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“What's the Matter with Being Indonesian?”

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“What's the Matter with Being Indonesian?” “What’s the matter with being Indonesian?” A Social Representation Approach to Unravel Indonesian National Identity MSc Social Research Dissertation School of Social and Political Science 2012 – 2013 Exam Number: B029071 Word Count: 14.461 1 Acknowledgement I would like to thank my supervisor, Ross Bond, since this research could not be completed without his invaluable guidance and patience. I sincerely thank the Directorate General of Higher Education (DGHE) Indonesian Ministry of Education and Culture for funding my education at the University of Edinburgh. Comments and feedback given by Rahkman Ardi, Reza Wattimena, and Charlotte Olcay have also been a tremendous help. I am also very grateful for the endless love and support given by my parents and brothers that kept me going. Finally, I would like to thank my friends and research participants who have been very helpful during this process. 2 Abstract Having announced its independence in 1945, Indonesia is still “a state in search of a nation.” Consisted of more than 300 ethnic tribes and around 600 local languages and dialects, ruthless religious, ethnic, ideology, region conflicts, and civil war have even been intensified after the New Order regime collapsed in 1998. By using Social Representation theory, online survey research involving 114 Indonesians living in the United Kingdom is used to explore these points; how Indonesian negotiate their ethnic, religious, and national identity, the historical theme and important figures in Indonesia’s history, and the connection between ethnic, religious, and national identity and attitudes towards the New Order. Research findings suggest that national and ethnic identity, as well as ethnic and religious identity, is consensual, while the relation between religious and national identity is emancipated. Independence theme is dominant in Indonesia’s history as the Declaration of Independence and Soekarno– Hatta are the prominent event and figures. The experience being under the rule of Soeharto is positively correlated with religious identity, indicates that Soeharto’s anti- communism project is remarked as an important accomplishment from a religious community standpoint. The research also found that people are not completely happy with the regime’s achievements, but do not strongly have contempt for the regime’s policies at the same time. Keywords: Indonesia, National Identity, Ethnic Identity, Religious Identity, New Order Regime, Representation of History. 1 Table of Contents ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................................1 TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................. 2 LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................... 4 CHAPTER 1: Introduction .......................................................................................................... 5 1.1 National Awakening Era; Indonesian nationalism project ..................................................... 5 1.2 Nation Building in Early Independence: Mission impossible ................................................ 8 1.3 Living in the Age of Terror ..................................................................................................... 10 1.4 The Javanese Pancasila and Ummah-State Relation ............................................................ 11 1.5 Indonesia as a Post-authoritarian Society ..............................................................................13 1.6 Research Questions .................................................................................................................15 CHAPTER 2: Theoretical Framework ................................................................................... 16 2.1 Anti-colonial Nationalism: In the eyes of constructionist .................................................... 16 2.2 National Identity; Personal or social? ................................................................................... 18 2.3 Social Representation of History ........................................................................................... 19 CHAPTER 3: Research Design ................................................................................................. 22 3.1 Survey Research .................................................................................................................... 22 3.2 Sampling ................................................................................................................................. 22 1. Population ............................................................................................................................. 22 2. Participant recruitment strategy ......................................................................................... 23 3. Sample characteristic ........................................................................................................... 23 3.3 Method of Administration ..................................................................................................... 24 3.4 Questionnaire Design ............................................................................................................ 24 1. Clarifying variables, and developing indicators and questions .......................................... 24 2. Piloting/pre-testing .............................................................................................................. 26 3. Evaluating indicators ........................................................................................................... 27 3.5 Ethical Consideration............................................................................................................. 27 2 CHAPTER 4: Research Findings ............................................................................................. 28 4.1 National Identity Markers ......................................................................................................... 28 4.2 Identity Dilemma ........................................................................................................................31 4.3 National Identity Historical Theme .......................................................................................... 34 4.4 The New Order Regime and Identity ........................................................................................ 37 CHAPTER 5: Conclusion and Limitation ............................................................................ 40 REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................. 43 APPENDICES................................................................................................................................. 51 3 List of Tables Table 1. Parentage, Birth, and Residency Claims of National Belonging Asked Separately ......... 28 Table 2. Parentage, Birth, and Residency Claims of National Belonging Combined .................... 29 Table 3. Religion, Ideology, and Cultural/Local Knowledge Claims of National Belonging ....... 30 Table 4. Correlation Analysis between National, Ethnic, and Religious Identity ......................... 32 Table 5. Five Most Important Events in Indonesia’s History ........................................................ 34 Table 6. Five Most Important Figures in Indonesia’s History ....................................................... 36 Table 7. Correlation Analysis between Attitudes towards the New Order and National, Ethnic, and Religious Identity ..................................................................................................................... 37 4 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: Key Issues of Indonesian Nationalism Indonesia is often mentioned as an enigma by so many western analysts as the resources to deliver a solid nation-state “could not be more unpromising” (Elson 2008 p. xxiii). As a massive archipelago with up to 17.508 islands, almost 300 million citizens (Anon n.d.), 300 ethnic groups and more than 600 local languages and dialects (Akuntono 2012), Indonesia exists as a legitimate nation-state. Accordingly, Indonesia has been given so many pessimistic labels such as; “a state in search of nation” (Elson 2008), “a state in decay” (Van Dijk & Dijk 2001), “a chaotic state” (Smith 2001), and “a confusing and messy state” (Nordholt 2001). Having said that Indonesia is seemingly a miraculous nation-state, it is rather successful as a state. Placed in a considerably strategic area, Indonesia is quickly growing as one of the economic giants in Asia by gaining a 6.2% of the economic growth rate in 2012 (Bland 2013). It is therefore interesting to unravel how Indonesia developed its nature as a nation-state, the fundamental premise on which it should be based, the nature of its citizenship and the most crucial, how the sense of national conscience has grown for Indonesians despite its overwhelming disparity. 1.1 National Awakening Era; Indonesian nationalism project Many historians believe that “Indonesia” or “Indonesians” did not exist earlier than the late 19th century since “Indu-nesia” was coined by George Windsor Earl in 1850 (Van der Kroef 1951; Elson 2008; Brown 2003). However, he purely used this term for a geographical description rather than ethnographic or cultural. Therefore, Indonesia is “a merely shorter
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