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Negotiating Differences Between the Expectations of Chinese Indonesians and National Education Policies

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Negotiating Differences Between the Expectations of Chinese Indonesians and National Education Policies Identity and Education: Negotiating differences between the Expectations of Chinese Indonesians and National Education Policies. (A case study from Lombok, the Province of West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia) A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Division Of the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Master of Arts In Asian Studies August, 2012 By Erniyawanti Adam Thesis Committee: Cathryn H. Clayton, Chairperson Barbara Watson Andaya Gay Garland Reed Michael Aung-Thwin Keywords: Tionghoa, Chinese-Indonesians, Identity, Christian Schools Abstract After the restriction of Chinese organizations and cultures in Indonesia in 1966, Chinese- Indonesians (the Tionghoa community) began to lose the opportunity to express their ethnic identity. Thus, Christian schools that are well known as schools for the Tionghoa indirectly play roles as the only places where the Tionghoa can strengthen bonds among themselves. This study examines the different expectations of Christian schools and Tionghoa parents in regard to Tionghoa students’ identity and how Tionghoa students perceive and embrace their identity. Through class observation and interviews in Lombok, West Nusatenggara, Indonesia, this study suggests that Tionghoa parents’ expectations are varied across generations and different economic stances. At the same time, Tionghoa students are multiplying and negotiating as well as claiming, un-claiming, and reclaiming their identity, depending on the accepted norms. i Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................................... i Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................................... ii Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1 A. Significance of issues ........................................................................................................................... 2 B. Research methodology ......................................................................................................................... 6 1. Settings .......................................................................................................................................... 7 2. Participants .................................................................................................................................. 12 3. Procedures ................................................................................................................................... 13 C. Objectives of this study ...................................................................................................................... 14 D. Research Questions ............................................................................................................................ 15 Chapter 2: The Tionghoa in Indonesia and Lombok: Their Identity and Historical Narratives ................. 17 A. The Identity of the Tionghoa .......................................................................................................... 17 B. History and Background of Chinese-Indonesians in Indonesia.......................................................... 27 1. Early contact and migration ............................................................................................................ 27 2. The Tionghoa’s position under different Indonesian regimes (from the Dutch to the post-Soeharto regimes)............................................................................................................................................... 29 C. Chinese-Indonesians in West Nusatenggara Province ....................................................................... 37 1. West Nusatenggara Province; An overview ................................................................................... 37 2. Early Chinese contact and migration to Lombok ............................................................................ 40 3. The features of the Chinese-Indonesians on Lombok ..................................................................... 43 Chapter 3: Education for the Tionghoa: Past and Present ........................................................................... 49 A. The History of the Education of the Tionghoa in Indonesia ........................................................... 49 ii B. The Education of the Tionghoa in the municipality of Mataram .................................................... 59 C. Education System in Indonesia Today ............................................................................................ 62 Chapter 4: Interviews .................................................................................................................................. 65 A. Case Study 1: Two Tionghoa students ............................................................................................ 66 B. Case study 2: Two non-Tionghoa students ..................................................................................... 74 C. Case study 3: Two staff members ................................................................................................... 78 D. Case Study 4: Two Tionghoa parents ............................................................................................. 85 Chapter 5: Interview Analysis .................................................................................................................... 96 A. The schools’ expectations ............................................................................................................... 98 B. Parents’ expectations .................................................................................................................... 100 C. Tionghoa students’ identity ........................................................................................................... 104 Chapter 6: Summary and Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 112 Appendix ................................................................................................................................................... 119 Appendix A: Map of Indonesia ............................................................................................................. 119 Appendix B: Map of the Island of Lombok .......................................................................................... 120 Appendix C: Interview Guide for Teachers .......................................................................................... 121 Appendix D: Interview Guide for Non-Chinese Students .................................................................... 122 Appendix E: Interview Guide for Chinese Students ............................................................................. 123 Appendix F: Interview Guide for Chinese Parents ............................................................................... 124 References ................................................................................................................................................. 126 iii Chapter 1 Introduction Identity is an important part of the existence of human beings. It defines the way individuals socialize with others. It constitutes the boundaries between insiders and outsiders. It also defines the rules of membership and the recognition of sameness among members of a group, which, at the same time, define their differences from other groups. However, individuals vary in how they respond to identity. Sometimes their responses depend on social and political situations, and most of the time they depend on whether a particular identity might be an advantage or disadvantage. Individuals’ responses to their identity also contribute to their expectations about their descendants’ identity. Among the less affluent Chinese-Indonesians (Tionghoa) in Lombok, the oldest family members, who are mostly the first or second generation to live in Indonesia and who apparently still practice most of the Chinese traditions, usually live in the same house with their children and their children’s families. Thus, the second or third generations naturally inherit their elders’ sense of Tionghoa-ness through daily interaction with their parents. Yet this does not make them expect their descendants to strongly embrace their identity as Tionghoa. In contrast, the affluent Tionghoa families usually live separately from the older generations. As a result, it is fairly hard for them to transmit the Chinese traditions to their children. However, this does not make their expectations that their children embrace their Tionghoa-ness less strong. This paper discusses the intertwined influences of Christian schools’ and Tionghoa parents’ expectations on Tionghoa students’ identity. 1 A. Significance of issues The Tionghoa1 (Chinese-Indonesian) had their own education system during the Dutch colonial period in the East Indies (especially during the 1900s). Their schools were initiated by the Peranakan (Indonesia born Chinese) association called the Tiong Hoa Hwe Koan (THHK), which was established on March 17th, 1900. Its members were concerned that the Chinese in the East Indies were becoming either more Dutch or more indigenous in terms of culture
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