circular design, conceived by exhibit de- signer Dennis Van Sickle, encourages exploration while also creating unex- pected nooks that house multimedia interactives and provide further op- portunities for learning and discovery.

INTERACTING WITH SOFTWARE

BY EMILY ROUTMAN INTERPRETIVE PLANNER addition, the exhibition would appeal to Each story in Make Software: Change the The multimedia programs are built visitors of all ages and feature interactive World! includes a custom computer-based around authentic components inherent in and multimedia technology. interactive experience. Computer interac- the software stories, including real MRIs Before choosing case studies or software tives, also known as multimedia programs, and auto-industry crash test simulation to feature in the exhibition, the team can engage visitors in ways not possible models. The Photoshop interactive runs the developed goals and key messages. The with simpler media. Make Software’s multi- famously complicated software within an goals helped the team select seven software media programs put visitors in the role of easy-to-use interface. In some cases, the applications to feature out of the hundreds software makers and users, giving them programs are part of the story. For example, of options, while the key messages guided the ability to: Northwestern University professor Michael the storytelling and exhibition techniques. Horn created the “Frog Pond” interactive, • program a digital frog to catch bugs located in the exhibition’s Stata Family Soft- The goals of Make Software: Change in a lily pond, the World! are to explore the impact of ware Lab, as part of his research into mak- software on people’s lives, to illuminate the • pinpoint injuries on patients’ MRI images, ing programming accessible to kids. CHM relationship between software makers and • compare crash simulations with real car was also the fi rst organization to work with users, to demystify how software is made, crash tests, Google’s Blockly software, a highly intuitive and to reveal the history of software. The programming interface, which has since • edit themselves into a scene with key messages are what we want visitors taken off as a major software initiative with a famous person using Photoshop. to conclude from visiting the exhibition: broad applications in education. software has had a huge impact on the world, it has deep historical roots, creat- ing software is a complex process, and it is only limited by human imagination. People often ask, how do we decide what goes into an exhibition? The answer is one part analytical and the other part gut. With the above goals, key messages, and audiences in mind, the team made a list of software stories, organized them into categories, including software com- plexity and industry types, debated impact on society, and explored available assets. Making an exhibition is not just about goals, messages, didactic information, and storytelling, so we also rated our story

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 33 candidates for wonder, theatricality, humor, CAPTURING MAKE SOFTWARE ON SCREEN and playfulness. We talked to visitors, board members, donors, and friends to get their input. We set the following crite- BY JON PLUTTE ria: software-based breakthroughs from DIRECTOR OF MEDIA the 1980s onward, primarily to extend the storyline beyond Revolution, which It was a September evening not that long What Marc and I talked about was the concludes with a gallery about networking ago, and I sat at the Castle Pub in Notting breadth and quality of these interviews; and the web; impact on a large scale but Hill, London, with curator Marc Weber. how the people we met had really brought also affecting the average person; diverse As we drank our ales and ate fi sh and their stories to life; how interviewing people examples across industries; and dramatic chips, we talked about our European video who are passionate about their work is in- stories with emotional connections. interview trip. spiring to us as fi lmmakers, curators, and At the end of the day, we chose seven ap- We had already done several produc- storytellers; and how we hoped it would plication stories that represented different tive interviews in London: Jimmy Wales, inspire visitors to this new exhibition. types of software that had a wide variety of co-founder of Wikipedia; texting scholar As you watch the movies in Make Soft- impact on the world and organized them Caroline Tagg; and many Wikipedia editors ware: Change the World!, read the text on into three big-picture impact groupings: at the British Library. We had just made our the graphic panels, and look at the images, way to Nottingham to interview Sir Peter remember that this exhibition is current Mansfi eld, winner of a Nobel Prize for his history. Many of the creators are still alive, Perception & Reality: part in the invention of MRI. In a couple of captured in the fi lms throughout the exhibi- Photoshop and MP3 days we would fl y to Bonn, Germany, then tion. I have no doubt that the exhibition will drive to Ilmenau to interview Karlheinz spark passionate and interesting discourse, Life & Death: Brandenburg, inventor of the MP3. After my not just with scholars, but also with the ac- MRI and Car Crash Simulation departure, Marc would fl y to Kenya to in- tual creators of the software, and with you. Knowledge & Belonging: terview bankers, technologists, and Maasai Wikipedia, Texting, and World of Warcraft tribesmen about Kenya’s groundbreaking text-based banking system, M-Pesa.

To create consistency across the diverse application stories, we decided on three lenses through which we would explore each story: History, Technology, and Impact. Each story would feature graph- ics, object displays, a documentary fi lm about makers and users, and a hands-on interactive for a direct experience with the software. Some fun examples include, creating a selfi e with a famous person using Photoshop, listening to songs and guessing the audio format, diagnosing a patient by studying mris, exploring car crash simulations from different decades, and playing a Jeopardy-style game to learn about Wikipedia.

34 CORE 2017 Left to right: VP of Education Lauren Silver, CEO John Hollar, and VP of Collections and Exhibitions Kirsten Tashev commemorate the offi cial start of construction on Make Soft- ware, June 29, 2016.

In addition to the seven application to internalize software techniques. stories, we wanted to provide visitors Also included in the lab is a theater, an opportunity to explore software as a where a documentary fi lm made by the concept, outside of the specifi c application Museum follows a Silicon Valley company story. The idea for a software exploration making a software product over the course lab came from an earlier exhibit on com- of two years. We wanted to demystify how puter chess. This exhibit, which explored software is made and to demonstrate to the history of computer chess, included our audiences that software teams are a a few analog chessboards as an after- diverse mix of professionals and not just thought. We were surprised to fi nd visitors coders. We plan to add more documenta- playing chess in the exhibit for hours. It ries from different companies over time. underscored the power of interactivity Make Software: Change the World! and the need for visitors to internalize the introduces a new chapter in the Museum’s story through play. At the heart of Make quest to tell the amazing story of comput- Software: Change the World! is the Stata ing and to reach a broader audience. It is Family Software Lab. In the lab, visitors also a call to action. We hope that visitors explore programming basics through low- will see themselves in this dynamic rela- tech and touchscreen interactives using tionship between makers and users that is visual programming languages and blocks changing the world.

Members of CHM’s dedicated interpretive team at the entrance to Make Software, January 2017. Left to right: Jon Plutte, Max Plutte, German Mosquera, Marc Weber, Kirsten Tashev, John Hollar, Dag Spicer, Chris Garcia, Jenny De La Cruz, Vinh Quach, Ton Luong, and Ganna Boyko.

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 35 Adobe Photoshop 1.0, 1990 The fi rst version of Photoshop was only available for Apple Macintosh computers. Photoshop was a major improvement over renting custom image-editing computers, which could cost up to $300 an hour.

PERCEPTION & REALITY PHOTOSHOP

Picture Perfect? That gorgeous fashion model on the billboard? Not quite so gorgeous in person. The extraordinary science photo of our galaxy? The original was less dramatic. That Facebook picture of your brother-in-law golfi ng with the President? They’re not actually fairway buddies. From fashion spreads and fi lms to product packaging and news images, Photoshop helped transform our view of the world—and our trust in what we see.

CURATED BY DAG SPICER SENIOR CURATOR

Thomas (top) and John (bottom) Knoll

Display, ca. 1987 Display was the name of the image-editing program developed by Thomas and John Knoll before they renamed it Photoshop in 1988. © 1996–2007 BY JEFF SCHEWE: ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

36 CORE 2017 Evolution of the Photoshop toolbar With each new version, Photoshop adds new features to its creative toolkit, underscoring the evolution of the product itself. Key milestones include: Photoshop adapted for Win- dows (2.5), layers feature added (3.0), history palette added (5.0), Photoshop optimized for the web (5.5), and healing brush added (7.0). © ADOBE

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 37 July 1917 Columbia Records Catalog Before online music stores, record companies published catalogs with their upcoming offer- ings. Columbia Records released catalogs on the 20th of each month.

PERCEPTION & REALITY MP3 You Call the Tune Hear an intriguing new song? With a tap or click it’s yours—thanks partly to MP3s. By creating smaller audio fi les, MP3s helped make music instantly available and easily shared. You could download tunes from the in- ternet and fi t your collection on a pocket-size player. MP3s transformed music distribution, creating in- dustry winners and losers. But some questioned if we were sacrifi cing quality for convenience.

CURATED BY MARC WEBER CURATORIAL DIRECTOR, INTERNET HISTORY PROGRAM

Apple iMac “Rip. Mix. Burn.” advertisement, 2001 The 2001 Apple iMac featured iTunes, Apple’s new “juke- box” software. Users could build and manage their own music libraries and create their own CDs with the built- in CD-RW drive. © APPLE INC.

38 CORE 2017 Audio team in 1987 (Bran- denburg with headphones) While refi ning his MP3 code, Karlheinz Brandenburg heard Suzanne Vega’s hit “Tom’s Diner” playing on the radio. He realized that this a cappella song would be nearly impossible to com- press successfully. Nearly.

Album cover, “Tom’s Diner,” by Suzanne Vega

Tower Records, Portland, Oregon, 2006 MP3s gained popularity Pono Player, 2015 in the late 1990s as they spread over the growing internet. Digital music eventually put most brick-and-mortar music stores out of business.

AUDIO TEAM: COURTESY FRAUNHOFER IIS / TOWER STORE: BY CALDORWARDS4 AT ENGLISH WIKIPEDIA, GFDL 3.0, VIA WIKIMEDIA COMMONS AT BY CALDORWARDS4 STORE: FRAUNHOFER IIS / TOWER AUDIO TEAM: COURTESY Apple iPod (5GB), 2001

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 39 LIFE & DEATH MRI

Seeing Inside No knives. No blood. No sticking out your tongue and saying, “Ahhhhh.” Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) lets doctors look inside you safely and painlessly. It’s a uniquely detailed diagnostic tool, sensitive enough to detect a ripple of fl uid in the brain or the minute narrowing of a blood vessel—without using X-rays, which can be harmful. MRI technology blends physics, engineering, mathematics, biology, and medicine . . . all coordinated by software.

CURATED BY DAG SPICER SENIOR CURATOR

MRI whole body scan For centuries human anatomy remained a mystery. Public dis- sections and experiments were common, but yielded limited knowledge. Today, noninvasive medical imaging techniques, like MRI, enable doctors to learn what’s happening inside our bod- ies without cutting into them. SIMON FRASER/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY SIMON FRASER/SCIENCE PHOTO

40 Sir Peter Mansfi eld, 2003 Nobel Prize (shared) MRI evolved over decades, beginning in 1937 with Isidor Ra- bi’s discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance. In the 1970s, Paul Lauterbur and Peter Mansfi eld independently suggested apply- ing precise variations in a second, “gradient,” magnetic fi eld to pinpoint resonating molecules.

Modern MRI machine PHOTO/SANG TAN PHOTO/SANG

OsiriX DICOM image viewer

Isidor Isaac Rabi, 1944 Nobel Prize

Brain MRIs MRI captures 3-D pictures of an area, like your brain, by imaging different layers, called anatomical planes. The three basic anatomical planes are axial (top to bottom), coronal (front to back),

MRI: PHOTO BY KEN GLASER VIA MEDIA BAKERY / MODERN MACHINE: © SIEMENS HEALTHINEERS 2016. USED WITH PERMISSION. / MANSFIELD: AP 2016. USED WITH PERMISSION. © SIEMENS HEALTHINEERS BY KEN GLASER VIA MEDIA BAKERY / MODERN MACHINE: MRI: PHOTO LIBRARY INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS/SCIENCE PHOTO RABI: EMILIO SEGRE VISUAL ARCHIVES/AMERICAN and sagittal (left to right).

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 41 John Hallquist, 2014 John Hallquist is the creator of the earliest crash test software, LS-DYNA (originally called DYNA3D). He left Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in 1987 to start his own company, Livermore Software Technology Corporation.

LIFE & DEATH CAR CRASH SIMULATION

Simulating Safety Would you volunteer to drive into a brick wall? Probably not, which is why computer simulations are crucial to auto safety. Comparison of simulated and physical crash test results of VW Polo simulation, 1986 Software lets engineers run crash tests inside computers rather than on roads. It also allows them to compare the performance of different designs early in the process while cars are still on the drawing board, saving money and injuries.

CURATED BY DAG SPICER SENIOR CURATOR

Car crash simulation using LS-DYNA software, 2016 This virtual car simulation, shown in the program LS-DYNA, shows the fi nite element method “mesh” cover- ing the car. Each point in the mesh represents a series of calculations. PHOTO BY JULIE RUSSELL/LAWRENCE LIVERMORE NATIONAL LABORATORY / COURTESY OF VOLKSWAGEN AG & ESI GROUP / & ESI GROUP / AG OF VOLKSWAGEN / COURTESY LABORATORY LIVERMORE NATIONAL BY JULIE RUSSELL/LAWRENCE PHOTO CORPORATION TECHNOLOGY OF LIVERMORE SOFTWARE COURTESY UNIVERSITY, 2012. IMAGE MODEL BY GEORGE WASHINGTON CAR

42 CORE 2017 Real and simulated crash test. Simulation performed on Cray supercomputer.

Engineer using DAC-1 at GM Research Laboratories, 1966 In 1964 General Motors and IBM announced the DAC-1 computer- aided design system for cars. The system acted as an elec- tronic sketchpad and controlled a milling machine to produce a physical model. CRASH TEST: CRAY RESEARCH INC. / COURTESY OF GENERAL MOTORS / DAC-1 COURTESY OF GENERAL MOTORS COURTESY / DAC-1 OF GENERAL MOTORS RESEARCH INC. / COURTESY CRASH TEST: CRAY

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 43 KNOWLEDGE & BELONGING Wikimedia project lapel pins, 2015 WIKIPEDIA

The Answer Place Wikipedia needs no in- troduction, which in itself is a kind of introduction, acknowledging its global role as our go-to informa- tion source. The collection of online encyclopedias—with editions in more than 200 major languages—is the internet’s sixth most visited site, drawing more eyeballs than eBay, Amazon, or Twitter. It’s the only top website Jimmy Wales, December 1, 2006 that’s noncommercial, open source, and, most important, created by users . . . and edited by anyone.

CURATED BY MARC WEBER CURATORIAL DIRECTOR, INTERNET HISTORY PROGRAM

Wiki-Wiki airport bus, January 25, 2007 Wiki inventor Ward Cunningham learned the Hawaiian word for “quickly”—wiki—when he took the airport bus in Honolulu. It struck him as the perfect name for his new, instant collaboration system: WikiWikiWeb.

44 CORE 2017 Five pillars of Wikipedia When Jimmy Wales and Sanger launched Wiki- pedia as a way to quickly crowd-source rough articles for Nupedia, Sanger came up with core principles that would later be formalized as the “fi ve pillars” of Wikipedia. PAGE: PILLARS: WIKIPEDIA, THE FREE ENCYCLOPEDIA, ACCESSED AUGUST 16, 2016 ACCESSED PILLARS: WIKIPEDIA, THE FREE ENCYCLOPEDIA, PAGE:

Barnstar Within the community of Wikipedia editors, barnstars serve as commen- dations for important service. They echo traditional iron stars on early American barns built—like Wikipe- dia—with community labor.

Wikipedia University T-shirt, ca. 2016 OPPOSITE: JIMMY WALES: AP PHOTO/STEVE NESIUS / BUS: BY ANDREW LAING (WIKI-WIKI!!!), CC BY-SA 2.0, VIA WIKIMEDIA COMMONS THIS AP PHOTO/STEVE OPPOSITE: JIMMY WALES:

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 45 GSM meeting endorsing SMS proposal, Oslo, Norway, 1985 The project to agree on a Europe-wide digital mobile phone standard, GSM, involved telephone compa- KNOWLEDGE & BELONGING nies from around Europe meeting over a number of years. The SMS working TEXTING group was one small part of that gigantic effort.

The Triumph of Texting Texting is as fl exible as email, as immediate as a call, and as close as the computer in your pocket. Those features make it popular worldwide. In the developing world, however, texting (Short Message Service, or SMS) plays an additional role as an “alternate internet.” Three billion largely poor or rural users depend on SMS to transfer money, fi nd jobs, connect to social networks, and more.

CURATED BY MARC WEBER CURATORIAL DIRECTOR, INTERNET HISTORY PROGRAM

Safaricom’s M-Pesa agent in Nairobi, Kenya, August 17, 2015

46 CORE 2017 Message in Arabic Chat Alphabet, Ericsson NH97 NMT cell phone, “How are you doing with your studies?” Sweden, early 1990s Early phones supported only the Latin alphabet. So, speakers of non-Latin languages, like Arabic, got creative by mixing numbers and Latin letters.

Motorola digital phone, early 1990s F MARC WEBER/TRANSLATION VIA WIKIPEDIA, THE FREE ENCYCLOPEDIA F MARC WEBER/TRANSLATION

T-Mobile myTouch 875

Blackberry 7230, 2003

Western Union telegram, April 28, 1931 Telegrams were expensive, and paid by the word. This encouraged a terse, “tele- graphic” style. With code- books, like The Adams, you could send a whole phrase for the price of a word. OPPOSITE: GSM: COURTESY OF FRIEDHELM HILLEBRAND / M-PESA: IMAGE COURTESY OF VODAFONE GROUP THIS PAGE: ARABIC CHAT: COURTESY O COURTESY ARABIC CHAT: GROUP THIS PAGE: OF VODAFONE COURTESY OF FRIEDHELM HILLEBRAND / M-PESA: IMAGE OPPOSITE: GSM: COURTESY

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 47 KNOWLEDGE & BELONGING WORLD OF WARCRAFT

A Place to Play Every day, people around the globe head to the same place to meet friends, test their mettle, and have fun. And it’s a place that doesn’t even exist. World of Warcraft’s virtual realm boasts more people than Sweden. It earns $2 billion annually in subscrip- tions, outperforming many small nations. And this extraordinarily compelling, popular, profi table world is entirely a creation of soft- ware code.

CURATED BY CHRIS GARCIA CURATOR

Statue of Thrall, ca. 2002 Thrall, orc leader of the chaotic Horde and wielder of “Doomhammer,” is one of the most recognizable characters in World of Warcraft. He fi rst appeared in the 2002 game Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos.

48 CORE 2017 Warcraft: Orcs & Humans, 1994

Wedding invitation and custom coins, 2013

“Those Who Couldn’t Be Saved,” WoW: Legion, 2016

Sam “Samwise” Didier, Senior Art Director, Blizzard Teams of artists and musicians work behind-the-scenes to create the look, feel, and sound of World of Warcraft. Pencil sketches BlizzCon 2014, Day 1 and symphony orchestras blend seamlessly with computer- generated art and digital music.

World of Warcraft expansions, 2007–2016 Blizzard’s expansions of World of Warcraft have allowed the game to remain fresh, advancing the central storyline, introduc- ing new quests, and allowing players to

ORCS & HUMANS AND BLIZZCON: COURTESY OF BLIZZARD ENTERTAINMENT INC. / LEGION: MEDIEVALDRAGON INC. / LEGION: MEDIEVALDRAGON OF BLIZZARD ENTERTAINMENT ORCS & HUMANS AND BLIZZCON: COURTESY INC. DECEMBER 13, 2015/© BLIZZARD ENTERTAINMENT VIA WARCRAFT.BLIZZPLANET.COM, experience new levels.

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 49 Page from Harvard Mark II logbook, September 9, 1947 In 1947 a young programmer named Grace Hopper discovered a moth trapped inside the Harvard Mark II computer. She recorded the error and taped the bug into the computer’s logbook, shown here. Software errors have been called “bugs” ever since.

STATA FAMILY SOFTWARE LAB

What is Software? Computers have the poten- tial to do wondrous things. But actually doing them? That needs software. Software transforms general-purpose machines into useful tools, providing instructions that tell them what to do and how to do it. These instructions might be simple or complex, long or short, depending on the task. Programmers write software in various com- puter “languages,” which use different ways to tell the computer what to do.

Frog Pond Northwestern University professor Michael Horn created the “Frog Pond” interactive to make pro- gramming accessible to kids. CHM was also the fi rst organization to work with Google’s Blockly software. Visitors can experience the Frog Pond and Blockly in

the Stata Family Software Lab. PHOTO US NAVY LOGBOOK:

50 CORE 2017 Lines of code visualization

MAC OS “TIGER” 85 MILLION

FACEBOOK 61 MILLION

MS OFFICE 2013 44.5 MILLION

BOEING 787 14 MILLION

PHOTOSHOP 10 MILLION

LS-DYNA 3D 9 MILLION

GOOGLE CHROME 7 MILLION

MRI 7 MILLION

WORLD OF WARCRAFT 5.5 MILLION

WIKIPEDIA 490,000

MP3 88,000

TEXTING 50,000

Agile method

PROJECT START

REQUIREMENTS DESIGN

EVALUATION IMPLEMENTATION

TESTING

MAINTENANCE VERSION OF PRODUCT

Waterfall model

REQUIREMENTS

LOGO programming on Apple II, ca. 1980 DESIGN

IMPLEMENTATION

TESTING FINAL PRODUCT

MAINTENANCE LOGO: IMAGE MADE BY EMULATION. IMAGE LOGO:

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 51

SEARC RE

> The Computer History Museum (CHM) is committed to exploring the forces of change that computing in all its forms has unleashed. The re- search conducted by the Museum illuminates the transformation of computing in the world, analyz- ing its history, impact, and future technological, societal, and economic implications. Gain unique insight into computing’s transformation with this rich selection of articles. First, historian and author John Markoff paces us through the Silicon Valley race to put comput- ing in your pocket. Next, Marc Weber, curato- rial director of CHM’s Internet History Program, explores digital preservation in a case study about the Museum’s software initiative, with a special focus on web and networking history. Finally, curator Hansen Hsu reveals the secret history of Objective-C, the programming language that powers nearly all of Apple’s major products, from the iPhone to the iPad, but whose origins reside in a small startup called Stepstone.

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RESEARCH& INSIGHTS@ CHM

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from magic.” from of Apple’s Macintosh project, a romantic crusade by a a by crusade romantic a project, Macintosh Apple’s of

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have fulfilled Arthur C. Clarke’s dictum that “any “any that dictum Clarke’s C. Arthur fulfilled have Valley ideal that went beyond either computer hacking hacking computer either beyond went that ideal Valley

, smartphones smartphones , in introduced was iPhone the since conspirators, and they shared a passion for a Silicon Silicon a for passion a shared they and conspirators, 2007

that they are taken for granted. In the almost decade decade almost the In granted. for taken are they that They were friends, enemies, competitors, and co- and competitors, enemies, friends, were They

supercomputers and tablets—are now so ubiquitous ubiquitous so now tablets—are and supercomputers Valley’s culture. culture. Valley’s

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defined by four efforts—Apple’s Newton, the General General the Newton, efforts—Apple’s four by defined office cubicle in Mountain View, California. California. View, Mountain in cubicle office

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P O However, until the mid-1980s, Silicon Valley had A similar thought hit Jerry Kaplan, an artificial been principally driven by the idea of desktop personal intelligence researcher who was then the chief technol- computing. It was an idea that emerged from the ogy officer of Lotus Development Corp., on a flight three computer science research laboratories that had aboard Lotus founder Mitch Kapor’s corporate jet. been established around Stanford University in the Kapor had an unwieldy “luggable” Compaq Com- 1960s and 1970s. puter, and he was entering information from an array There had been early outliers. Computer scientist of yellow sticky notes that were plastered everywhere. Alan Kay, who began demonstrating a mockup of a The idea of “pen computing” was an obvious one. tablet computer he described as a “Dynabook” begin- Soon thereafter Kaplan founded Go Corp. and eventu- ning in the late 1960s was first. His insight broke from ally ran the company into an epic clash with Micro- the original concept that Doug Engelbart and j. c. r. soft—which he lost. Licklider had shared in the early 1960s. They had But the idea of a handheld device with the power of conceived of a computer that would be something that a personal computer was taking deep root all over the you would use to “drive” through the network world, Valley beginning in the late 1980s. At Apple it led to which had then not yet been named cyberspace by sci- political intrigue as chief executive officer John Sculley ence fiction author William Gibson. In contrast, Kay attempted to sort out all of the competing ideas. The was the first to grasp the concept that computing was Pocket Crystal group, including Porat, talented engi- instead a universal “media” in its own right and that it neers like Rubin and Steve Perlman, and Mac software in turn would transform all other media—the printed veterans Bill Atkinson and Andy Hertzfeld, were word, sound, and video. ushered out the door to form General Magic. The Yet Kay envisioned a slate computer that would be company set out to build Porat’s handheld communi- mocked up in Apple’s famous Knowledge Navigator cator but never succeeded. video in 1987. It would take one more step to move Inside Apple another young engineer, Paul Mercer, computing from the lap to the palm of your hand. had begun building his own prototypes of handheld That shift emerged steadily during the late 1980s. One devices merged with Macintosh software. He gave of the people who drove it was a young former Palo them code names like “Swatch” and “Rolex.” Sepa- Alto political activist, Marc Porat, who stumbled upon rately, Steve Sakoman brought his experience inside Daniel Bell’s The Coming of Post-Industrial Society in Hewlett Packard’s calculator division and came to the Stanford University library. He decided he could Apple with the idea of the Newton after a brief flirta- put Bell’s rambling ideas into practice. His doctoral tion with Kapor and Go. Mercer’s efforts were shelved dissertation coined the phrase “information economy.” and he joined the Newton project. Later he would Then he took his ideas a step further. Not a tech- leave Apple and start Pixo, a small software develop- T nologist in any sense of the word, in 1988 he brought ment effort. Tony Fadell would use the Pixo software the notion of a “Pocket Crystal” to Apple and became to help develop the original iPod. a crusader for the idea inside the company. He had It soon became a deluge. been thinking deeply about the idea of an information Although women were largely absent, there were no- economy for more than a decade, and before arriving table exceptions. Donna Dubinsky left Apple’s Claris at Apple, he sat one day in Café Un Deux Trois on subsidiary in 1991 and the following year co-founded G 44 th St. near Times Square and drew three overlapping Palm Computing with Jeff Hawkins. And in the New- circles on a sheet of paper. One was labeled con- ton Project, Donna Auguste, a uc Berkeley–educated tent, another was communications, and a third was engineer became a key member of the team. computing. It was an epiphany that computing would They were part of what would become Silicon provide an information utility you would hold in your Valley’s most important generation. Collectively they E hand. It would be a “Pocket Crystal.” Soon thereafter sensed that computing was something that would liter- he would take the idea to Larry Tesler who was run- ally disappear. A decade later the iPod and the iPhone ning Apple’s Advanced Technology Group. would be the first two consumer devices to success- Similar ideas were bubbling up all over Silicon Val- fully embody the ideal. Silicon Valley was on its way ley. The idea of handheld computing took hold among to what Xerox parc computer scientist Marc Weiser the young generation engineers who had grown up in had identified as “ubiquitous computing”—a world in the wake of the introduction of the Macintosh, and which computing literally disappeared into everyday simultaneously elsewhere in the Valley. objects—and they would become magical.

56 CORE 2017 T AIGSOFTWARE EATING

BY MARC WEBER CURATORIAL DIRECTOR, INTERNET HISTORY PROGRAM THE NET IS EATING // SOFTWARE >

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 57 NE ARE

> When you put something online, will it be: and documented with a set of easily collectible manu- als. For newer software, the “system requirements” to a) Saved forever run are no longer a single machine or even a single b) Erased faster than you can say company’s network but an entire warehouse-size data “merger and acquisition” center with its hundreds of racks of interconnected c) Saved forever if an embarrassing photo, servers, all in various changing states of upgrades deleted if it really matters and relationships with each other and with services from yet other data centers. Social sites and services d) All of the above add another level of complexity. Even when preserved OFTW they are nearly meaningless without interaction from Many people assume a), that anything they put online live users. will be “automagically” saved for all time, from a A small but telling sign of this cloudward migration

S school paper to Instagram photos. Others, often those is within the Museum’s major new exhibition on the with professional experience in digital preservation, social role of software: Make Software: Change the cynically assume b), that almost nothing will survive, World! When colleagues and I began curating it fi ve especially for commercial sites that could be bought years ago, four of the seven galleries were about net- out anytime. c) is just my personal conviction. worked software: mp3, Wikipedia, Texting, and World The correct answer is d), all of the above, since of Warcraft. Today it’s fi ve out of seven. Photoshop— some bits of information out of the gazillions we gen- which had been a standalone package since its start erate each day will follow each of the three scenarios. in the 1980s—can now only be bought with a yearly The only certainty is that what gets preserved will be license, renewed and downloaded from the cloud. Be- less than most people think. The results will also be yond the exhibition, venerable packages like Microsoft more uneven than preservation has been in the age of Word are moving toward the same model. And newer paper. That’s because the units that people routinely software, like the cloud-based crm software pioneered decide to keep or toss are no longer a book or even a by Salesforce, often starts online. fi ling cabinet. Today, information is lost or (occasion- The new exhibition is part of a major new three-part ally) saved in great gulps, like the hundreds of millions emphasis on software at chm. For exhibits, there is of virtual pages that make up an interconnected web- Make Software, plus temporary exhibits like the one site or cloud-based service. we hosted last summer around GeoCities. All 38 mil- When I started the Internet History Program at lion user pages on this leading social site of the 1990s chm eight years ago, the issues described above were were scheduled for deletion, until hacker archivists mostly confi ned to the online world—the web and the and the Internet Archive managed to save a substantial internet.i Much software was still sold in standalone portion at the 11th hour. packages,pa like the cds you would take home and Curatorially, we’re building on over a decade of installst on your computer. Commercial software was work around both standalone and networked soft- oftene a scaled-up version of the same idea. it depart- ware with a new Center for Software History. But mentsn would install a particular software package on most important of all, we are massively expanding our the fi rm’s computers and then back up the resulting digital repository to preserve even more software and datata on tape. data of all kinds. To really understand the issues at ButB today, once-standalone software, from word stake, it helps to step back a few thousand years. processingpr to payroll systems, is melting in a cloud of “software as a service” and other highly networked The Ourobouros Effect applications. This means the kinds of problems once Transitions to new society-wide media make for inter- confi ned to studying and preserving the online world esting times. Homer is a kind of last gasp preserved are expanding to envelop nearly everything we do on in amber of the oral tradition in ancient Greece; ditto computers. No longer do software packages come out with Gilgamesh for Sumeria. As ancient bards died out at intervals stamped with meaningful version numbers without successors, written records became the only

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form in which some of the old tales lived on. But those Today’s online world may be the fi rst technological eras had the advantage of moving from a volatile medi- revolution that, if it fully succeeds, can erase um to a more durable one—in the case of clay tablets, much of its own history by transferring it to a perish- to one that can get even more permanent when baked able medium. by fi res! Much of what we know of the ancient Near Modern correspondence has already gone missing East comes from the contents of libraries and archives from an archival point of view, yesterday’s durable razed in war—tens of thousands of tablets to date. letters transmuted into a vaporous cloud of rarely We are now moving the other way, from the per- preserved emails, texts, and chat. Routine documents, manent to the ephemeral. In fact, we might compare from meeting reports to proposals to résumés and digital media to an oral tradition. Paper can last for presentations, have also gone digital. Magazines are centuries. It needs to be actively destroyed. As a result well on their way. Books are next. it often gets saved by accident, in attics and basement We aren’t just losing information shared between fi le cabinets. It also sticks around long enough for people. Many of the great machines that have traditional archiving procedures, the ones we’ve devel- powered the information revolution of the past 50 oped over the fi ve millennia of writing. years are fading like snow in spring rain. We call those By contrast, digital fi les and oral traditions alike machines software. need to be actively preserved. Unless they get regularly Older machines either survived or didn’t. The Lon- re-copied to new media, whether hard disks or the don Science Museum’s vaults are fi lled with fantastic minds of young apprentices, they simply disappear. gizmos from the Crystal Palace exhibition of 1851. As more and more information goes digital—fi rst The physical husks of today’s digital machines often software, now email, and journalism, and books, with get preserved too—the hardware. But functionally more to come—what will happen? There’s a possible that’s like a watch museum full of empty watch cases. precedent. Our records of the transition from writing Computers are, by defi nition, “universal machines,” so back to an oral tradition after the fall of the Roman named because their hardware is just a general player Empire are very poor. That’s why we call that period for the real machinery—the code that they execute! the Dark Ages. It doesn’t mean they felt dark at the And that has rarely been saved. time. In 700s France you probably had a keen sense of A modest silver lining is that with digital preserva- current events and their ties to the past, all via word of tion, small efforts have an outsized impact. Because mouth, as we do from Twitter feeds, blogs, and Face- digital media is so effi cient in terms of both cost book today. But that unwritten record is gone. and storage capacity, some can be nearly as easy to There’s little reason to hope the early years of our preserve as they are to destroy. While there are a few new online world will fare much better. technical issues around incompatible preservation for- Of course, society will eventually fi gure out how mats, and re-copying data to new media every decade to preserve the digital bits it really wants. For many or so, institutions like the Internet Archive worked fi elds, whether insurance or art history, the awkward out practical solutions back in the 1990s. One person transition period we’re living through will just be taking home the right box of tapes or disks can easily some spotty gaps in a larger arc. But for the study and save a city library’s worth of material, or software the history of online systems and connected software, equivalent to a warehouse full of machinery. But it will these early events are as important, and singular, as take time to integrate digital preservation into routine the Crucifi xion is for Catholics, or the Revolution for procedures, a luxury many digital artifacts can’t afford. American history. To lose them is to orphan the fi eld. It will also take will. The problems with preserving The Ouroboros is the name for the ancient symbol cloud-based material are mostly not technical, but of a snake with its own tail in its mouth. While usually about who has control. With standalone software, seen as a symbol of renewal or cyclical replenishment, customers physically possessed both the program they the snake is shown actually eating itself. had bought and the data generated with it. With soft- ware as a service, they often have neither. A download ////// of a customer’s own data can be meaningless without

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 59 FTWARE SOF TH

Hierarchy of Digital “Preservability” for Software

the exact version of cloud-based software it needs to run. Even the apps “on” our phones are merely a cute interface 1 SOURCE CODE PRINTED ON PAPER to the main software on a server somewhere. The result? If tomorrow’s software is to be meaningfully 2 SHRINK-WRAPPED CONSUMER SOFTWARE, preserved, the institutions that make and host it need to MULTIMEDIA CD-ROMs be a big part of the process. That will require a tectonic shift in the way the industry has evolved so far. Otherwise, 3 SHRINK-WRAPPED PROFESSIONAL SOFTWARE future researchers will be mostly left with some screen- AND SYSTEM SOFTWARE shots, descriptions, and video of the software in action. That last resort has already been reached by scholars of 4 PUNCHED CARDS virtual worlds. It’s ironic that just as scholars and others are waking 5 STANDALONE ENTERPRISE SOFTWARE up to the importance of software and starting to get their minds around what it is, how to study it, how it relates to SIMPLE WEBSITES 6 society and to technology, the thing itself is morphing and slipping from our grasp. LOCALLY NETWORKED SOFTWARE 7 Arthur C. Clarke’s story “History Lesson” tells of a COMPLEX AND SOCIAL WEBSITES distant future where aliens fi nd the only remaining relic 8 of human art or literature—Mickey Mouse movies. Their 9 CLOUD SOFTWARE AND DATA archeologists take the animated movies as fact and spend centuries painstakingly extrapolating an entire way of life based on a race of cute rodents with a propensity for madcap escapades and violence. Today, standalone computer games are the only class of software that is routinely well preserved. Life may yet imitate art.

Portions of this article were previously published in a slightly different form in Information and Culture, and shall be published in Webs, a forthcoming book by the author from Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin’s Press.

About the Internet History Program: The Internet History Program at the Computer History Museum (CHM) records the history of the online world, including the web, the internet, and H mobile data. Launched in 2009, it is one of the fi rst general programs in this area by a major historical institution. The pro- gram addresses networking as both a technical invention and a new mass medium with a growing role in society. Its main work includes growing CHM’s world-class collection of networking history materials, scholarly activities, developing public events, D and curating both permanent and temporary exhibits related to the online world. Curatorial Director Marc Weber has researched the history of the web since 1995 and co-founded two of the fi rst organizations in the fi eld. The program works with CHM staff, trustees, and outside advisors with special expertise in networking, including P many pioneers. It collaborates with peer institutions worldwide.

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BY SALESFORCE.COM (SALESFORCE.COM) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (CREATIVECOMMONS.ORG/LICENSES/BY-SA/3.0)], VIA WIKIMEDIA COMMONS preserved bytheInternetArchive. pages, tensofmillions ofwhichare heyday. Itwould reach 38million visitors toGeoCitiesinits1990s This cheerfulwelcome pagegreeted ware behindthosepages. the proprietary dataandsoft- since 1996,itoftencan’tsave preserved basicweb pages While theInternetArchive has I S SO corporate software up suck traditional Salesforce.com helped into “thecloud.” COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM NET NET 61

STORY STORY

BY HANSEN HSU > CURATOR, CENTER FOR SOFTWARE HISTORY

A SHORT C HISTORY OF OBJECTIVE-C

62 CORE 2017 HI

To date, users have downloaded over 140 billion apps invoke “methods” (perform actions). The methods First licensed by Step- > 1 stone to NeXT for the to their iPhones. The iPhone’s success is tied to its invoked were selected “dynamically,” that is, while the company’s NEXTSTEP ecosystem of third-party apps. When the App Store de- program was running. Thus, a Smalltalk program can operating system, buted in 2008, all apps were written in a programming modify itself in real-time, in response to user input. Objective-C would later language that few outside the Apple community had Cox saw enormous productivity advantages in a power Apple’s OS X and iOS operating systems. ever used: Objective-c. Since then, Objective-c’s usage language like Smalltalk. He imagined that it would has exploded in a gold rush of developers making apps. allow him and Love to create libraries of objects that Although Apple introduced its new Swift language could be mixed and matched like Legos. Rather than in 2014, most of Apple’s ios operating system is still having to write everything from scratch, a program- written in Objective-c, so it will be on Apple devices mer could use existing, or “prefabricated,” objects to for years to come. rapidly create a new program. Cox envisioned a future While most programmers discovered Objective-c in which object libraries would be bought and sold, only during the iPhone app revolution, Objective-c has ushering in a software industrial revolution with these been around for over 30 years. Objective-c has been “interchangeable” parts. the foundation of Apple’s desktop operating system, Smalltalk, however, had several drawbacks. It was Mac os x, since its debut in 2001, and was also the slow, it was Xerox’s technology, and it required all basis for nextstep—os x’s immediate ancestor—cre- programs written in it to run in a special environment. ated by Steve Jobs’ next Computer Inc. However, Cox and Love were committed to using Bell Labs’ Objective-c was created neither by Apple nor next. unix, a relatively open system, with a large existing Its origin was a small Connecticut startup in the early base of programs written in c. c was a language that 1980s called Stepstone. made for fast, effi cient programs. Cox came up with Objective-c’s early history and later evolution at the idea to marry Smalltalk’s object-oriented ideas with next are not well known, and there are very few avail- c and published this work in a 1983 paper, calling it able sources. At chm, we recently acquired an essay the Object-Oriented Precompiler (oopc). Cox inten- on the “History of Objective-c,” co-written by Brad tionally made it as simple as possible, thinking of it as Cox and Steve Naroff, submitted to the third History a “soldering gun” that would weld object-oriented pro- of Programming Languages Conference in 2007, but gramming onto c. Cox contrasted this with Bell Labs’ never published. I have also conducted an oral history new language c++, which also combined c and object- with Cox, the language’s initial creator, and with oriented programming, but in a much more complex Blaine Garst, a next engineer who later contributed way, which Cox compared to a fabrication plant. to Objective-c. These sources, in addition to an earlier After encountering resistance at itt, and a brief pe- interview I conducted with Naroff, are the basis for riod at Schlumberger, Love and Cox started their own the following history. company to bring these ideas to market, originally The ideas that led to Objective-c originated in a divi- called Productivity Products International, and later sion of International Telephone and Telegraph (itt), Stepstone. Cox rewrote the oopc with a new compiler where Tom Love and Brad Cox were looking for ways and renamed the language Objective-c. Neverthe- to improve the productivity of programmers. In 1981 less, it still involved a translation of Objective-c code a special issue of Byte magazine described a revolu- into regular c code. Love specifi ed some aspects of tionary new programming language, Smalltalk, that its design, including the decision to make it a hybrid had been developed by Alan Kay’s team at Xerox parc. language with two conceptual levels, with higher-level Smalltalk represented a radically new way to think object-oriented code literally bracketed off from proce- about creating programs, which Kay called “object- dural c code by square bracket characters. oriented.” Rather than write a program as a series With the company’s focus on selling object librar- of actions (“procedures”), which take data as inputs, ies written using Objective-c, Cox shifted his focus to a program would be re-oriented around the data these libraries. Stepstone also licensed the Objective- itself, grouped together inside “objects.” Smalltalk c language to customers, many of whom asked for envisioned programs as collections of objects, which changes or new features. Cox hired a group to handle would send messages to each other, causing them to the development of the language, and it began to add

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 63 BJECTIVE-C OB -C

features like garbage collection and an interpreter. network. Protocols were later incorporated into Java, These were underway when Stepstone’s object libraries which calls the feature “interfaces.” business dried up and the company folded. These two features built upon a key advantage One of Stepstone’s Objective-c customers, however, Objective-c had over c++: a “dynamic runtime.” radically changed the direction and prospects of Ob- Inspired by Smalltalk, this system let programmers jective-c. In 1988 Steve Jobs’ next Computer licensed modify the behavior of objects “dynamically” (mean- Objective-c from Stepstone as the language for its ing while the program was running), enabling them nextstep development environment. Steve Naroff had to alter portions of next’s object libraries piecemeal, been hired into Stepstone’s language team in 1986 for without breaking them for other programmers. his experience with mainsail, a language developed at This gave programmers both the fl exibility to adapt to the Stanford Artifi cial Intelligence Laboratory. Naroff the future and compatibility with the past. In addition, became next’s biggest advocate within Stepstone next’s Objective-c runtime was more effi cient than and the primary engineer responsible for addressing Smalltalk’s, allowing it to be used across next’s operat- next’s needs within Objective-c. Ultimately, Naroff ing system, even where high performance was required. left Stepstone to become a next employee, where he This combination of features—categories, protocols, was responsible for the Objective-c compiler. In 1995 and the dynamic runtime—allowed next to create a failing Stepstone sold the total rights for Objective-c the AppKit, an object-oriented library for developing to next, which then went to Apple when it acquired graphical applications that is still used by Apple today. next in late 1996. Despite next’s low market share, developers who Naroff made signifi cant changes to the language, cut their teeth on next machines loved it. next never and as a result, the form Objective-c took under next became the giant success Jobs had envisioned until and later Apple is signifi cantly different than the ver- 1996, when Apple bought next. Since then, software sion originally developed by Cox. Two new signature written in Objective-c has powered almost all of its os x OBJECTIVE features would be indelibly associated with Objective- major new products: Mac , the iPhone, iPad, c in later years. The fi rst was called “categories” AppleTV, and Apple Watch. (today known as “extensions”). Categories allowed The story of Objective-c and next shows how much programmers to add their own functions to library infl uence users can have on the development of a objects fl exibly and globally. Categories were added technology. Until 1995, Objective-c was owned and to Objective-c by Naroff in 1988 to facilitate Interface produced by Stepstone, and next was its user. Never- Builder, a visual programming tool that helped devel- theless, next was able to have Objective-c modifi ed to opers create graphical user interface applications more suit its needs, eventually taking over as its developer. quickly on nextstep than on other platforms. A sec- Brad Cox and Tom Love were Objective-c’s inven- ond key feature was added by next engineers Blaine tors, but it was Steve Naroff, Blaine Garst, Bertrand Garst and Bertrand Serlet in 1990, called “protocols,” Serlet, and others at next who transformed it into the based in part on Garst’s earlier work on modular pro- language behind the iPhone today. gramming and fast inter-process communication. Garst

immediately used this new feature to allow objects 1 According to Tim Cook in his iPhone launch event on

> to message each other even while distributed over a September 7, 2016.

C - 64 CORE 2017 CTIVE SHORT A

The 1981 issue of Byte magazine featured Xerox’s Smalltalk, a groundbreaking graphi- cal environment and programming language that introduced object- oriented programming to a large audience.

BJE EC COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 65 BY DAG SPICER SENIOR CURATOR BY DAVID C. BROCK DIRECTOR, CENTER FOR SOFTWARE HISTORY

RECENT ARTIFACT ILLIAC IV MODEL, DONATIONS BURROUGHS CORPORATION, US CHM #: X7957.2017 COLLECTION Date: ca. 1971 Donor: Gift of Catherine Schulbach

The ILLIAC IV supercomputer project, begun in 1965 and fi nally resulting in a functioning supercomputer in 1972, was based on an innovative “massively parallel” design. This meant making a “computer of computers” in which many computer processors would work on pieces of a large problem together. illiac iv was installed at the nasa Ames Research Center in Moun- tain View, California. To boost speed, illiac iv used 64 differ- ent processors. On certain scientifi c and engineering problems, it showed impressive performance and its design was perfectly adapted to the computational fl uid dynam- ics problems nasa solves on a daily basis. Nonetheless, the project itself was overly complex, took much longer than expected to complete, and resulted in a system only one quarter of the intended size (it was to have 256 processors). This wood and paper model was used to secure government funding for the proj- ect and help with the design of the building in which it would be housed.

66 CORE 2017 ENIAC DRAWING SET, US PROTOTYPE “TRANSIENT ELECTRONICS” PAUL SULLIVAN DEVICE, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, US SEMICONDUCTOR COLLECTION, US CHM #: X7776.2016 Date: 1948 CHM #: X7870.2017 CHM #: X7957.2017 Donor: Gift of Joseph F. Cherney Date: 2016 Date: ca. 1948–1955 Donor: Gift of Professor John A. Rogers Donor: Gift of Pat Belotti

The ENIAC, completed in 1946, was the world’s earliest large-scale program- Since the early 1960s, one of the hallmarks The history of the transistor, from which mable computer system. Engineer Joe of integrated circuits has been their stability today’s integrated circuits are made, 1950 Cherney worked on eniac from 1950 and reliability. Indeed, this stability was begins in earnest in the s. It is a story to 1953, during which time he led the one of their great attractions for aerospace of many failed experiments, struggles to maintenance team that kept the machine’s applications during the Cold War. This grasp the fundamental physics of these new 18,000 vacuum tubes operating reliably. In prototype integrated circuit—fabricated in devices, and of trying to make working 2016 2016, 70 years after eniac’s birth, Cherney for the Museum by Dr. Seung-Kyun transistors in large quantities. Transistors donated an extensive drawing set of eniac Kang at the request of Professor John A. from this era are extremely rare, having to the Museum, documents of extreme rar- Rogers—is an example of a deliberately been long ago consigned to the landfi ll ity. Besides showing the circuitry of eniac unstable device: a biodegradable integrated or recycle bin. via schematic diagrams, it includes tabular circuit, an example of what Rogers calls It was a big surprise, then, when the listings of how problems were “set up” on “physically transient electronics.” Museum received a unique collection of eniac and a drawing set of the magnetic Transient electronic devices, like this such transistors from former Raytheon core memory upgrade to eniac (1952), prototype, have several imagined uses engineer Paul Sullivan, via his family. an improvement that transformed eniac that center on their deliberate instability: Sullivan’s collection is what transis- into a truly stored-program machine—the implanted medical devices that harmlessly tor historian Jack Ward has called “an hallmark of computers today. dissolve into the body, environmental instant world-class collection of early and Remarkably, Cherney came to the atten- sensors of various kinds that fully decom- important semiconductor devices.” The tion of the Museum when chm docent Jeff pose into the landscape, and consumer collection includes laboratory prototypes Katz overheard visitors in Revolution: The electronics that minimize waste and the from the dawn of the transistor age to First 2000 Years of Computing describing need for recycling. early commercial devices from Raytheon, how a man in a period eniac photo was This prototype is a demonstration plat- Sylvania, rca, Philco, and others. their relative, Joe Cherney. The Museum form for the idea of transient electronic invited Cherney to participate in a series devices, with a set of different compo- of oral history interviews about his career nents fabricated on a biodegradable, thin and the history of eniac, which eventually silk substrate. The components include a led to this remarkable donation. magnesium-based inductor, capacitor, resis- tor, and interconnect as well as a silicon diode and a silicon-magnesium-magnesium oxide transistor. The Museum’s prototype may last one to two years, and staff is documenting its disintegration with periodic photographs.

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 67 DONOR PROFILE RAY AND MEREDITH museum closed and many of its world-class artifacts ROTHROCK INVEST IN were transferred to Mountain View—and the rest, as they say, is history! Rothrock watched with inter- THE MUSEUM’S est this progression from Boston to the Museum’s eventual home in Silicon Valley. NEW EXPONENTIAL In addition to an mba (with Distinction) from hbs, Ray earned his bachelor’s degree in nuclear engineering from Texas a&m University (Summa CENTER Cum Laude) and his master’s degree in nuclear engi- neering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technol- ogy (mit). BY PAMELA GESME MILLER When venture capitalist Ray Rothrock, chairman and As a young man, Ray enjoyed working with ASSOCIATE VICE PRESIDENT ceo of RedSeal Inc., was approached in 2014 by electricity, amateur radio, and electronics, and his OF DEVELOPMENT a fellow chm donor about initial support for the technology expertise evolved from those early learn- Museum’s new Center for Entrepreneurial Company ing experiences. Rothrock’s father attended biennial wwii Building (now offi cially the Exponential Center), veteran reunions in Philadelphia, where Ray “he was convinced within two minutes to support would visit the Benjamin Franklin Museum to learn this new center because he loves technology and about inventions such as the steam engine. He also history.” Therefore, the Museum, being the intersec- looked forward to each edition of American Heri- tion of those two areas of interest, was the perfect tage, a quarterly magazine dedicated to the history vehicle for his and wife Meredith’s philanthropy. of technology. The Rothrocks support education on every level Suffi ce it to say, that Ray has spent a lifetime lov- and at its core, the Museum’s Exponential Center ing and learning about technology of all kinds and chm exists to “preserve and educate.” The Rothrocks are so and, specifi cally, its new Exponential Center, one of the “lead founding investors” of the Expo- is a natural place for their support. The Rothrocks nential Center through their signifi cant support, and are helping to make it possible for the Exponential Ray knows about investing. Prior to RedSeal, he Center to capture the legacy—and advance the fu- was at Venrock Associates for 25 years, retiring as ture—of entrepreneurship and innovation in Silicon managing general partner in 2013. As a result of his Valley and around the world. excellent track record, Ray was on Forbes’ “The Meredith and Ray reside in Portola Valley, Midas List” in both 2012 and 2013, ranking #49 California, and when entertaining out-of-town visi- and #63, respectively. As a venture capitalist, Ray tors, Ray insists they see the Hoover Tower on assisted entrepreneurs in achieving their dreams, Stanford University’s campus and the Computer while also producing outstanding fi nancial returns History Museum (not necessarily in that order). for his partners. He enjoyed the process of person- ally discovering, creating, and guiding more than 50 companies through their early stages of formation and emerging growth. Additionally, a vast knowl- edge of technology has helped Ray to identify trends and one of the keys to being a successful venture capitalist is “pattern recognition.” A 1988 graduate of Harvard Business School (hbs), Ray was attending an HBS reunion when he fi rst visited The Computer Museum (tcm) in downtown Boston. He was fascinated with the arti- facts on display! In 1996, tcm moved its historical collection west to Moffett Field in Mountain View, California, and The Computer Museum History Center was established (later renamed the Computer History Museum). In 1999, the Boston computer

68 CORE 2017 MUSEUM DONORS

SUPPORT

Museum Campaign MEGA / $100K–$499K Peggy Burke and Mark and Debra Leslie Stephen S. * and Paula K. Dennis Boyle Smith Applied Materials Meredith and Ray Rothrock EXA / $10M+ Jack and Casey Carsten Laurence L. Spitters Steve Blank and Raymie Stata* Donna Dubinsky and Alison Elliott Lori Kulvin Crawford Avadis and Nancy Tevanian Leonard Shustek SUPPORTERS CIRCLE Campbell Fund Andrea Cunningham and ($125,000–$449,999) L. Curtis Widdoes, Jr.* Bill and Melinda Gates Rand Siegfried Foundation Patricia and Gene Carter Tom* and Carolyn Friel David Emerson PIONEERS CIRCLE David R. Cheriton Elaine and Eric Hahn* Elaine and Eric Hahn ($16,384–$24,999) Yogen and Peggy Dalal Carol and Chris Espinosa Gardner Hendrie and Regis and Dianne McKenna David Bohnett Foundation Karen Johansen Dunlevie Family Judy Estrin John* and Sheree Shoch Dave and Cheryl Duffi eld Samuel H. Fuller PETA / $5M–$9.99M Fairchild Semiconductor Scott and Jennifer Sandell Guzik Foundation L. John Doerr and Ann Doerr Robert Garner and Terry and Dotty Hayes Susan Wojcicki* and Robin Beresford Urs Hoelzle and Geeske Joel Jeff Hawkins and Peter Hirshberg Dennis Troper Janet Strauss Harvey Family Burt and Deedee McMurtry Jennifer and Chuck House BENEFACTORS CIRCLE Bernard L. Peuto and Anne House Family Foundation John and Andrea Hennessy Christine Hughes and ($65,536–$124,999) Bertaud-Peuto Intel Corporation Hitz Foundation Abe Ostrovsky Bell Family Foundation* Pitch and Cathie Johnson Nan and Chuck Geschke Intuit, in honor of founder Mark Horowitz and VISIONARIES CIRCLE Scott Cook Jody Buckley Peter and Beth Karpas David L. House*, House ($8,192–$16,383) Family Foundation TERA / $1M–$4.99M The Joan and Irwin Jacobs Steven and Michele Kirsch Eric and Sue Baelen Fund of the Jewish Foundation Jon Rubinstein and Karen Anonymous Ron and Penny Blake Community Foundation Richardson KLA-Tencor Gwen and C. Gordon Bell William N. Carrico The Dirk and Charlene Harry and Carol Saal Lam Research Michael and Kristina Homer Kabcenell Foundation Jack and Casey Carsten Eric and Wendy Schmidt Linear Technology Burgess and Elizabeth John Mashey and Angela Hey Judith L. Estrin Barbara and Larry Sonsini* Jamieson Pierre and Pam Omidyar Burton and Deedee Bob and Ruth Anne Fraley Carrie and Bob Zeidman Florence Miner McMurtry Stephen Squires and Paul* R. and Judith Gray Ann Marmor-Squires Gloria Miner Ike and Ronee Nassi FOUNDERS CIRCLE Dotty* and Terry Hayes Max and Jodie Palevsky National Semiconductor Karen and Mark Tucker ($25,000–$65,535) Hitz Foundation John and Sheree Shoch The David and Lucille Xilinx David N. Cutler Packard Foundation Jon Iwata, IBM Corp. Charles Simonyi Fund Peter and Cindy Ziebelman Vinod and Sadhana Dham Bill and Gay Krause for Arts & Sciences Bernard L. Peuto* and Paul R. Daugherty* Anne Bertaud-Peuto Sandra L. Kurtzig GIGA / $500K–$999K Individual Annual Donors Phyllis and Bill Draper The Harry and Carol Saal Bill Campbell (2016) Jay T. Last Family Foundation Lawrence and Janice Finch Lawrence and Janice Finch FOUNDING INVESTORS Chris* and Melody Daniel and Charmaine Margo and Bill Harding* ($450,000–$1,000,000+) Malachowsky Fry’s Electronics Warmenhoven Gordon and Betty Moore William K. Bowes, Jr. Paul and Antje Newhagen Sheldon Laube and KILO / $10K–$100K Gary and Eileen Nancy Laube, MD Foundation Donald R. Proctor* Sally M. Abel and Mogens Morgenthaler Donna Dubinsky and Rich* and Susan Redelfs Gordon and Betty Moore Lauritzen Dave Rossetti* and Jan Avent Foundation Leonard Shustek* David and Robin Anderson Arthur and Toni Rembe Rock Gardner C. Hendrie* and Grant* and Dorrit Saviers Grant and Dorrit Saviers Archana and Shirish Sathaye David Babcock Karen Johansen Edward and Pamela Taft John and Gail Squires Franklin “Pitch” and Pierluigi Zappacosta and Catherine H. Johnson Charles and Karen Thacker Enrica D’Ettorre Pam and Dick Kramlich The Vadasz Family Fund

Individual Donors list refl ects donations from January 1 through December 31, 2016 *Computer History Museum Board of Trustees COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 69 INVESTORS CIRCLE Ike* and Ronee Nassi Mr. Daniel Hannaby PARTNERS CIRCLE John R. Ehrman ($4,096–$8,191) ($1,024–$2,047) Gregory M. Papadopoulos* Leonard G. Hill III David* and Han Emerson Anonymous-3 Al and Katie Alcorn William Pollock Matthew and Connie Ives David and Sarah Epstein Family Fund Agarwal Foundation Jeanne Astrin-Ichnowski William and Joan Pratt Fusun Ertemalp Robert Kahn and Patrice The Amidon and Menon Craig and Barbara Barrett Kanwal S. Rekhi Robert and Bette Finnigan Lyons Family Evelyn Berezin Ellis Fisher Robert and Lee Sproull Mitchell Kapor and Freada David L. Anderson* Brian Berg and Joyce Avery Kapor Klein Guy C. Fedorkow Ray and Maria Stata Molly and Rick Bahr Judy* and Michael Bruner Niemasik Kaufman Family Norman Fogelsong Richard W. Thatcher, Jr. Paul and Debbie Baker Fund George Cogan and Fannie Bob Frankston Paul Winalski John and Sheila Banning Allen Jim and Paula Kaval Bill and Peri Frantz Grace Wei Luc O. Bauer Robert E. Davoli and Eileen Steven and Michele Kirsch Nancy W. Frisch L. McDonagh Charitable Wade and Brenda Woodson Foundation Bruce and Leona Baumgart Foundation Samuel H. and Carol W. John and Rosemary Young Tom Kopec and Leah Peter Belanger Fuller Martin Duursma* Carneiro John and Maggie Best Stephen L. Smith and EISE Business School INNOVATORS CIRCLE Lucio L. Lanza ($2,048–$4,095) Lyle Bickley Diana T. Go Michael and Judith Gaulke Sofi a and Jan Laskowski Gil Amelio Janie Boone Martin Goetz Jay and Mary Goldberg Loewenstern Foundation Karen Appleton Page* Charles P. Bourne Gloria M. Guenther Gregory C. Gretsch David* and Roben Martin Mary Anne Nyburg Baker Nathan Brookwood and David B. and Deanna L. Michael Gustafson and G. Leonard Baker Jr. The McElwee Family Patricia Hendriks Gustavson John Gustafson Chitra* Balasubramanian Larry and Carol Masinter Mr. Paul D. Carmichael Jan Half and Sunil V. Rajaraman Eli and Britt Harari Mendelsohn Family Fund Alison Chaiken John L. Hennessy Ned and Jimi Barnholt Marcian and Judith Hoff Debby Meredith* and Curtis Tu Chen Andy Hertzfeld and Joyce Allen Baum and Donya White Cole McClure Intel Foundation Gene P. and Patricia Carter Ralph and Leah Bernstein Dean O. Morton Feng Hu Joan and Irwin Jacobs Joseph Cherney Barry and Sharla Boehm Donald and Helen Nielson George and Emily Jaquette Peter* and Beth Karpas Harry Chesley and Suzana Charles E. Branscomb David and Sandra Perloff Seban Suzanne M. Johnson Rudi and Jeff Katz Leonid Broukhis Michael, Laura and Hudson Bruce and Gail Chizen Ray and Laurel Kaleda The Long Family Charitable Plitkins Foundation Jarred and Amy Capellman Marshall G. Cox Herbert and Lee Kanner Alexander Polsky Katherine and Robert Steve and Beth Crocker Todd and Cynthia Daniels Kenyon Family Fund Frank and Denise Quattrone Maxfi eld Cohan-Jacobs Family Fund Jian Deng Jerry and Judy Klein Foundation James and Patricia Yogen and Peggy Dalal John and Norma Crawford Dr. and Mrs. Leonard Richard Sites and Lucey Markevitch Kleinrock Aart de Geus and Esther Bowen Peter Cunningham Linda and Mike Markkula John Donald and Jill Knuth Jean E. Sammet William and Sonja Davidow John Mashey* and David desJardins and Nancy Kathy Kolder Angela Hey Jean Shuler Anand and Sonali Deshpande Blachman Thomas E. Kurtz Lloyd and Eleanor Dickman Craig J. Mathias Jan* and Sylvia Uddenfeldt Irwin and Concepcion Feder- Bernard LaCroute John and Wynne Dobyns Philip McKinney* man Marc and Lori Verdiell Richard and Ellen Lary Peter and Deborah Wexler Ray Duncan James and Rebecca Morgan Edward Feigenbaum* and Cathy Lego Penny Nii Anthony Wood Marlene Dunwoodie Stanley and Joan Myers Robert Garner and Robin Eric and Susan Dunn Beresford AMD Family Fund David and Jennifer Gillespie Lester D. Earnest Allison Hale

70 CORE 2017 TL Trust Jerry Snyder Institutional Partners INVESTING LEVEL $25K+ SUPPORTING $10K+ John and Marion Lowrance Mark and Mary Stevens SUSTAINING $100K+ Tom Lyon and JoAnn Kahn StoryBundle The Jim and Lorraine Mann Charles and Nan Strauch Foundation Bob Supnik May Family Foundation Larry Tesler and Colleen Christina and Harry Barton McKinney Fritz and Nomi Trapnell Kirk McKusick and Eric Jeanie Nieri Treichel Allman Lorna and Duane Wadsworth Carver A. Mead and Barbara Smith Al Whaley The Bill and Dianne Mensch Donald Whittemore Foundation Ron Williams Gabriel Meza Ann L. Winblad Neal and Lynne Miller Bruce Wonnacott Avram Miller Sandy Wu Pamela Gesme Miller John M. Yeaton and Brenda Mooring Family Foundation L. Yeaton studio1500 Jane and Malachy Moynihan Jamie Zawinski Nancy S. Mueller Robert L. Zeiher Jami and Stephen Steve and Catherine Nachtsheim Zelencik Jason and Nicole Nemeth Ronald and Jennifer Nicholson Harold and Juanita Nissley Jeremy Norman and Patricia CONTRIBUTING <$10K+ Gilbert Analog Devices Duane Northcutt and Monica Lam Box The Inglesea Charitable Trust Churchill Club Lorna and Donn Parker Cooper Design J.A. and Mary Lou Piscopo FOUNDING LEVEL $50K+ Dropbox Raikes Foundation UPRIGHT JCOM Marketing and MARKETING Consulting, LLP Bruce Ray and Miriam Ungar Kinder Morgan Tim and Lisa Robinson Foundation Mark Roos and Catherine Moca Foundation Rossi-Ross Signature Flight Support Peter and Valerie Samson SRI International Paul and Kathleen Severino UBS Financial Services Gene and Vilma Sinclair

Institutional Partners Donors list refl ects donations from January 1 through December 31, 2016

COMPUTER HISTORY MUSEUM 71 ABOUT THE MUSEUM

BACKGROUND

The Computer History human experience. Please Dotty Hayes L. Curtis Widdoes, Jr. Nathan Myhrvold Museum (CHM) is the world’s help us tell the fascinating Intuit, Inc. (retired) Retired from EDA, 2006 Co-Founder of Intellectual stories of the Information Ventures and former Chief leading institution exploring Gardner Hendrie Laurie Yoler Age by making a gift today. Technology Offi cer of the history of computing and Sigma Partners Zoox its ongoing impact on society. Go to computerhistory.org/ Microsoft Corporation contribute/. Charles House CHM is dedicated to the Board of Trustee Emeriti Samuel J. Palmisano InnovaScapes Institute preservation and celebration former Chairman, President Donna Dubinsky of computer history and is Board of Trustees David House & Chief Executive Offi cer of Numenta home to the largest interna- Brocade Communications Leonard J. Shustek IBM Corporation tional collection of computing Systems Bernard L. Peuto Chairman Eric Schmidt artifacts in the world, encom- Concord Consulting passing computer hardware, VenCraft, LLC Peter Karpas Executive Chairman of First Data Corporation software, documentation, David Anderson Google Inc. ephemera, photographs, Innovative Capital Ventures Chris Malachowsky Honorary Council Charles Simonyi oral histories, and moving NVIDIA Chairman of the Charles Karen Appleton Page Vint Cerf images. Simonyi Fund for Arts and Apple Dave Martin Vice President and Chief Sciences 280 Capital Partners HOURS Chitra Balasubramanian Internet Evangelist of Google Inc. Steve Wozniak Wed, Thurs, Sat & Sun RetailNext John Mashey Co-Founder of Apple, Inc. Techviser 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. C. Gordon Bell Paul Ceruzzi Friday Microsoft Corporation Lore Harp McGovern Curator of Aerospace NextGen 10 a.m. to 9 p.m. McGovern Institute for Electronics and Computing Grady Booch Advisory Board Brain Research, MIT at the National Air and Space IBM Thomas J. Watson Museum of the Smithsonian Vishal Arya CONTACT Research Center Phil McKinney Institution Marqeta Computer History Museum CableLabs Judy Bruner Morris Chang 1401 N. Shoreline Blvd. Alec Detwiler SanDisk (retired) Debby Meredith Founding Chairman of the Mountain View, CA 94043 Apple, Inc. Icon Ventures Taiwan Semiconductor [email protected] Jack Busch Manufacturing Company Ltd. Joel Franusic 650.810.1010 Busch International Dr. Ike Nassi TidalScale and UC Santa Okta Paul Daugherty Scott Cook Cruz Founder and Chairman of the Serge Grossman facebook. Accenture Executive Committee of the Google com/computerhistory Greg Papadopoulos Caroline Donahue Board of Intuit Inc. New Enterprise Associates Ching-Yu Hu Follow us on Twitter Intuit (retired) John Doerr Google @computerhistory Donald R. Proctor Martin Duursma Partner at Kleiner Perkins Cisco Systems, Inc. (retired) Bert Kaufman Follow us on YouTube. Angel Investor Caufi eld & Byers Zoox com/computerhistory Rich Redelfs David Emerson Bill Gates Foundation Capital (retired) Angela Kingyens Follow us on Instagram Greendale Ventures Co-Chair of the Bill & David Rossetti Version One Ventures @computerhistory Edward Feigenbaum Melinda Gates Foundation Cisco Systems, Inc. (retired) and Chairman of Microsoft Sunil Nagaraj Follow us on Tumblr Stanford University Grant Saviers Corporation Bessemer Venture Partners @computerhistory Tom Friel Adaptec (retired) John Hennessy Veronica Pinchin @ Follow our blog Heidrick & Struggles President of Stanford Google computerhistory.org/ International, Inc. (retired) John F. Shoch Alloy Ventures University atchm/ Paul R. Gray Jeremiah Stone University of California, Stephen S. Smith Walter Isaacson GE Aspen Institute SUPPORT Berkeley Arma Partners Erin Summers Generous contributions Eric Hahn Larry Sonsini Floyd Kvamme Oculus Partner Emeritus of Kleiner from individuals like you Inventures Group Wilson Sonsini Goodrich Marie Williams support our work in collec- & Rosati Perkins Caufi eld & Byers Bill Harding Coderella tions, exhibit development, VantagePoint Capital Raymie Stata Regis McKenna and educational program- Stephany Yong Partners Start Smart Labs Regis McKenna Inc. ming. We strive to foster Facebook greater understanding of Mike Hawley Jan Uddenfeldt Gordon Moore the computing revolution’s MIT Media Lab jUTechnology Co-Founder of Intel worldwide impact on the Corporation

Board of Trustees are current as of December 31, 2016 BY KEN GLASER VIA MEDIA BAKERY OPPOSITE: PHOTO

72 CORE 2017 Brain MRIs. 1401 N. Shoreline Blvd. Mountain View, CA 94043 650.810.1010 computerhistory.org