10. Ancient India : Cultural

10.1 Language and literature Do you know ? 10.2 Life of the people 10.3 Science It is believed that most of the languages in the region from North 10.4 Centres of Education India up to Maharashtra are derived 10.5 Art and architecture from Prakrit and Sanskrit. The word 10.1 Language and literature ‘prakrit’ is derived from a word meaning ‘natural’. The prakrit languages were There was an uninterrupted literary languages in daily use of the people. tradition in Ancient India. This literature They can be divided into four groups, was produced in the Sanskrit, namely, the Paishachi, Shauraseni, Ardhamagadhi, Pali and Tamil languages. Magadhi and Maharashtri languages. It included religious literature, treatises on Marathi developed from Maharashtri. grammar, epics, plays, stories, etc. In this process of the development of Sangham Literature : ‘Sangham’ modern languages like Marathi from the means a gathering of learned men. The prakrit languages, their original forms literature compiled in such gatherings is changed. They are called ‘Apabhramsha known as ‘Sangham Literature’. It is the languages’. Modern languages have most ancient literature in Tamil. developed from Apabhramsha languages. ‘Silappadhikaram’ and ‘Manimekhalai’ are two of its well-known epics. From Tipitika has three pitaka’s or parts. Sangham literature, we learn about the The word pitaka means a basket or political and social life in South India collections. Here, it means a section. The during the period. Tipitaka is written in Pali. It consists of Religious literature : The important three categories of texts. 1. Sutta Pitaka : It texts include Aagamgranth, Tipitaka and includes the texts of Gautama Buddhas Bhagwad Gita. teachings or sermons. They are called The ‘Jain Agamgranthas’ are written suktas. 2. Vinay Pitaka : The word Vinay in the Prakrit languages of Ardhamagadhi, here means ‘rules’. The Vinay Pitaka gives Shaurseni and Maharashtri. The the rules of behaviour which bhikkhus and Agamgranthas are a collection of the bhikkhunis in the Bauddha Sangha should teachings of Vardhaman Mahavir. Literary follow in their day-to-day lives. works like Mahapuranas, biographies, 3. Abhidhamma Pitaka : In this, Buddhist stories, etc. are available in the doctrine has been explained. A text titled Apabhramsha language. Siddhasen ‘Attakatha’ (Arthakatha) which explains Diwakar wrote ‘Sammaisutta’ a work in the Tipitakas, is well-known. Learned Prakrit, on jurisprudence. Vimalsuri has women composed gathas (narratives) told the story of Rama in ‘Paumchariya’, about their own experiences. They have a poetic work in Prakrit. Haribhadrasuri’s been compiled in the ‘Therigatha’. They ‘Samaraichchakaha’ and Udyotansuri’s are in the Pali language. ‘Kuvalayamalakaha’ are well known The ‘Bhagvad Gita’, which is a sacred works.

text of the Hindus, is a part of the Mahabharata. The Bhagvad Gita tells us Do you know ? that each one of us should do our duty without expecting rewards. It also says Arthashastra : This is a work by that the path of devotion to God is open Kautilya. It consists of detailed to all. discussions of administrative matters Adi Shankaracharya lived during the such as the duties of a king, criteria eighth century CE. He emphasised for selecting a minister, systems of knowledge and renunciation. He wrote defence, types of forts, the formation commentaries explaining the ‘Upanishads’, of an army, plans for espionage, ‘Brahmasutras’ and the ‘Bhagvad Gita’. organization of the treasury and other He established four muths in four directions offices, judicial system, investigation of India at Badrinath, Dwarka, of theft, types of punishment, etc. Jagannathpuri and Shringeri. Arsha and classical epics : ‘Ramayana’ and ‘Mahabharata’ are the two ‘Arsha’ epics of ancient India. ‘Arsha’ means composed by rishis or sages. The ‘Ramayana’ was composed by the rishi ‘Valmiki’. The main character of Ramayana is Shriram. ‘Mahabharata’ has been composed by the Sage Vyas. Its main theme is the war between the Kauravas and Pandavas. It also tells us about Lord Krishna’s life. The Mahabharata provides a comprehensive picture of the various human sentiments and emotions and their consequences. Sometimes, there is such a period in the history of language, literature and art, that its glory remains undiminished even later on. The art, literature, etc. produced Adi Shankaracharya in such a period is said to be ‘classical’. ‘Raghuvansha’ and ‘Kumarsambhava’ by Kautilya wrote the Arthashastra in Kalidasa, ‘Kiratarjuniya’ by Bharavi and which he discusses at length, what ‘Shishupalvadh’ by Magha are well-known constitutes on excellent administrative compositions of the ancient period written system. in classical Sanskrit. Treatises on Grammar : ‘Ashtadhyayi’ written by the grammarian Theatre : India has an ancient tradition Panini is considered to be the standard of telling a story through songs, music and work on Sanskrit grammar. Patanjali wrote dance. These arts have been discussed in ‘Mahabhashya’. It explains the principles great detail in the ‘Natyashastra’ by given in Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’. Bharatmuni. When these arts are presented

with supporting dialogues, they are known 10.3 Science as theatre. Among the ancient Sanskrit Medicine : Indian medical science is plays, ‘Swapnavasavadutta’ by Bhasa, known as ‘Ayurveda’. It has a very old ‘Abhijnanshakuntal’ by Kalidasa, etc. are tradition. It seeks to understand the famous. symptoms of an illness, its diagnosis and treatment. Also, much thought has been Narrative Literature In the ancient given to prevention of illness. Jeevaka was times, storytelling was used to educate a well known vaidya, at the court of King people through entertainment. Gunadhya’s Bimbisara. The‘Charaka Samhita’ contains ‘Bruhatkatha’ written in a language called detailedinformation aboutclinicaldiagnosis ‘Paishachi’ is well-known. ‘Panchatantra’ and pharmacy. It was written by Charak. composed by Pandit Vishnusharma is an The famous surgeon Sushruta has discussed excellent example of narrative literature. the diagnosis of different ailments and their This text has been translated into many remedies in his treatise the ‘Sushruta languages. Similarly, Baudhha Jataka Samhita’. The importance of this text is tales are also very well-known. that it discusses the different causes leading to injuries, fractures, their types and the Try this. various types of surgeries required for them. Choose a tale from the Panchatantra. The text was translated into the Arabic Write a skit based on it and enact it. language and was called ‘Kitaab-e-susud’. Vagbhata also wrote many books on 10.2 Life of the people medical science. The ‘Ashtang-sangraha’ The literature of ancient India sheds and ‘Ashtang-hridayasamhita’ are the most light on the way of life of the common important of them. The Bauddha bhikkhu, people of the time. Those were prosperous Siddha Nagarjuna in his book times, due to the flourishing internal as ‘Rasaratnakara’ describes various well as foreign trade. The society was chemicals and metals. divided into different castes. There were Mathematics and Astronomy : The organizations of traders as well as artisans. ancient Indians had studied Mathematics These organizations were called shrenis. and Astronomy at great depth. Indians Trade was carried out by sea as well as were the first to use the numerals 1 to 9 land routes. Indian goods like fine textiles, and zero. They invented the concept of ivory, precious stones, spices, beautifully decimal system in which the value of a made earthern pottery were in great digit changes according to its place ekam, demand in foreign countries. The main daham, (units, tens) etc. The scientist crops were rice, wheat, barley and lentil Aryabhata wrote the book ‘Aryabhatiya’, (masoor). The diet of the people included which included many formulae for food items made from these besides meat, mathematical operations. Aryabhata was fish, milk, ghee and fruits. The people also an astronomer. He stated that the mostly wore cotton garments, though silk earth revolves around the sun. Varahmihir and woollen garments were also worn. wrote the famous text ‘Panchasidhantika’ Their clothes resembled today’s dhoti, in the sixth century AD. This text discusses uparane, mundase, saree, etc. The concept principles of Indian astronomy along with of stitching clothes was introduced in India the principles of astronomy from the Greek, during the Kushana period. Roman and Egyptian civilizations. The

texts of the mathematician Brahmagupta literature, Buddhist philosophy, economics, who lived in the seventh century CE, were logic, etc. translated into the Arabic language. Varanasi : The river Ganga has two tributaries - Varana and Asi. The city Do you know ? located between them came to be called Varanasi. Since ancient times, it has had Kanad : Kanad wrote the book centres which provided education in the called ‘Vaisheshik Darshan’. It mainly areas of Vedic as well as Jain and Buddhist discusses anu and paramanu. According philosophy. to Kanad, the universe is full of Valabhi : Valabhi was an ancient city innumerable objects. These objects are in Saurashtra, Gujarat. From the fifth to nothing but the different forms of ‘anu’s. the eighth century CE, it was an important These forms might change but the anu centre of Jain and Buddhist philosophy. Yuan Chwang and Itsing, the Chinese remains unchanged. Bauddha bhikkhus had visited Valabhi. 10.4 Centres of education Nalanda University : The remains of the ancient Nalanda University can be There were many famous centres of found near today’s Patna city in Bihar. education in ancient India. Students from Emperor Harshavardhan made generous other countries also came there for their donations to this university. According to studies. the descriptions of Yuan Chwang and Takshashila University : Takshashila Itsing, Nalanda University could was an important city on the ancient Indian accommodate thousands of students. The trade route. Today, it is in Pakistan. library stocked thousands of books. Archaeological evidence found there Students seeking admission to the university suggests that the city was established in had to appear for an examination at the the sixth century BCE Jeevaka, a entrance gate. contemporary of Gautama Buddha and a famous vaidya, had studied at Takshashila University. By the fourth century BCE, the fame of the university had spread far and wide. Chandragupta Maurya the founder of the Maurya Empire was educated at this university. The grammarian Panini and the vaidya Charaka were also students of Takshashila University. The Greek historians who accompanied Alexander have also given a description of the university. They have stated that such The seal of the Nalanda Mahavihara a university did not exist anywhere in Vikramshila University : This Greece. The famous Chinese Bauddha university was located near today’s bhikkhu, Fa Hien who came to India Bhagalpur in Bihar. It was established by around 400 CE also visited the Takshashila a king named Dharmapal in the eighth University. The university provided century CE. It had six viharas, each having education in various subjects such as Vedic its own separate entrance.

Kanchi : During the reign of the Pallava dynasty (sixth century CE), Kanchi in Tamil Nadu, emerged as an important centre of education. It was a centre for the teaching and learning of Vedic, Jain and Buddhist texts. 10.5 Art and architecture Indian architecture reached its peak during the Maurya and the Gupta periods. The stone pillars erected by Emperor The stupa at Sanchi Ashoka at various places are excellent examples of Indian sculpture. The stupa at images of deities emerged during the Sanchi and cave sculptures at Udayagiri, period of the Pallavas. The iron pillar at Khandagiri, Karla, Nashik, Ajanta, Ellora, Mehrauli near Delhi is evidence of the etc. show that the same tradition advanced advanced knowledge of metallurgy of the even further. The art of making images ancient Indians. was developed during the Gupta period. Thus, it is clear that ancient Indian Temple architecture developed during the culture was very prosperous and advanced. reigns of the Chalukya and Pallava In the next chapter, we will study India’s dynasties in South India. The temples of contact with other civilisations and its far- Mahabalipuram are a testimony to this reaching impact. architecture. The art of making bronze

Bronze statue of Natraj The iron pillar at Mehrauli