Single Concept Film Clip Project; Parts One and Two

Home , Educational film

DOCUMR117 ROSUNO ED031919 64 Em 007 195 By-Miler. Elwood E. Director Single Con:ept Film Clip Project; Parts One and Two. Michigan State Univ.. East Lansing. Spons Agency-Office of Education (DHEW). Washington. DC. Bureau of Research. Bureau No -BR -5-0281 Pub Date I Dec 67 Contract -DEC -4 -16.030 Note 29 o.: Two poets Available from-Michigan State University. East Lansing, Michigan. Instructional Media Center EDRS Price PC -S125 HC 114.85 Descriptors-Audiovisual Aids. Classroom Materials. Classroom Techniques. Communications. DataProcessing. Filmstrip Projectors. *Filmstrips. Film Study. Indexes (Locaters). Indexing. Information Dissemination. Information Retrieval. Information Storage. Instructional Films. Instructional Materials.Instructional Media. *Instructional Technology. Perception. *Single Concept Firm Identifiers-Basic Indexing and Retrieval System. BIRS. Michigan State University. *Single ConceptFAm Clip Project This project had a two-fold objective. namely to record on film aspectsof a significant period in the history of education in the United Stateswhich had been reported almost entirely in print heretofore. and to organize and structurethis information so as to link theory with practice. to the improvementof instruction generally when used in teacher education programs. The first partof the project included a national conference on cartridged films inFebruary 1967. and is full documented in this report. The second part. based or. the findings of the first was concerned with an intensive invc:Itigation of the single conceptfilm idea. namely 'a short segment of film with a sr.vf::. discrete. and describableinstructional content'. The problem was to develop 'practicable systems for the selection.storage. maintenance. retrieval, distribution. and projectionof film clips (single-concept. dosed-loop films) from existing 16mm instructionalfilms'. This report states the problem and purpose of the project. and discusses its methods.results. conclusions. recommendations and projections. (CO) FINAL Rr1PORT CONTRACT NUMBER 0E-4-16-030

The Michigan State University

SINGLE CONCEPT FILM ('TD PROJCT

Part I

Report On The NATIONAL CONFERENCE ONCARTRIDGED FILMS February 22, 23, and 24, 1967

JUNE 1, 1967

1 iasp lej*slid

ow . INIVI v sasila MIN Mu a amo. memo

U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare

Office of Education Bureau of Research U.S. DEPARTMENT Of HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE

OFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE

PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT.POINTS Of VIEW OR OPINIONS

STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE Of EDUCATION

POSITION OR POLICY. SINGLE CONCEPT FILM CLIP PROJECT

Part I

A report on the National t'r%nf....reinr.0 on Cartridged Films, held at Michigan State University on February 22, 23, and 2z14,1967.

0E-4-16-030

Dr. Elwood E. Miller, Project Director and Conference Chairman

June 1, 1967

The research reported herein was performed pursuant to a contract with the Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Contractors undertaking such projects under Govern- ment sponsorship are encouraged to express freely their professional judgment in the conduct of the project. Points of view cr opinions stated do not, therefore, necessarily represent official Office of Education position ox policy.

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

East Lansing, Michigan

Fr%1P7'7'111"1 )

.00.4% M.R14 rrte. `. 2 v C k°*24

C "la 'lbC bo. I b1 C 1. PUBLICATION TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE CHAPTER

3 I. Introduction

Films on II. Modular Dczignfor a Series of Communication Theoryand the New Educational Media for usein Teacher 7 Education by Robert W. Wagner

and Pitfalls - III. 8MM -- ItsPromises, Problems, As Viewed byFilm Producersand 31 Distributors by Albert R.Bailey

Cartridged FilmEquipment --- Where DoWe IV. 43 Go From Here ??? by Elwood E.Miller

71 V. Promises and Pitfalls by Elwood E.Miller Charles G. Bollmann

BIRS: A Systemof General PurposeComputer VI. 83 Programs forInformation Retrieval . . by John F.Vinsonhaler

. 107 VII. Information Storageand Retrieval Systems by Dennis H.Jaroh

Research . 123 VIII. The Short Filmin Audiovisual by Thomas F.Baldwin Table of Contents Continued

IX. A Comparative Study of the afectiveness of Using a Full Film and Short Format Films to Teach Chemistry 129 by Lloyd A. Trinklein

X. Question Sets General Questions Needing a Position

of Perception , .. 139

XI. Dr. Gabriel Ofiesh 151

XII. Dr. Paul Witt 157

XIII. Dr. James Brown 163

XIV. Summary ...... 169

XV. Participants 179

ii POREWARD AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Final reports on the SingleConcept Film Clip Project have been issuedin two sections. Section One is the report onthe NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CARTRIDGEDFILMS held on the Michigan State University CampusFebruary 22, 23, and 24, 1967. Part Two is the finalreport of the project,incorporating the description of procedures, thefindings, a description of the computer informationsystem and suggestions for further research.

THE STUDY STAFF

Director: July 1, 1964 through June30, 1965 Dr. James L. Page

Director: July 1, 1965 through June30, 1967 Dr. Elwood E. Miller

Project Associates: Dr. Castelle Gentry(1964-65) Mr. Charles G.Bollmann (1965-67) Mr. Dennis Jaroh(1966-67)

Advisory Committee: Dr. Charles F.Schuller, Chairman Dr. John M. Mason Dr. T. Wayne Taylor Dr. Julian R. Brandou Dr. Horace C. Hartsell Dr. Lawrence M. Sommers Dr. John A. Ramsey Dr. James L. Page Professor Edward P. McCoy

Staff Specialists: Dr. Lloyd Trinklein Mrs. Ardith Hanna Miss Joy Klug Mr. David Jones THE PRELIMINARY PAPERS

The Conference Planning;Committee decided to request the preparationof three preliminary papers to send tothe participants thirty days ahead of the meeting. The strategy was to prepare thedele-3ates for the discourse that was to follow, in order toget the discussion to the "heart of the matter"in as short a time as possible. The following three papers were prepared specifically for theNational Conference on CartridyedFilms, reprinted and sent tothe Delegates in late January, 196-i. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

THE NATIONAL CONFERENCEON CARTRIDGED FILMS

During the course of thefirst two years devoted to the investigation of single conceptfilms and their sources at Michigan State University,it became apparent that anational meeting of some type was necessaryin order to fulfill many of the objectives and someof the functionsidentified by the staff members ofMichigan State. As a result, one of the major reasons forasking for a one-yearcontinuance of the Project, was to planand execute such aconference to be held on the Michigan Statecampus earlyin the 1967 calendar year.

It seemed to thestaff of the Project thatthe major dimensions of a NationalConference should besomewhat broader than just those ofsingle concept films. True, the single concept movement firsttriggered the need for the conference and yet the staffhad arrived at animportant conclusion by the time theconference was planned. The true value of thesingle concept film perhaps wasas much in the cartridgingof the films as it wasin the nature of the films themselves. And so plans wereformulated for sponsoring a "Nations'.Conference on CartridgedFilms" both of the single concept and moretraditional variety to be held at Michigan StateUniversity during the one-year project extension. The Conference washeld in February of 1967.

One of the majorfunctions of the Conference wasto disseminate information aboutthe findings of theSingle Concept Film Project at MichiganState University underthe financial sponsorship of the U.S.Office of Education. Therefore, the first partof the Conference wasdevoted to just such a report. Furthermore, it was feltthat a serious study was needed in the areaof standards so far asthe emerging 8mm film world wasconcerned. So a second majorfunction of the Conference was aserious look at thestandards problem as it related toboth single concept andother types of cartridged films.

Therefore, the Conference wasdesigned to serve the dual purpose offormulating an intensivedialogue on single concept films and thefilm standards situation, aswell as serving as a vehicle fordissemination of informationand about the investigation atMichigan State. et

The selection ofparticipants by the PlanningCommittee was dividedin two generalcategories. The first category business and indus- included representativesfrom the American roughly equal numbers four trial community. They included in representatives of the film different groups. The first were production companieswho are concernedwith making films for film producers also pro- the educationalmarket. Many of these 8mm format duce single conceptfilms in the 8mm or the super in- fox- marketing toschools and universities.A second group manufacturers of equip- vited to sendrepresentatives, were the ment for use inretrieving such filmedinformation il.vui zingle Invitations were issued concept andother cartridged films. to all of themajor equipmentmanufacturers, whether or not they were presentlyengaged in makingequipment specifically for this field. Nearly all of themanufacturers responded represented and were representedat the meeting. A third group knowledge in- at the Conference werethe educational systems or newly emerging dustry representatives. These are some of the "systems" people who areconcerned with bothhardware and software so far asmarketing educationalpackages are concerned. Several people werepresent from thesenewly emerging American represented were the corporates structures. A fourth group serious concern in the film laboratoryinterests who have a problems of standardization asfar as 8mm releaseprint films are concerned.

The second generalcategory ofparticipants invited to the NationalConference on CartridgedFilms were educators. The first These could besubdivided into t'ogeneral groups. Michigan State Universityaffiliated staff andprofessional were Clip people; many of whomhad worked on theSingle Concept Film Project during part orall of its life. Others had served on Concept Film ClipProject. the AdvisoryCommittee of the Single Audiovisual and Instruc- Certain members ofthe Michigan State tional Media staff who werefamiliar with the work werealso in attendance.

The second general groupof educators,representing a larger number, wereinvited specificallyfrom outside of the in Michigan State group. These includedoutstanding educators including men of national the audiovisualcommunications field, Many were men who stature in theeducational technologyfield. audiovisual field and had a rich backgroundof experience in the contributions to make. who obviouslywould have substantial included educators who Others invited fromall over the country 5 were known for their work either in the 8mm filmfield or in the single concept production field. Certain officers and representatives of the Department of Audiovisual Instruction as well as the Society forMotion Picture and Television En- gineers were invited to attend. The Planning Committee was particularly interested in having in attendance representatives of these groups who were serving on StandardsCommittee. Such representItion was present.

The structure of the ennferAnopi*self, although formally planned in written form, nevertheless, wasorganized loosely enough to enable the conferees to go "off in tangential directions" when they felt that it was important or necessary to do so. The Planning Committee, under the directionof Dr. Charles Schuller, ProjectChairman, and Dr. Elwood Miller, Project Director, formulated a rather careful3-day program. The conference plan included a frameworkwithin which the Conferees could work, but not a limiting frameworkin terms of preventing their discourse upon subjects thatmight not have been predicted by the Planning Committee.

It is the opinion of the Single Conceptstaff that the various parts of the framework were wellexplored by the delegates and that the material was veryadequately covered. The following is a collection of papers prepared for the National Conference; presented at theNational Con- ference and resulting from work, done at theNational Con- ference. Each author's paper is identified and the Michigan State staff wishes to express itsappreciation for the splendid and time-consuming work done by the manypeople who assisted in the preparation of the several reports. CHAPTER II

MODULAR DESIGN FOR A SERIES OF FILMS ON COMMUNICATION THEORY AND THENEW EDUCATIONAL MEDIA FOR USE IN TEACHEREDUCATION

Robert W. Wagner

In 1962, the belief that aseries of films reporting contemporary developments ininstructional technology might effectively help link research andclassroom practice, generated a contract between theOhio State University and the U.S. Office of Education underthe project title: "A Series of Motion Picture Documents onCommunication Theory and the New Educational Media." (1) The result was a period of audience research involvingteacher's information and attitudes regardinginstructional technology; coast-to- coast filming of innovativemedia-centered educational programs and first-handcomments by teachers, researchers, theorists, and educational administrators onthe impact of media on education; continual testingof film segments during the course of production, and,by the end of 1966, a completed repertoire of 41/2 hours of films for teacher education and a modular design whichis the focus of this paper.

Objectives

Initially, the objective was to get down onfilm aspects of a significant period inthe history of education in the U.S. which had been reportedalmost entirely in print form up to this time. It was obvious that suchmaterial would have considerable historic value,including the images of certain pioneers in the field,innovative programs in schools and colleges, and a sampling ofseminal research in communication and instructional technologyheretofore reported only on paper.

(1) The research reported herein wasperformed pursuant to a contract with theOffice of Education, U.S. Departmentof Health, Education, and Welfare(Project No. B-131-A, Contract No. 0E-3-16-020). Contractors undertaking such projects under Government sponsorship areencouraged to express freely theirprofessional judgement in the conduct of the project. Points of view or opinions stated do not, therefore, necessarily representofficial Office of Educa- tion position or policy. 8

A second, and much more difficultobjective was to organize and structure this information in such a way that it would usefully link theory andpractice and con- tribute effectively to the improvement ofinstruction when used in teacher education programs.During the course of the project thethinking of the principal investigator was strongly influenced by the thesis of Gage and others to the effect that theories oflearning will have greater application in education when they are transformed into theories ofteaching.(2)

An Instructor-Centered Film Concept

While the ultimate viewers of the films, therefore, are students in teachers' collegesand universities, public school teachers in service, college students in communications-oriented or related fields such as sociology, psychology, public opinion, speech, radio, television, film, industrial and military training programs, and media institutes, seminars, workshops, and thelike, the specific users of the films are considered tobe the teachers who stand between the producers ofcommunications research and theory on the one hand, and consumersof this research on the other. The films are, therefore, developed primarily for use by instructors in teachers' colleges; audiovisual specialists; and thosein media institutes or seminars responsible for courses in communication theory, curriculum, media research,production or theory. A second group of users is envisioned as teachers in the fields of sociology, journalism, psychology,public opinion, business and personnel management, school administration, and other areas requiring communicationinsight. This would include instructors in industry and government responsible for workshops and training courses in communication and information dissemination; for publicrelations personnel; military training programs; or for those preparing to work with personnel in inter-community or inter-cultural programs such as PE ace Corps, Vista, Head- start, and others.

(2) Gage, N.L. "Theories of Teaching," Chap. XI, Theories of Learning and Instruction, the 63rd Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill., 1964, pp. 268-285. 9

The project staff, inproducing this series of films, had to be both structure-consciousand content-conscious. The attempt was to develop adesign which would be not only an effective and comprehensiverepresentation of developments in the new media ofeducation, but also a collection and organization offlexible film materials deliberately intended to extend andenrich the possibilities for instructor-effectiveness. The theory is simply that instructional films (and othermaterials) should have the primary user (i.e. the instructor)in mind as well as the ultimate or so-called "target"audience.

The specific nature of theultimate audience for any message today is moredifficult to define than it has been in the past because even informal educational settings, there is a wider range ofexperiences, a greater variety of groupings, and a larger number ofindividualized objectives at which the somewhat remoteproducer of instructional materials must aim.

The person who can mostprecisely define the immediate "target audience," its purposes,its needs, and the specific instructional objectives involvedis the teacher himself. If we accept the idea thatthe best way to get learning theory into educational practiceis through a transformation of principles of learninginto principles of teaching,then an importantcontribution of the professionaleducational communicator would be to place inthe hands of teacher a collection or repertoire ofrich, provocative material, suffused with suggestibility, anddesigned for maximum utilization by the teacher himself.

Description of Films

Using a space-age analogy,the films in the series are referred to as a"Galaxy" of motion pictures. At the heart of the Galaxy are fourmajor or "Planetary" films, each built around a major aspectof communication.

The first theme was "TheInformation Explosion." Its purpose was to buildmeaning into this concept in termsof how it affected the teacher, thelearner, and the conditions of modern life itself. Here we had the cooperationof Edgar Dale, Wilbur Schramm, GilbertSeldes, Marshel McLuhan, I. Keith Tyler and otherswhose attention had been given to 10 this subject for some time.

The theme for the secondfilm was "Communication Theory." Here the objective was togive the teacher the "geography" of communication beginningwith the simple Lasswell model and elaborating and enriching theconcept through examples of communication events fromsimulation to real school situations. Advice here came from GeorgeGerbner, and also from Lawrence Stolurow, Donald Bitzer, BertKersh, Franklin Knower and others.

"Perception and Communication" wasthe theme of the third film with an emphasisboth on theory and practice. Kenneth Norberg is themajor consultant along withpsycholo- gists James Gibson andHadley Cantril. This proved, and is proving the most difficultfilm to do without resorting to cliche and stereotypedmaterial on this subject.

The fourth film has to dodirectly with "Teacher and Technology" and the applicationof these to educational systems. Here, James Finn, CharlesHoban, Jr., Sidney Pressey, Edgar Dale, andothers were consulted.

Each Planetary film is composedof a number of different sequences designed tobe used independently. These sequences 21 in all - are designed as"Asteroid" films (See Chart I).

The Galaxy also includesfive "Satellite" films produced as spin-off in the courseof the main production. ThesF are:

1. The Communications Revolution. This is a 20-minute discussion film with Gilbert Seldes,Edgar Dale, Marshall McLuhan, and I. Keith Tyler.

2. Communications Conference.A 25-minute discussion film with James Finn, GeorgeGerbner, Edgar Dale, Franklin Knower, Charles Hoban, Jr.,and Kenneth Norberg.

3. Teaching Machines and SidneyPressey is a 17-minute documentary on a personality and aphilosophy. 11

4. Teacher-Centered Television is a 15-minute kinescope on the use of closed-circuit-televisionproduced for and by the Air Force Academy, andmade available by the Air Force as a Satellite in thisproject.

5. Music Research. This is a 17-minute report film produced for the Music EducatorsConference under a grant from the U.S. Office of Education,describing experiments in teaching basic music skills throughprogrammed instruction at the Ohio State University and atthe Leslie Ellis School in Cambridge, Massachusetts, with astatement by B.F. Skinner.

All of these film forms comprising theGalaxy have been coded and arranged in such a waythat, together with a utilization manual, parts of which areincluded here, utilization possibilities are amplified,longevity of the material extended, and the total investment mosteffectively amortized.

The Galaxy was conceived as asystematic exploration of four themes fundamental to anystudy of communication and the use of media ineducation. The "package" however, was also designed tobe broken down and reassembled by those instructors whose course programis varied, and whose students are increasingly specializedin interests, or advanced in knowledge so that entirely newcombinations of ideas or concepts may be presentedby juxtaposing individual segments of the larger films. There is an obvious and rather close parallel between thisfilmic structure and Gagne's concept of hierarchy ofbehavioralrepertoires.(3)

The structure of the Planetary filmsmakes it possible to serve two seemingly oppositeends of the educational "log." On the one hand, they present alogically programmed presentation on communication theory andinstructional media. On the other, they are composedof smaller but discretely designed segments fromwhich the able teacher in the field of communication may choose,cafeteria-style, to serve his own specialinstructional requirements.

(3) Gagne, Robert M. "The Acauisition of Knowledge," cited by John P. DeCecco (ed.) EducationalTechnology (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston,1965), pp. 115-131. 12

The teacher may assemble film clips from one or more Planetary films, and actually structure a film ofhis own. This design puts the teacher in control of theutilization situation. He is free to use the films as systematized packages, or he may create his own "branching" system to meet the immediate needs as he seesthem. This is probably the first time that a high degree offlexible utilization has deliberately been built into theproduction of filmed materials to the extent that the teacher is expectedand encouraged to be in control of the material to thepoint of physically altering the original content andadapting and rearranging it to meet the needs of the targetaudience and his own instructional objectives beyondthose originally intended by the producer.

The Asteroid films are both short and episodic, and when used individually, do not impose a strong structure on the user, or theviewer. When used as part of the Plane- tary film, each Asteroid builds on the precedingPsteroid, sophisticating and elaborating the theme of the Planetary film. Each Planetary film begins with the more concrete and immediate examples or hsteroids and builds to the more abstract and futuristic sequences.

The Satellite films, in the same way, are"open-ended," leaving conclusions to the consideration of theinstructor and the student of educationalcommunication--placing the burden of "discovery" upon them.

The skeletal design of the Galaxy, then, is that:

The Planetary Films:

1. Present four major, common themes of any consideration of communication and cduca- tion.

2. Present four major protagonists (Dale, Gerbner, Norberg, Finn) without making it "their film.'

Present a reasoneblE "package" or core- materiel for a study of communication and 'education. 13

4. Present a realistic film document on the state of the art as it exists today told by the people who lived in the situation.

5. Are composed of a series of independent, yet related sequences arranged to build the major idea beginning with the more concrete examples and moving to progressively more sophisticated development of the same basic idea through more complex examples.

6. Bring the theme progressively closer to the classroom teacher with each sequence, the final P.steroid in each being the most specific applications of communication theory to practice.

The Asteroid Films:

1. Are designed so they may be used independently to document a major idea about communication theory; the so-called new media of education; a media-mediated teaching- learning situation; or a professional point of view.

2. Deal with specific information, but at the same time a degree of ambiguity has been deliberately built into each sequence. The basic information has been provided, but much more is suggested than stated in most Asteroids.

3. Are coded with identification imprinted along the edge of each, so that they may be easily and quickly located in the Planetary film; removed; and replaced in their original location.

4. Are varied stylistically, ranging from an- imation to dramatic dialogue--technique being dictated by content and purpose--not by traditional film form. 14

The Satellite Films:

1. Are composed of two discussion films (Com- munications Conference and Communications Revolution); a kinescope recording (Teacher Centered Television); a two-part research document, each of which may be used separately as an Asteroid (Music Research); and a film document on an historical phase of instructional technology (Teaching Machines and Sidney Pressey).

2. Provide background in depth for ideas suggested in the Planetary films, but at the same time are largely "open-ended."

3. Are "spin off" materials developed during the course of major production, in some cases testing production theories which were later, in some cases, put into practice in producing the Planetary films (e.g., the discussion films were in part "screen tests" to test lighting, voice qualities, and camera angles on protagonists who later appear in the major films; the film on music research was in part a test of the feasibility of composing a film from two essentially independent but related case histories in what later becamethe Asteroid idea).

4. May be used as conventional films, but have a special life and significance when seen in relation to the Galaxy from which they originated, and to the major ideas to which they owe their being. They are likely to be of most value when viewed as part of the package.

The advantages of this modular design appear to be considerable, including at least the following:

1. Each idea may be developed in a filmic style most appropriate for the content, rather than being confined to a single 15

FIGURE 1: PART A DESIGN OF PLANETARY FILMSBY ASTEROIDS

THE INFORMATIONEXPLOSION PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION (Code: Info Expl) (Code: Proces Com)

Communication Revolution Model of Communication (INFO EXPL 1) (PROCES COM 1) IA 1 I 1 1 Information Storage, Theory of Communication Retrieval, Control (PROCES COM 2) (INFO EXPL 2)

1 1 Communication in Industry Model Government (PROCES COM 3) (IWO EXPL 3)

1 1 1 I Communication in Industry Military Model (INFO EXPL 4) (PROCES COM 4)

1 I 1 I Communication in the Administration Model Professions (PROCES COM 5) (INFO EXPL 5)

1 I Media and Children Teacher Training Model (INFO EXPL 6) (PROCES COM 6)

I 1 Computer Model (PROCES COM 7)

1 I The Teacher as a, Modelof Communication (PROCES COM 8) 16

FIGURE I: PART B DESIGN OF PLANETARY FILMS BY ASTEROIDS

PERCEPTION & COMMUNICATION THE TEACHER & TECHNOLOGY (Code: Perception) (Code: Teach Tech)

Sensory Learning Learning as Self Learning (PERCEPTION 1) (TEACH TECH 1)

1 Theories of Perception History of Instructional (PERCEPTION 2) Technollgy (TEACH TECH 2) 1 Perception Training Media & the Military (PERCEPTION 3) (TEACH TECH 3)

Intercultural Perception Media & the Humanities (PERCEPTION 4) (TEACH TECH 4)

1 I I Perception & Deprivation Media & the Continuous (PERCEPTION 5) Progress School (TEACH TECH 5

1 Perception & Education The Computerized School (PERCEPTION 6) (TEACH TECH 6)

The School of Tomorrow Media & the Masses (TEACH TECH 8)

The Instructional Resource Center TEACH TECH 9 17

style for the sake of consistency necessary in mostconventional film forms.

2. An Ast:roid may be removedfrom a Plane- tary film (because ofobsolescence, to speed up the presentation, orfor reasons including inappropriateness for theview- ers involved, orsimply that "it doesn't work") without destroying thevalue or continuity of the rest of thematerial.

3. Modular structure permitsbranching, not only "lineally" within the samefilm (by dropping out segments andmoving to the abstract more quickly); butalso "hori- zontally" (by selecting andassembling in a new arrangement Asteroidsfrom one or more Planetaryfilms).

4. Logistically, the coding andsegmentation of the 7:steroids makesidentification easier; simplifies the matter ofordering new segments,reducing the possibility that they may be unidentifiablewhen removed from the maintitle; makes possible the economic stockpilingof "most used" segments by the laboratoryfor immediate supply purposes.

5. The wide range of screentimes provided by all parts of the Galaxymakes it easier to program thematerial as television segments, or ascartridge-loaded 8mm presentations.

6. The scope of all materialstaken together is "wide-scan," and largelyteacher- centered. As mentionedearlier, this is probably the first time thatfilm materials have been intentionallydesigned to be taken apart and re-edited bythe teacher, in order to meet strategicinstructional objectives which can never befully anticipated by the producer of suchmaterials. 18

Editing the Asteroids

If there is one single, most universally understood rule about thc use of non-theatrical motion pictures an6 especially those used in instruction, it is: "Don't cut the film."

Rental libraries, public school film libraries at the state and local levels, and college and university audiovisual centers necessarily impose this regulation, along with specifications for r2pairing, rewindingor non-rewinding of films to maintain and protect the material intact, in its original form.

The intent in the Galaxy films, however, is that they may be altered, edited, and reassembled, as a necessary condition for maximum utilization in meeting individual instructional needs. It should be remembered that the users in this case are not "average classroom teachers" at large, but rather media-oriented instructors in mostcases either with experience in film handling or withaccess to motion picture personnel and facilities as in thecase of those associated with audiovisual resource or production centers.

At the same time, it is recognized that there are two major barriers to usage in this mode.

1. The psychological barrier involves the question of whether even media-oriented instructors will take the time to cut and splice material.Will they be sufficiently motivated or stimulated by the information and ideas contained in the Galaxy to use the films to the maximum in the non-linear manner suggested. To what extent will they be able to overcome the tradition and habit of using films intact--from the can--in- stead of "roiling their own"?This is a subject for study in itself.

2. The mechanical barrier is, of course, related to the psychological. Unless the act of cutting and splicing is a very simple, easy one, it is unrealistic to expect the material to be used in the manner suggested. One solution to ease the use of Asteroids (which are from approximately one to eleven minutes in length) would be to put them into 8mm cartridges for use in a Fairchild-type projector. While such 19

use isanticipated, this alone does notcompletely solve the problem ofhow to maximize the useof the films in whole, aswell as in parts in 16mm with large groupswhere 8mm rear - screenprojectors may not havethe capacity in termsof length cr image size to servethe purpose. Also, cartridges are, likereels of conventionalfilms, "canned" and not easilyaccessible for re-editing.

Another possible way to rearrangeand simplify the use of thematerial might be tore-record' from film to a classroom-typevideo tape recorder. This system, for the moment, isneither accessible noreconomic in most settings, although it maybecome more useful in the future.

Attention was turned tohow to overcome thetechnical problems involved inmaking it possible forthe user of the films to removeand replace Asteroidsegments from the Planetary films,locate, rearrange, andthen replace them in their originalposition in the majorfilm with minimum equipment andeffort.

A number ofleading motion picturelaboratories were first invited to respond onwhether they would beable to produce anumerical and alphabeticedge-coding system for duplicatenegatives from whichedge-numbered release prints could be struck.The George ColburnLaboratories of Chicago, was able towork out a satisfactorymethod of producing anedge-coded reversal finegrain print from which duplicate negativesand subsequent releaseprints could be printed. Codes for each of theAsteroid films were printedat one-foot intervalsalong the margin between the film edge andthe outside margin ofthe sprocket hole with the abbreviatedtitle of each Planetaryfilm and the number of eachAsteroid clearly visible tothe normal eye withoutmagnification.

This technicality isimportant to the potential use of thefilm series as projected,since all segments may beidentified by edge-numberwithout the necessity of a bench viewer orfootage counter. The edge-code would make it easy toreplace an Asteroid segmentback into the correct Planetaryfilm from which it wastaken. 20

This provides a kind ofinde ::ing system which serves the user and alsoprovides a practical and exact method for ordering additional prints ofsections or replacements from the laboratory. The title information could be amplified with other information,if necessary, in the heretofore unused .036" space betweenthe outside edge of the film and the outside edgeof the sprocket hole on 16mm print stock.

A second and related problem,in expediting the flexible use of the material is how to simplifysplicing and unsplicing of the segments identified by edge-code, sothey may be easily assembledand reassembled.

The simplest and most economic method of editingthe material at present seems to be in the use of aninexpen- sive splicing block, a sin le -edged razorblade, and 16mm perforated splicingtape.(4) The steps in editing an Asteroid out of a Planetary film are these:

1. ?'he Asteroid is identified by the code on the edge of the film, corresponding to the title of the Planetary film of which it is a part and the position it occupies in that film. For example, the Asteroid describing the major steps in the process of communication is edge numbered "Proces-Com-l". This means it is the first Asteroid in the Plane- tary film, The Process of Communication.

2. The code number may be located by visualinspection, reeling the film between bench rewind spindles where convenient, or on the projector where necessary.

3. The first code identification beginsin the middle of the fade-in at the head of the Asteroid and continues to the middle of the fade-out atinter- vals of one foot. The fades (black areas) between each 1.steroid and the sound track have been located in such a way that neither picture or sound will be violated by a cut in the middle of the fade, or by subsequent cutsin an area of approximately

(4) The system used by our editing staff wasthe Birns & Sawyer tape-splicingblock which costs about $10.00. 21

one foot or 20 frames on either side of the middle of the fade.

4. The middle of the fade-in is placed, emulsion or base (shiny) side up, on the splicing block, and the razor is used to cut the film parallel to the frame-line. A 3 or 4 foot section of blank leader (preferably single-perforation) is placed on the splicing block with the perforations matched to those of the Asteroid and the razor is used to cut the leader on the parallel.

5. A four-frame section of splicing tape is cut off the roll, and with both the leader and head of the Asteroid positioned on the pins of the splicing block, the perforations of the tape are slipped over the pins in the splicing block over the cut ends of the film so that the perforations in the tape match those on either side of the cut. The tape is then pressed onto the film to secure good adherence.

6. The leader is fed onto a reel, and the attached Asteroid is reeled up (using the projector or a rewind).

7. The end or fade-out of the Asteroid is located, cut, and spliced either to tail leader or to the middle of the fade-in of a subsequent Asteroid in the same manner.

8. The remainder of the Planetary film is spliced together in the same manner so it is intact and useable.

9. The edited Asteroid(s) is rewound for projection.

When the Asteroid(s) is replaced in the original position in the Planetary film, the same procedure is followed in reverse. The splicing tape is removed, and the cut ends of the Asteroid and the Planetary film will match and may be tape-spliced without loss of a frame. This system makes it possible to cut such an Asteroid in and out of a Planetary film a considerable number of times without loss of footage. 22

In some cases it may be desirable to use conventional film splicing methods, which means the loss of a frame every time the film is cut. Even here, there is considerable leeway, since approximately one foot or 40 frames may be dropped in splicing without losing essential information. The beginning and end of each Asteroid has been designed with picture and audio information cushions so that loss or damage at the head and tail is minimized.

With a little practice in applying the tape, it is felt that the technical barrier to utilization in the mode suggest-4 ed here, will be overcome. It is also reasonable to expect that some instructors will eventually order separate Aster- oids which they use most as "on the shelf" items, leaving the Planetary films intact for general screenings. (See Fig. 11.)

FIGURE II

Scheuatic for Tape Splicing Two Asteroids Together

Tape Splice Direction of 1 Film Travel

1 1 00 o o o a o 0 0 0 O o pop O 4t. - Asteroid 2 .Asteroid'l b-tJ A I LJt a"L

40 Frame Fade-In 40 Frame Fade-Out

40 Frame Black Area

Cut Line 23

Patterns of Use

Including the four Planetaryfilms, thirty-one Asteroids, and five Satellitefilms, a total repertoire of 40 filmicexperiences is presented in this Galaxy. This is a potential of 1600possible combinations in which this material maybe edited, or arranged.

The ultimate and mostfruitful uses will, of course, depend on the perceptivityand creativity of individual instructors and their willingnessto study the film material for its potential usefulnessin their own teaching. It will also depend,in part, upon their understanding of the medium itself.

The motion picture is a "highinformation" medium. A single frame of film(not to mention the scene or the sequence) in addition to the informationdeliberately "cued" to convey the intended message, mayinclude a considerable amount of "redundant" orunintended information. While an excess of suchinformation is undesirable in a linear, informational message, there is probably anirreducible minimum of redundant and/or extraneousinformation in every human communique which is perceivedby at least some part of every audience. In some cases, suchunintentional information may be helpful, serendipitous,and, if deliberately considered as part of the messagedesign, may infuse certain types of information withdesirable, suggestive, provocative, and rich background valuesin addition to the immediate and intentional foregroundinformation.

While, in the present films, theprimary consideration has been to develop a series ofinformational film documents, a great variety of"to whom it may concern" messagesexist throughout the material. It is there kinds of"discoverable" values which may, in the long run,make the material most exciting and useful to both teachersand students, as they add their own perceptions tothe images that appear on the screen.

As a starter, however,there are several usage patterns into which the material could fall(vertically and horizon- tally as well). Samples of these obvious usage patterns are suggestedin the following pages. 24

The usage patterns here suggested are not intended as an exhaustive index of the content of the Galaxy offilms, but rather as springboards for thinking about new combinations of the material which will, in turn, stimulate creative applications in instructional situations.

The listing of Asteroids containing statements about communication and media (Usage Pattern F), for example, could be used to pull out "quotations" as we commonly do from printed materials. Or, one could assemble a series of compatible or contradictory views composed of segments from Hoban, Gerbner, Dale, or McLuhan. Asteroid INFO EXPL 7 in which Dale and Schramm give the historical background of the communications revolution, might be followed by the Asteroid TEACH TECH 2 in which Finn outlines the development of instructional technology. Together, in about 11 minutes of film time, the attention of the audience could be concentrated on historic perspectives.

Other similar horizontal structures of Asteroid segments could produce composite pictures of such diverse aspects as: the image of the teacher; the role of feedback in the communications system; the use of rear-screen projections; the validity of media research projects portrayed. Questions could be raised such as: "What is the price of technology in education?" "Are the technological systems shown too complex for most existing educational systems?" "Are they too expensive in terms of e;dsting school budgets?" "How may communication be considered as method, value, and social fact?"

Field testing of this theory of film design will need to be undertaken together with analysis of the codification system to determine its possible further application in implementing creative usage and solving a part of the retrieval problem of film materials. Not all filmed information necessarily lends itself to this kind of design. But if we are to reach the ever widening and increasingly diver- sified audiences which are developing all over the world today, there is a need for serious study of adaptable, flexible design of all kinds of materials to meet changing needs of audience, subject matter, and conditions of use. 25

In this connectionit is interesting tospeculate on what NorbertWeiner refers to as the"To-whom-it- may-concern" message which hedescribes as:

"...an undirected messagespreading out until it finds a receiver, whichis then stimulated byit ...If I were to construct alearning machine of, a general type,I would be very muchdisposed to employ this method of theconjunction of general spreading "To-whom-it-may-concern"messages with localized channeled messages ...aconjunction of spreading and channeledmessages."

Weiner is not sure why such messagesexist, but says, "...I amrather inclined toattribute them to the non-digital analogy side ofthe mechanismresponsible for reflexes andthought."(5)

Perhaps, in turning ourattention to programming, and to informationtheory, we have neglectedthe study of man's ability tostructure for himself. The film design described challengeshim to prove he can.

(5) Weiner, Norbert. The Human Use of HumanBeings, Doubleday Anchor Books,N.Y., 1954, pp. 70-71. USAGE PATTERN SATELLITE CODE: MultipleCommunications Option onnference--S-1Television--S-3 A. Media in Instruction TeachingCommunications Machines Revolution--S-2 - -S -4 DESCRIPTION MusicPLANETARY ResearchS-5 ASTEROID SATELLITE Amplified Telephone TEACHINFO EXPLTECH 44,54 ChalkboardAudio Tape TEACHPERCEPTIONPROCESINFO EXPLTECH COM 44,6,7,83 Computers PROCESTEACHINFO EXPL TECHCOM 4,772,4 Demonstrations TEACHPROCESPERCEPTION TECH COM 631,6,7 USAGE PATTERN SUBJECT MATTER FIELD B. MediaPLANETARY and Subject Content ASTEROID SATELLITE EducationalIndustrial TrainingAdministration PROCESPROCES COM COM 53 LiteratureLanguages TEACHTEACHPERCEPTION TECHTECH 3,4,55,6,83 S-2 MedicineMathematics TEACHINFO TECH EXPL 55,7 MusicMilitarySciences Training TEACHPROCESPROCES TECH COM COM 47,88,10 S-5S-1; S-3 TeacherSocial StudiesEducation TEACHPROCESPERCEPTION TECH COM 4,5,76,75,6 INSTRUCTIONAL GROUPING C. Media and Instructional Groupings PLANETARY (Continued)ASTEROID Industry Training PERCEPTIONPROCESINFO EXPL COM 43 SATELLITE SmallLarge Group Instruction INFOPROCESTEACHINFO EXPL EXPLTECH COM 44,76,8,9,103,5 S-3 Independent Study TEACHPERCEPTIONPROCESINFO EXPLTECH COM 3,4,5,6,103,4,51,2,33,4,5,6,8 S-4; S-5 Ungraded, ContinuousProgress Programs TEACHPROCES TECH COM 5,6,7,1076,71,5,6,7,8,10 D. Specialized References USAGE PATTERN CENTRALAudiovisual REFERENCE Center, OR THEMEThe PLANETARYPROCES COM 4ASTEROID SATELLITE Audiovisual Specialist, The TEACHTEACHPROCESINFO TECH EXPLTECH COM 43,5,6,7,9,103,6,7 Face-to-face Communication PROCESPERCEPTIONTEACHINFO EXPL COMTECH 5,6,7,113,4,55,81,3,4,5,6 S-1; S-2 Freedom of Communication,Feedback, and Responsibility TEACHPERCEPTIONPROCESINFO EXPLTECH COM 4,7,112,4,62,3,4,5,81,3,6 S-2 History of Communication TEACHPERCEPTIONINFO TECHEXPL 211,2,3,6 S-2 Psychology of Perception TEACHPERCEPTIONPROCESINFO TECH EXPLCOM 671,2,3,4,5,62,5 S-1 E. Individuals Quoted on Film USAGE PATTERN NAMERex OFArnett, RESEARCHER/WRITER/TEACHERBrigham Language Young teacher, Experimental School TEACHPLANETARY TECH ASTEROID5 SATELLITE VanceDonald Bourjoilly,L. Bitzer,University PLATOAuthor of Research,Illinois TEACHPROCES TECHCOM 47 ChesterHadley Cantril,Caton,AirIntrn. ForceCapt., Chrm. Social Academy Bd., Res., Inst. Princeton Univ. TEACHPERCEPTION TECH 32 S-3 LouisEdgar Chatterly, Dale,OhioBrigham Prof. State Math YoungEducation, Universityteacher, Laboratory School TEACHINFO TECH EXPL 51,2,6 S-1; S-2 JohnShirley Dos Passos, Duncan,Columbus, AuthorHeadstart Ohio teacher, TEACHPERCEPTION TECH 45 CHAPTER III

8MM -- ITS PRO1ISES,PROBLEMS, AND PITFALLS - AS VIEWED BY FILMPRODUCERS AND DISTRIBUTORS

Albert R. Bailey

An informal andimpromptu survey of the producersand distributors of 8mm filmstoday brought into focusquite a unanimity of opinion, aswell as a few individualstatements pertinent to the subjectof this paper.

Only twelve peoplereplied to my request fortheir thoughts -- a third ofthose polled. However, they include two from the largestdistributors of 16mm educationalfilms and many of thosewho are most active inthe distribution of 8mm short films --I assume the othersfailed to reply because of the veryshort deadline I gave themrather than to a lack ofinterest. The almost total agreementof everyone makes up for the smallnumber reporting.

`To summarize the responses.

As to promises,there is 100% agreementthat the future how is terrific. The difference ofopinion lies only as to terrific, for it ranges fromseveral prints to everyone now sold in 16mm, to theglowing prospect of acomplete film library in every classroom. Undoubtedly, the realizationwill be somewhere in between. As to problems,it is apparent that there is only one majorproblem confronting thosewho would procauce anddistribute 8mm films today,and that is the lack of standards, not onlyconcerning sound andcartridge, but concerning the basic needfor a standard format --regular 8mm or Super 8mm.

As to tnepitfalls, these seem almostlimited to quality, and thepossible lack thereof; tothe possibility that enough training in theneed and use of the 8mmand particularly the 8mm shortfilm, will not beforthcoming; and that there may be too muchrush and too littlethought.

Now for moredetails.

Promises are alwaysinviting to discuss, and soit was with those who responded to myinquiry.

I 32

Erv. Nelsen, of CoronetFilms, writes, "The introduction of 8mm is still a rathernebulous and unsettled andseething issue. Perhaps the ultimategeneral acceptance of 8mm as an effective standard of messagetransport will dependlargely on theeffectiveness of the 8mm shortfilm concept in teaching- learning situations. We think there is a market.We have no real way of knowing 121.Many of the producerswill pioneer in the field to determineif that market is reallythere. The extent to whichshort films are purchased andeffectively used will determine itsfurther refinement anddevelopment as a significantteacher-learning aid."This rather sets the stage by giving us abeginning from which others canmake their evaluations andforecasts; by giving us a statement as what is going to take place overthe next few years; and by giving us the importantevaluation that the marketwill be there if effective materialis developed for that market.

Berry T. Stevens, ScienceResearch Associates, Inc., presents another governingstatement, "We see anincrease in training today and a correspondingincrease in interest about assorted training materials."

Jam Handy Organization's,A.J. Bradford, offersthat the "8mm film and projectoris making and will make amajor contribution in the following areas:

Selling - to individuals or tosmall groups Training - for small groups, oragain individuals Teaching - as a teacher'said in the classroom and in some courses in thecarrel.

"The reason for this ismerely an extension of thefact that few things can do thejob of motivating and communicating information as the motionpicture. The 8..4 projector with its specially designed filmsmakes the medium much more flexible, putting them within easyreach of individuals or very small groups."

Scope Productions, Inc.offers more concrete figures: "If we use our sales figures(1965-66) a3 a basis, prospects have gained 100% in one year. We see the loop format as a major innovation for theteaching of processes andskills in every area of the generalpublic school curriculum." 33

In the September 1966 Journal of the SMPTE,Albert Rosenberg of Mc-Graw-Hill wrote, "We expect that(now) the educational field will buy five 8mm prints for every16mm print purchased in the past. We hope to develop the 8mm optical sound market so that in a few years when agood low- cost cartridge or magazine projectorbecomes available, the market will be there. By that time, the field shouldbe purchasing 15 or 20 times as many prints as itis doing now."

Ed Treiberg of Charles Cahill andAssociates, Inc. believe that "the potential market is atleast equal to the number of schools in the country. I feel this way, because I think of 8mm loops ashaving the same potential as filmstrips. Possibly even more when used to 100%efficiency through classroom use, group use andindividual use."

And I particularly like the linewritten by Kay Smallzried of Chandler Publishing Company: "The prospects of 8mm films are limited only by thelimits of human ingen- uity."

These quotations should offer a lot ofopportunities for disckssions about the prospects of8mm because there are statements that will be disputed by some,and other statements that will offer new ideasregarding the adaptability of this medium.

They also lead us logically into adiscussion of the problems, because we are immediatelyconfronted with the problem of definition, as Fred C. Amosof Ward's Natural Science Establishment, Inc. brings upthe point that "The question of WHAT IS A SINGLE CONCEPTis another difficulty. Many films try to do too much."To this we can add Ed Trei- berg's, "I think of 8mm loops....",and Ery Nelsen's, "In our opinion, at present, there isn't even anystandardization on what we call the short films. Single concept certainly is limiting. Coronet anticipates producing in areasother than single concept -- what has been calledloop *Eastman has interjected anotherclassification or name -- miniature."

Perhaps problems of definition aresolved by use over a period of time, although in these fewlines there is ammu- nition for discussion. My own opinion is that there are more important things to discuss at the presenttime.

11 34

To put first things first, the basic problem thatwe must solve at the present time is the need fora standard in the film itself. Are we to have regular 8mmor Super 8mma Since many producers already havea large investment in the regular 8mm size, they are reluctant tosee this standard become obsolete and also to make another considerable investment to change over to the Super 8mm size.They also recognize the fact that many educatorsare in this same position. Further, there is much feeling expressed, both in thiscoun- try and abroad, that in small screen projectors for individual or small group viewing the regular 8mm givesresults comparable to the Super 8mm. At the same time, these peoplerec- ognize the fact that for larger projection sizes the Super 8mm has definite advantages.

However, when the total investment in regular 8mm made to date is compared with what the total might be fiveyears from now, or even two years from now, it is really quitesmall indeed. And might we not ask these producers if the sales results they've achieved to date have not already paid for the investment in the actual printing mastersor internegatives (as opposed to investment in film production,which will not need to be scrapped if a new size format is adopted)? And isn't the lead they've established in the fieldworth some of this investment?

Because of these factors, some people feel that perhaps we should have a dual standard, such as regular 8mm for the silent single concept or short film, and Super 8mmfor the sound film and for longer films. But the market place is changing so rapidly that weare already past such a possibility. I point to two manufacturers who have, within the last 90 days, almost guaranteed that the standard will beSuper 8mm. The first is the Eastman Kodak Company which is readyinga new line of Super 8mm projectors designed touse short films in a reel-to-reel system with a special cassette anda fast rewind; and the Technicolor Corporation, which is readyinga new line of Super 8mm cartridge projectors, includinga sound cartridge, and already proposing a plan for trading in regular 8mm for Super 8mm at a very low price.

One of the leading 8mm distributors, International Com- munications Foundation, which distributes only regular 8mm at the moment (although many of their subjectsare available in 35

Corporation) is about to Super 8mmthrough the Ealing advertise a veryadvantageous trade-inplan so that those assured that they maytrade who buy regular8mm now will be This reflects the one agree- for Super 8mmin the future. let's try not to keep ment that nomatter what we do now, customers fromgoing ahead with 8mmpurchase plans.

So at thispoint I'd like to makethe statement that standard, for all practicalpurposes we nowhave a film size standard Super 8mm. The problem, then,is to accept this transition to this standard as and to plan howto make the rapidly, inexpensively,and smoothly aspossible. problem that must be A second, andclosely related, really big show in8mm, is solved beforewe're ready for the sound system, for assurely as the achievementof a standard will 8mm sound replace 16mm sound replaced16mm silent, so be a wide 8mm silent. At the presenttime, there seems to who feel that thestandard will be mag- gulf between those to netic sound, andthose who feel thatit will be necessary extensive and leastexpensive have opticalsound for the most distribution of films. narrowing of the Here, at thismoment, we can see no Eastman gap betweenthe proponents ofthese two standards. magnetic sound, Kodak, in their newprojectors, are planning give the because among otherreasons, theybelieve this will market can beincluded. largest marketinasmuch as the home sound, that is made Technicolor has justdeveloped an optical projector, so to the samestandards as thoseof the DuKane fortunately a film madefor one machine canbe used on the magazine and theother other (except that onemachine uses a producers have a reel). This is a standardfor which many been waiting. that, G.G. Grahamof the NationalFilm Board writes of magnetic track are: generally speaking,"the disadvantages prints cost morethan op- 1. At the presenttime magnetic of accidental erasure. tical prints. 2. There is danger changes in sound There is thepossibility of deliberate 3. add tracks which might proveembarrassing. I might also knowing that, most importantof all, thereis no way of preview or whether or not thetrack remainsperfect after use withoutactually listening toit." 36

The other problems seem to be these, notnecessarily in order of importance.

Scope Productions asks for quality controlin the following areas: Reduction prints, film stock, emulsions; lubrication and capsuling of prints; optical definition(professional standards) lab equipment; projection equipment.

Chandler Publishing Co. writes, "Few distributors, as titles available increase, will be able to send out complete sets of films for indeterminate lengthsof time (even though the preview period is stated as being 30 days, thefilms are seldom out and back within that length oftime). Consequently, the preview package with a suggestion that the customerorder from the package, and return unwanted films for creditwould seem feasible. We are going to try it."

And from Ed Treiberg, "One of the major problems(with loop films) -- educating the teachers to use the filmsproperly. This includes a thorough understanding of the subject matter, method of implementation into a unit of study, and theability to encourage students to study and view thesubject on their own. One solution to this problem is a greater, moreall- inclusive in-service program for teachers in their respective districts. Such a program would have to be initiated by the district A-V director and, very likely, involve theassistance of commercial people. In fact, I think it would behoove the commercial people to offer as much assistance as possiblefor workshops, in-service, special demonstrations,etc." From the religious point of view comes a statementfrom A.L. La Com of Cathedral Films, Inc., which certainly hasits parallel in the school market, "I expect that one ofthe greateit deterrents in the religious market is the cost. A church in setting their budget would very likely consider purchasingfilmstrips and renting 16mm films rather than buying an 8mminstant movie projector and a library of cartridge films because theywould most likely already have a sound filmstrip projector and16mm motion picture projector in the!r possession." And further, "We find the churches slow to accept new teaching methods andthe move towards the Technicolor Single Concept cartridgematerials is no exception. We are finding the greatest interest inthis material from the foreign market where scripts areeasily trans- lated into the language of that country." Here's a ray of hope for additional markets for the silent single conceptfilms 37

produced for theschool market.

John Lord ofFilm Associatesbrings up animportant original Kodachrome point, "Audiencesused to seeing camera at home areshocked at the qualityof commercial II projected from a 16mm prints made from aninternegative, made in turn quality can neverequal that ECO original.Of course, print plenty of roomfor im- of a Kodachromeoriginal, but there is everything provement. Kodak and thelaboratories are doing hopefully, we will see they can to de-bugtheir systems and, improvement in a few years. And, let's faceit, a major quality of there is also roomfor a majorimprovement in the the content ofthe loops."

Ery Nelsen adds: "Another general 8mmproblem is the misinformation which hasbeen circulatedregarding costs of who propound that 8ima as compared to16mm. There are those will cost onlynth 8mm silent (and somestretch it to sound) from the home that of 16mm. This seems to be a carry-over only. movie field and relatedto the cost ofthe film material of pro- Often there has beencomplete disregardfor the cost be 8mm ducing the material that goeson thisfilm whether it cost is the same. Any or 16mm. Obviously, the production based on lower further savings wouldhave to be presumed This costs related tothe larger numberof prints sold. be projection to reducethe price of asingle print could as applicableto the 16mmfield as to the 8mm. film concept "Another probleminvolving the 8mm short without is the possibilityof producersjumping into 8mm will adequate research orplanning. Materials producers careful plan- need to continue asintensive research and as ning as they havefor 16 millimeter." makes I might alsopoint out the needfor a number of film trans- of projectors withinterchangeable cartridges or film mission systems, sothat as with 16mmsound, the same anywhere in theworld and be shown onalmost any pro- can go brand of In this way, alearning system or any one jector. brand of film material willnot have torely on any one hardware.

The need for morelaboratory facilities,especially of for Super 8 and Super8 sound willprobably take care 38

itself; although at present, the demand seems tobe outstripping the supply.

The cost of prints is still far toohigh to allow market saturation to be achieved on the scale that manypeople project. Perhaps a good closing statementfor this section on problems might be the one Kay Smallzried used as an opener,"When it comes to discussing the problems, I amlinguistically disabled. Pro- fanity does not become a woman, and the degreeof exasperation and frustration encountered scarcelypermits anything else."

Possibly there might be some overlapping betweenproblems and pitfalls, but among the thoughts Ireceived are the following, starting with Scope Productionssuggestion that "abuse of format, e.g. commercial marketingimplication of do-it-yourself programming is not logical or practical; andthat research and development on the part of the manufacturersshould be geared more closely toeducational needs, following the canons of current learning theories."

A.J. Bradford writes that"Planning for pictures and picture programs will still need toinclude the following:

To whom the films are to be shown How they will be shown Training of people who will use the films Provision of regular service for prints and for projectors in the field, where they areused.

And to repeat perhaps, probably the greatestlikelihood of in- correct usage will be the tendency to use8mm with groups too large for the picture or on a subject notsuited to Smm projection."

John Lord believes there may be apitfall in the price of laboratory work, pointing out that "Kodak's newhigh speed 4-row printer that records on pre-striped35mm film during the printing pass makes reasonably priced magneticsound feasible for the first time. The problem is that this printer isin- tended for runs of thousands of prints. Somehow, for most titles, the future doesn't look that rosy. For a print order of only a few hundred prints, one may haveto use a much more expensive process, with a separate transfer step. This could produce a horrifying difference inprice between large-volume 39

titles and morespecialized ones, a differencethat would Also, the fact that be difficult tojustify to the schools. for home use these cartridgeswill be sold in supermarkets will determineprice range, in the same waythat the prices for records in thehome determine, to someextent, the prices of educationalrecords. I do not believeit is wise to assume that in terms ofstandardization, marketing, andpricing, schools are one thingand homes another. There is going to problems for the be a lot of rubbingoff, which will create educational distributor."

Unless there is anearly adoption ofstandards on the kind of generous part of industry, orthe acceptance of some trade-in policy for oneformat 8mm toward another,Ed Trei- berg says he's"afraid more and morepeople will continue to bide their timewaiting on Super 8 andmiss a lot of good educational material inthe process." Rosenberg is that if A possiblepitfall to Albert school people do not useand experiment with8mm now it will schools will be unfortunate,because "duringthis period the replace- discover the uniquecontributions of 8mm--not as a ment for 16mmbut as an additionalresource."

Ery Nelsen seesthat "there is a greatdanger of mate- companion equipment rials producersgetting 'sucked in' to manufacturers, and veryreputable, sales. There are those equipment who have thepioneering spirit to comeout with crack and of trying topackage it withmaterials in order to Materials pro- the market. It is perhaps a necessaryevil. ducers must be waryof identifyingthemselves firmly to a Thus, single system in afield which has not yetsettled out. filmstrips, which in the case of CoronetFilms and our motion available in both we call theshort films, wewill have loops regular and Super 8and could even havethese short films 'reel- which are not singleconcept availablein the Eastman to-reel' system."

This brings to aclose a digestedstatement ofpossible viewed by the promises, problems,and pitfalls of 8mm as producers anddistributors of educationalfilm material. here; and there are There are many shadesof opinion included opinions and shadesof opinions thathave not been many more of included because oflack of time, lackof space, and lack response. 40

Reviewing many of the statements sent to me, including the extensive paper "A Status Report on the Professional Use of 8mm Film" by Gerald G. Graham, of the National Film Board of Canada, and recognizing that a major part of our 8mm conversations today resolve around the lack of standards or the possible acceptance of multiple standards, I want to quote from Mr. Graham.

"In terms of international acceptance, there appears to be no doubt that the Kodak Super 8mm format will ultimately be accepted on an international basis. Support for this view is given by all major European, Japanese and Americancamera manufacturers who are now producing new Super 8mm format and many have announced, or are in the process of announcing, suitable projection equipment to go with it.At the recent SMPTE Conference in Montreal, the Russian delegates stated that their country was quite prepared to adopt Super 8mm as an international standard."

The next few years -- nay, the next few months are very apt to produce the standards that we are looking for and to solve many of the problems that we presently face. During this time, let us bear in mind Ery Nelsen's belief that "it is wrong to 'zero in' specifically on 8mm single concept films. I think, as an industry, we must take a look at the broader picture; the entire 8mm concept as a new technical transport of the educational message-- now relegated to 16mm."

And during this time, let us avoid the apparent pitfalls and devote our energies to improving the educational materials that we produce and the distribution system that carries them to teachers throughout the world.

END

Author's note: In addition to my own ideas set forth in these pages, I want to extend thanks and give credit to the following companies and individuals who supplied information which makes up a very substantial and important part of this paper:

American Oil Co., R.L. Uttley, Supervisor Youth and Educational Activities Cathedral Films, A.L. La Com, Vice President, Sales 41

Chandler Publishing Co., Kay Smallzried, Director of Public Relations Charles Cahill and Associates, Inc., Ed Treiberg, Manager Sales and Marketing Coronet Instructional Films, E.N. Nelsen, Vice President and Sales Manager Film Associates, John Lord Jam Handy Organization, A.J. Bradford, Projection Specialist McGraw-Hill Book Co., Albert J. Rosenberg, Vice President National Film Board of Canada, G.G. Graham, Director, Technical Operations Science Research Associates, Inc Berry T. Stevens, Industrial Sales Manager Scope Productions, Inc. Ward's Natural Science Establishment, Inc., Fred C. Amos, Director of Product Development CHAPTER IV

CARTRIDGED FILM EQUIPMENT --- WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE???

Elwood E. Miller

For nearly three years the author and other interested parties at Michigan State University have been following with great interest developments in the so-called single concept field. During this period of time we have been in constant communication with three general groups of individuals, all represented now at this Conference on cartridged films.

The first of the three are the potential users; that is, the students, the teachers, the curriculum designers, and the educational administrators who usually control budgets and purchasing.

The second group are the film production and distribution companies who are specifically interested in making and marketing films.

And the third group is that composed of the manufac- urers of the hardware that is so vital to the effective use of this new medium. Communication with the first two groups is relatively easy, but communication with the hardware interests is much more difficult. They work within severe limitations of organizational policy that often prevent them from reflecting much real information on developments of single concept machines.

It is not my function to criticize the policy that they maintain, for such is the basic nature of the American system of free enterprise.

Despite the fact that there are many strengths to the economic system that we can observe with satisfaction, there are also problems that seem to be basic to the reasons for this Conference.

Has the single concept movement or, in more general terms, the cartridged film movement grown as rapidly as it might have? Or has it grown as fast as is reasonable for a "new creature?" There is probably no firm answer to the question, and opinions would be shaded from one extreme to the other. 44

The users and the filmmakers tell us that they feel the cartricled film movement might have progressed ata faster rate hal some consensus been reached by those who make policy decisiols within the 8mm field. Eastman Kodak can assume many of :he credits for technological advances in the narrow forwIt f .1m field, but at the same time must shoulder part of th espunsibility tor some of the indecision that weare forced to live with at this point in time. Others are no less firm in their own organizational commitment to a format which they feel may provide for them some economic advantage.

Educators and filmmakers share a common concern. This concern must be explored, because reasonable solutions to the problem might well have a long-range and important influence upon the rate of development of the cartridged film field.

The concern is an obvious one, and can be summed up with the often heard question directed to us by a good many filmmakers. To our question: Why have you not entered into the cartridged film field at a faster rate with more and better films? Their inevitable answer is always a question: I would love to get into this end of the film business, but can you tell me what film system to adopt? What will be the eventual standard?

In dealing with the question of suitable standards, corollary cases of the early differences in 16mm film can be cited. A much later and perhaps better analogy is the disc recording turntable speed controversy of a decade ago.Two of the original three seem to have survived, with a very definite use area for each of the two survivors.

The problem with 8mm film, for that medium seems at this point to be the logical one for the cartridge system of managing "filmed type" information, is that there are several manners of managing the image and several possible choices for managing the sound track. Therefore, all possible combinations of each differing system make it possible to come up with a dozen or more ways to organize a film in the 8mm width.

The possibility of leap-frogging the film medium and going straight to an electronic manner of storing and retrieving the "film type" information has been considered at many times by project staff members. Discussions have been held on the possibility of this trend with engineers from manufacturers of both electronic gear as well as more traditional film handling 45 equipment.Most think that electronic systems arequite certain to be developed in the future and thatthey will probably eventually be universally adopted.The big question is when will such systems arrive? The answer to this question as given by qualified,highly trained men has ranged from a "couple of years" to as much as a quarter of acentury.Most tend to agree that ten to fifteen years seems areasonable and thoughtful time estimate.

Regardless of the acceptance of this basicpoint of view, we must deal then with thequestion of managing information on 8mm film for atleast the next decade, give or take alittle. If you agree with Silberman in the August'66 Fortune, or with a group of writersin the January '67 Phi Delta Kappan, or with Barron's newspaper, or with any of many other sources quotable in the past six months, that thetechnological revolution really is "at the school housedoor," then you will agree that we mustdeal with this question seriously, and soon.

Some findings of research efforts atthe Michigan State University's Instructional Media Center mayhave some bearing on the question athand.

In conjunction with a USOE contract, wehave been investigating Single Concept Films since early1964. The general nature of our Single ConceptFilm Clip Project was one of investigating the feasibility ofretrieving film loops or short films from existing filmed materialwhich is currently on the educational market.We have arrived at a numberof general conclusions about single conceptfilms as well as some generalizations onsuitable equipment. As a matter of fact, we were so concerned about theequipment situation that we requested anextension of the Project with funds toplan and manage this National Conference onCartridged Films.

The nature of the Conference is notonly to discuss single concept films (as well as allfilms managed in self treading plastic cartridges), but to movethe discussion in the general direction of a ratherhard look at the standards situation. Men of applied science moreparticularly engineers, have a great advantage over some of uswho like to think of ourselves as specialists in instruction. They are able to use a standard, commonmeasuring system and their vocabulary is relativelyoperational in that a technical word meansthe 46 same thing to one person as it does to another. I suspect that they do have some communication problems within their profession (as all professions do when they work on extremely abstract and difficult ievels) but nevertheless, they are way ahead of those of us in the social sciences when it comes to exchanging information between people or institutions with any kind of precision.

But we think that there is a problem of semantics for the engineers and technicians just as there is for the educators and psychologists. We are continually amazed by the lack of basic communication within the industrial and business community. We seem to turn up differing terms and interpretations as we confer with those concerned with film hardware. Hopefully, this meeting may help to solve some of these problems.

One of our major concerns is the "equipment gap" which we feel is so obvious in the single concept field today.We don't want to infer that the equipment which is now available is inferior. It certainly was badly needed and was quite sophisticated when it was introduced.

The two machines that are primarily used for teaching and learning within the cartridged film or single concept context are, of course, the Technicolor series of film loop machines that take silent 50 foot loops and the Fairchild system that takes longer films and that has the advantage of a sound track. For the size of the potential market for which these machines were developed, they are really rather sophisticated and rather good pieces of hardware. However, we feel they leave some things to be desired in terms of long-range planning and long- range development within the cartridged film field.

First let us examine some of the problems that must be solved immediately if developments are to continue in a positive direction. First, we have differences between standard 8mm and Super 8mm film.We were not greatly committed to 8mm as a format when we entered the investigation. Our major concern was the handling of single concept ideas. Nevertheless, as pointed out earlier, it seems rather obvious at this point that 8mm film is the most logical, and no doubt at least the "short-range' answer to the question of film size for use in cartridges. 47

However, there are actually threedifferent 8mm systems, and without attempting to be aprophet or to dictate what should be done, we know thateducators formally charged with purchasing equipment andmaterials for schools, and/or university departments, are in realtrouble with budgeting and purchasing groups when they attempt tobuild duplicate or triplicate systems of 8mm whenthere is really not that much "screen" difference among thethree. Therefore, we have issued virtual pleas to thepeople from industry to get together and decide which itis to be and on what basis. The "8" versus "Super 8" versus"Maurer 8" dilemma needs to be solved. We don't care topredict at this point which of the three systems is superior orwhich is likely to win out. RaLional cases can be built foreach system, but our concern is that something must be doneto eliminate or at least come to terms with theduplication of systems.

The second major problem involvesthe use of sound. We are convinced from ourinvestigations into the field that cartridged films by andlarge must have sound tracks. Sound tracks can be used forvarious purposes and the film can always be used as asilent film simply by turning off a sound switch on mostprojectors. This is not to say that there are not useable films in thesilent format-- there are: But as we look at thelong-range development of suitable hardware and equipment for themanagement of film in this medium, we have come to theconclusion that hardware with sound track capability is anabsolute necessity.

Now, if you will grant usthis point, it then raises the question of the next majorproblem within industry as far as the management of soundis concerned on 8mm film. There are two basic ways to go atit, as most of you know. One is the optical sound tracksimilar to that which is on 16mm educational film and 35mmcommercial entertainment films, though no consensusis available as to its location on the film. (Sprocket side, or the oppositeside?) The alternate system is thesomewhat newer magnetic sound in which a thin strip of ironoxide is placed on the film and then magnetized,much asin an audio tape recorder. Again, which side, or both, is thetrack to be placed on the film? There are some very definiteadvantages to be argued for each of the twogeneral systems, and again our purpose is not to argueeither or both of these pointsof view, but rather to say to youthat we are pleading with 48 industry to set up some reasonablestandards so that we in education can make somerational purchasing decisions.

The third major problemis that of the laboratoryproblem inherent ..1, making largevolumes of 8mm releaseprints for mass distribution. Optical reduction from 16mmnegatives has been the most satisfactorymethod to date. This method is too slow for high volume printing,however. Furthermore, 8mm negatives, coupled with a high speedcontact printing processhas in general led to less thansatisfactory prints.

A glimmer of light canbe reported on thisproblem, high however. Bell & Howell has built,for Eastman Kodak, a speed, magnetic sound,single trip machine toproduce release 4-track prints. The machine uses apre-perforated 35mm width, negative. Precision contact printing,along with magnetic sound stripping and soundtransfer are all done in one pass through the machine. The release prints areslit into the "Super 8" width, anddelivered ready for packaging. This machine is to be installedfor study in a demonstrationlabora- tory in Rochestershortly after the first ofthe year. Po- tentially, here is an answer tothe high volume,lost-cost 8mm release print question.

Technicolor of California isalso experimenting withthe laboratory problems involvedin making release printsin large volume with high speedequipment. No "firm" data onthe Tech- nicolor system was available atthe time this paper was prepared.

In addition to thethree rather obvious 8mmmachine systems either on the market orlikely to be on the marketin the near future, there are someother somewhat exotic systems also available. Audion has mated aTechnicolor machine with a cartrilge taperecorder in one instance. The Panacolor machine is a system ofmanaging filmed materialwhere the film stock is 70mm wide.This system has twelve tracksof visual information and twelve tracksof optical soundinformation. The machine itself handlesthe film on a backwardand forward basis so that there is norewinding necessary. There has in which two been some experimentationwith double 16mm systems tracks of information are put onstandard 16mm film. The obvious advantage to thisis the compatibilitywith present laboratory procedures inmaking release prints. However, to our knowledge,nothing serious is comingof this at the present 49

time. We have even heardrecently of a researcher in California experimentingwith a 3mm width film. We know of no one whohas experimented seriously with16mm film in a self-threading or non-threadingcartridge.

Another problem that seems tobe on the immediate horizon is that of the filmloop vs reel-to-reel mechanical system of moving andstoring the film itself. Are both systems really necessary, oris this another instance of corporate "one upsmanship"that may throw another monkey wrench into the standards problem?The issue cannot be ignored.

To paraphrase Bob Wagnerfrom Ohio State in his summary at the 1961Teachers College Seminar on 8mmsound film and education, "Our major concernis really not whether it is 16, 8, 3, 70mm or captured onthermoplastic, or whether it appears in a bowl ofjello." We need some standards that are rational andsensible so that we can make decisionsfor purchasing both software and hardware.

SOME OF THE USES OF CARTRIDGEDAND SINGLE CONCEPT FILMS

The decisions delineatedin this paper must be made before we can begin to get somereal mileage out of cartridged film loops or single conceptfilms. Let us briefly list three or four of the waysin which we think cartridged films can be used as excellentteaching resources.

Television Programing. More and more television programing is being done (particularly oncollege campuses and eventually, we are sure, onpublic school campuses) in the basic, large membershipintroductory courses. We feel that the addition of librariesof films built upon a single concept principle would beof great advantage toprofessors who must teach theseclasses and who must rely on someinstruc- tional resources to use intheir teaching.

Classroom Instruction. The most obvious use forshort films is in classroom instructionin the same general manner that standard films havebeen used for many years. Science teachers have made particularlyeffective use of films. One must recognize thatscience teachers have had better access to films than most otherteachers. Funds were made available earlier and in largerquantity both for the production and local purchase of goodscience films. A classroom, 50 single concept cartridged projection systemwith adequate access to materialshas already proven to be anexcellent new dimension to veryeffective traditional use of instructional films.

Self-Study. Perhaps one of the most excitingpotential uses for single conceptfilms is in the area of self-study. We are convinced of thevalue of self-study and would like to see the provisionof libraries with materials ofthis kind to which students have access.We believe that learningcarrels with enclosed suitable hardware inwhich youngsters can study single concept films intensively andwithout time limitations, will increase their understanding ofthe processes and procedures so illustrated and explained.

Inductive Learning. Another logical and obvious useof films is in the inductive learning process asdescribed by scholars in various professional journalsand reports. Cer- tainly if we are to study the basic natureof the learning process and discover more aboutit, we are first going to have to begin to use materials thathave some scientific validity, and second, use materials that aremodular enough for experimental control. It is very difficult for us tocontrol an experimental situation managed physicallyby a live person so that it replicates itself exactlytime after time. Obviously, a powerful advantageof the film medium is that thefilm teacher never gets tired, andthe inflection of the voice andthe presentation never changes. Nothing ever fails to work inthe laboratory as demonstrated on thesingle concept film. If we are to make seriousresearch efforts into the basicnature of learning, and we must, single conceptfilms seem to be a tool of significant value.

Do It Yourself Single ConceptFilms. Aside from the general emphasis today on thelarge volume, library resource,single concept films, there stands yetanother potentially exciting use of the single concept medium. The basic economics of the 8mm film system make it possible forvirtually every department in a schuol system toproduce films of their ownfol purposes unique to their own institution ordepartment. Gone are the expensive, high cost factors in making a16mm sound film. Some limited expertise is necessary along with abasic equipment collection, but the costs are in thehundreds of dollars for veryadequate systems, as compared with thetens of thousands of dollarsfor a basic 16mm motionpicture unit. 51

No claim ismade that the workis of similar quality, automatic features but imaginationalong with helpful and built into the new8 system make for someexciting things all happening in manyinstitutions. Involving students, of basic nature ages, infilmmaking motivatesthem to get at the of the concept andthe manner in whichit must be organized is and managed in thefilm medium. Lifted from the teacher Students cannot his basic nemisis,the yolk cfmotivation. without a basic un- make films, evenrather ordinary films, derstanding of the dataand the process. And this is exactly what we areafter in ourteaching.

An important andbasic point that weeducators find factors hard to "get usedto" is the newtime or wear-out The basic that are an inherentpart of today'sshort films. ought to nature of thesingle concept filmis such that you it out the wear it outthe first year,and if you do wear probably you are first year with alarge number of uses, But going to wear outthe equipmentrather rapidly too. in this is possibleonly with highvolume use-- predicated within the industry. turn, uponreasonable standards that when they This is fine. Let's wear them out so hardware, better are obsolete wecan replacethem with better films, and bettersystems.

For many, many yearswe in theaudiovisual business have lived withthe notion ofmaking a film last ten years. world Certainly if anyonein the educationaland industrial information that is ten yearsold is pretty bad- knows that of you in ly out of dateand relativelyunusable, it's those So fine, let's the audience selectedfor this conference. replaced every year,and make these films sothat they can be that they can besold at let's handle themin such a volume business agents and our pur- a pricethat will not cause our materials chasing people toblanch when we want anew set of of the cartridged each year for ourclasses. The very nature itself to film loop, the verynature of the8mm system leads Within that con- this kind of overall,long-range thinking. for better sys- text, and atthis point intime, our plea is and aurally with somede- tems of handling8mm film visually gree ofstandardization present. questions by indus- Summary. We arepersistently asked of hardware that we trial concernsrelating to the kind think is necessary. 52

We have talked about most of these concerns and most of the questions in this paper. Two or three more points might be added. We think hardware of this kind should be sold under $200.00 per unit. Equipment manufacturers sometimes blanch when we use this figure, and yet the thing we are talking about here is an item of such high volume that it is not comparable with present 16mm projection systems. We would be quite happy with present 16mm equipment if the film could be managed in a cartridge and if it were in this price range. But it seems impractical to think that this will happen in the 16mm format, and it does seem practical in the 8mm format.

We think cartridged films themselves, the film loops or whatever form they take, should eventually be sold to libraries and educational institutions in roughly the same price range as that of good resource books. It is difficult to convince your dean that you need a $200.00 film, but it is "duck soup" to convince him that you need twerty $10.00 books. Consequently, there is a political and a sociological factor here that makes it very "sexy" to talk about lots of short films that can be purchased much as you would purchase resource materials for your science library.

Broken down on a per-minute basis, sound filmstrips (collections of still-pictures with a record that go with them) can be purchased on the market for approximately fifty cents per minute. The silent 8mm film loops that many of you use now are selling at approximately $5.00 per minute of material, and the 16mm sound film sells today at about $10.00 per minute of material. These are not production prices but are market prices to the consumer for full-color material. We would like to see a $10.00 cartridged sound film of 3 to 4 minutes length with a sound track available to all kinds of educational institutions throughout the country.

I'd like to advance an open question which should be aimed primarily at the industrial concerns represented at the Conference. We haven't heard from some of the big organizations in the equipment field. We admire greatly the Fairchild 53

Company for taking the plunge into the 8mm marketa number of years ago, and we admire Technicolor for getting intothis field a lesser number of yearsago with a silent machine that has sold very well for them. We haven't heard from the Bell & Howell's, the Eastman Kodak's, the RCA's, the Graflexes, and the Victorkalart's, the 3M's, the Ampex'sor the Sony's. We wonder where these organizations areso far as the development of hardware is concerned to manage singleconcept type materials. Surely they are now planning and thinking in this direction.

In closing, we would like to emphasize the interdependency between the "software," in this case the films, and the "hardware." Assuming that some problems of standardization can be overcome, the two must grow together hand in hand. We can't buy films without hardware being availableand you can't manufacture hardware without good films beingavail- able for it. So hardware manufacturers and film producers must work together. Those of us concerned with learning and teaching must not be very far behind in the development of the field. Most technicological developments in the audiovisual field have happened in spite of educatorsrather than because of them, and the time has arrived whenwe would like to work with the business community to developnewer and better systems of information handling foruse in instructional programs. 54

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Project secretaries Beverly Johnson and Mary Lou Shull register two participants at the first session. 55

Forsdale, HoraceMann-Lincoln Institute Professor Louis who chaired the Communications ofTeacher's College, on in 1962 National Meeting onsound 8mmmotion pictures part in thedeliberations. at ColumbiaUniversity, took 56

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Four past presidents of the Department of Audiovisual Instruction were present for the Conference. Dr. M3ndel Sherman of Indiana University, Dr. Paul Witt ofColumbia University, Dr. Charles Schuller of Michigan State Uni- versity (Dr. Schuller has been the chairman of the Film Clip Project) and Dr. James Brown of San Jose State College all provided leadership at the Conference. 57

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Small group sessions weredesigned to provide every his Conference participantwith the chance to express films. concerns andideas on the subjectof cartridge 58

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Julien Bryan of International Film Foundation makes a point during one of thebreaks. 59

Informal dialog was the order ofthe day at coffee breaks and social hours. Salvatore Daccurso of the Jayark Instrument Corporationand Charles Schuller discuss a point "over the cup." 60

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The Michigan weather....ah well, the less said the better: 61

Dr. James Page,Director of the InstructionalMaterials Center in the Collegeof Education at MichiganState served as the Director ofthe Film Clip Projectduring its initial year. 62

Bob Suchy of Milwaukee discourses with Dr. Erling Jorgensen of the Closed Circuit Television system at Michigan State University. Mr. Suchy was the Conference summarizer and did a yoeman job enter- Laining the group at the final luncheon, as well as adding a dimension to the meeting that was thoughtful and appreciated. 63

Professor Edward McCoyof Michigan Statevisits with Kenneth Norberg ofCalifornia, President ofthe Department of AudiovisualInstruction of the National Education Association. v Y

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Rick Margoles, graduate student at Michigan State University gets some late information from Dr. John Childs of Wayne State University. THE CONFERENCE PAPERS

Each of the followingpapers was presented to the conferees during the February meetingin East Lansing. These papers were presented before the discussion sessions in orderto provide more information for the delegates. Each is reproduced with the permission of the author. CHAPTER V

PROMISES AND PITFALLS

A PAPER

Presented to the National Department of AudiovisualInstruction of the National Education Association

and

To Keynote the National Conference onCartridged Films February 22, 23, 24, 1967

Dr. Elwood E. Miller,Project Director and Mr. Charles G.Bollmann, Assistant ProjectDirector 72

While standing in a camera store recently Iobserved a young salesman, somewhatimmature in both years and experience, attempting to sell a customer on one of theTechnicolor 8mm cartridge machines. The young man said, "This is the latest idea in home movies--it is called a singleconception projector."

Althought I chuckled about the use of the term"single conception," actually the "conception" of thesingle concept film is an accomplished fact.Perhaps we are in a period of "gestation," and our real concern liesin the final form the infant will exhibit when some of the"pitfalls" are identified.

Michigan State Univarsity, through thefacilities of the Instructional Media Center, arranged a contractwith the U.S. Office of Education in 1964 to spend twenty-fourmonths investigating the single concept fieldand more particularly, ways of retrieving large amounts of existingfilmed material suitable for use in the single concept format.As a result of this contract, we are presenting to you this report,"Promises and Pitfalls."

Time magazine of April 1, 1966 contained anarticle in the education section on Project Discovery. Project Discovery is a joint effort of the Encyclopaedia Britannica film groupand the Bell & Howell instrument organization.The two major points illustrated by the Time article are: First, the complexity of equipment for managing motion pictures in classroomsituations. Second, the difficulty in obtaining--at theright time in the right place--for the right purpose--the rightpiece of film: In many cases, teachers identifyfilms as being too complex or containing too much information.

We feel that film clips do teach to thepoint, and that, if they can be made easily available to theteachers, significant changes might happen in teaching patterns andin learning experiences for young people.

We're concerned about the complexity ofhardware to present the motion picture imageand about the red tape involved in securing a given piece of film for aninstructional situation. And so the twin problems of filmaccessibility and machine complexity need to be hurdled in order tobring motion pictures in classroom situations to alevel never before 73 possible. We believe the overcoming of this dual problem could significantly influence instructional patterns in the future.

The introduction of two 8mm projectors, the silent, cartridge-fed 8mm projector by Technicolor, and the sound, cartridge projector by Fairchild, also in 8mm format, were significant strides in overcoming the problem.

It is our belief that the most valuable component of these two systems is the cartridge itself.The cartridge idea is not really new, but nevertheless we are convinced that the use of a simple, cartridge loaded machine represents a real breakthrough.

What is a single concept film?The term is somewhat unfortunate as far as the psychologists and learning theorists are concerned, but for purposes of our report we shall define it as a segment of film with a short, describable instructional content. We are very excited about the idea of cartridged single concept films, and we would like to share with you, in this report, some of our findings as well as the excitement that we feel as we speculate about the single concept idea.

The purposes of the Film Clip Project were three- fold. The first, and perhaps major purpose, was the identification of excerpting procedures and the creation of a sizable excerpt collection. We recognized from the beginning that perhaps the best way to make single concept films was to identify an instructional probl7ild, design and shoot the film from "scratch."However, in order to rapidly accumulate a large library of this kind of material, we recognized that we needed a way to get around "original production." There simply wasn't time to build a library of the thousands or perhaps tens of thousands of clips really needed to complete the idea. Our agreement with the U.S. Office of Education charged us with studying existing 16mm motion picture footage in some quantity, and analyzing it for possible excerpts which could be used in the single concept format with a manageable amount of editorial treatment. 74

Our second charge by the U.S. Office was to investigate and design an information retrieval scheme capable of keep- ing track of the film clips and getting at them with a minimum of difficulty. Information retrieval is a general problem in all of the educational community today, and our problems are really no different. Since we do envision in the near future tens of thousandsof titles available in this format, it will be necessary to have an efficient method of getting at a particular piece of film when it is needed.

Thirdly, we were interested in .7.quipment developments in the field. We will cover this a little more thoroughly, laLeL in the report, but we are quite concerned with the developments of hardware to handle the single concept films.

The three phases of the report will be coupled together to generate a report for the U.S. Office of Education which will be filed sometime in the near future.

Our procedures on the project can be described briefly as follows: There are 25,000 to 30,000 identifiable educational films marketed today in this country. From these thousands of films, from scores of producers, we selected films that we felt we could work with. We found we were limited somewhat by the kinds of people we could employ to make decisions on appropriate footage for excerpting. Avail- able films and "willing producers" also limited, to some degree, the investigation.

Our contract with the U.S. Office specified that we were to work in three subject matter areas.We chose the sciences, social sciences and foreign languages.

We Zollowed these specific procedures: The film was first selected from the catalogue of one of the producers cooperating with us on the project. A search was made of the film in order to identify segments that might be appropriate in the single concept mode. For the clip search we used Moviola library readers in order to facilitate the work through the random speed feature olf this machine.

The clip was then actually cut and removed from the film and respooled on a small plastic spool. Some time lapsed before the film was again examined by one of the excerpters. The excerpters were all graduate level, 75 advanced degree students at Michigan State University. We felt it important that the excerpter see the filmclip after a time lag of at least a week,and see it out of context before further decisions were made. If after seeing it out of context, the excerpter thought it could beedited into a usable clip, he then proceeded with an informationalform suggesting both visual and sound track editorial treatments.

A treatment sheet was thenwritten by the excerpters, containing information to the producer oneditorial suggestions, a descriptive paragraph and, suyyested use&f%),. the film clip. The descriptive paragraph was importantbecause it led us into another important phaseof the project, information handling.

Our librarian examined severalschemes previously devised for organizing the kinds ofinformation that we would need in order to secure from a bank orrepository of clips any one clip at the propertime. We assumed that most teachers would not see the clips orpreview them before their use; therefore, a descriptive paragraph waswritten for the clip. It is our feeling that the teacherwould be safe in using this film in given situationshaving only studied or read the descriptive paragraphahead of time. It is not practical to assume thatteachers will preview these thousands of film clips beforethey are actually used in classroom situations or assigned forindividual study.

We looked at a conventional indexfiling system and organized one using the informationderived from several hundred clips we identified in theproject. There are some advantages to conventional index filing,in that people are familiar with standard library-typefiling systems. There are some disadvantages,in that once it achieves acertain size it becomes awkward. We are still experimentingwith several systems and hope to receivepermission from the U.S. Office of Education tocontinue this part of the investigation for another year.

We devised an IBM card based,coordinate index, or "peek-a-boo" system. This is one that we feelmight potentially have some real importancein the single concept field. The final report of theproject will carry a de- tailed description of the libraryschemes evolved in the 76 investigation. The goal is toconceive an index whereby a minimum of effort couldlead a person to the properfilm on a rack or in arepository of films.

Although we haveseveral hundred rough cuts,it should be obvious that wewould not "editoriallytreat" all of the clips for silent usebecause of the researchnature of the project and because ofthe expense involved. Nevertheless, clips we have givencomplete editorialtreatment to a few film that were identifiedand treated forsilent use.

Sound clips were notgiven the full treatmentbecause in most cases onlytitles, credits andclosings would have been track was suggested, but necessary. Occasionally a new sound this treatmentnecessitates morelaboratory facilities than we hadavailable at MichiganState.

The major findings canbe summarized briefly asfollows: films are con- 1. Excerpting is feasiblewhere good existing to be resolved, cerned. We realize there aremany problems yet but many of these canbe handled by filmproducers working on a large quantity basis. question of correlating 2. We have addressedourselves to the with the quality of the the quality ofsingle concept excerpts by stating original film. We would generalizeon this question alter the original natureof that excerptingdoes not seem to written and the film. If it was awell-produced, carefully edited film to beginwi h, the excerptstend to be good excerpts. The reverse is alsotrue.

involved in excerpting. We will 3. There are cost factors in the final have some generalizedproduction cost statements much work report; however, costsare afunction of volume, and will have to be doneby those interestedin marketing films be- Editing always is a fore they can resolvethe cost question. function of cost in anytype of filmmaking. It is no different in the production ofexcerpted, single conceptfilms. the inadvisability 4. There has been a greatdeal written about of coupling a soundtrack to the visualtrack of a single concept both silent and sound film. We feel that thereis a need for original film, or on some track, either asit appears on the amended version. About half areperfectly usable with a 77 reasonable amount of visual editing in the silent format. We are convinced that the provision of equipment with sound capability will in effect double the potential number of clips available from existing films if and when film producers decide to excerpt their films.

5. Information secured from an IBM analysis of data sheets on the project yielded noteworthy information aboutthe film clips. We find on the average that an instructional film will produce about 31/4 clips. The length of the clip sec= to be in a twn to three minute area.We deliberately did not require our people to select clips to fit a certainfilm format or cartridge size. We asked them to identify the idea, select the clip or make the clip from a group of excerpts to address itself to a single idea. If it takes 10 minutes, and if it can be done in 30 seconds, fine, but the film length was decided by the basic instructional idea being dealt with. And yet, in our IBM print-out sheets we find that 2/3 of all clips selected fall in the two to three minute category.

We were interested in the number of lines and words per summary because of theinformation problem and our belief that ideally it should be available on the cartridge itself. We found that the average summary is 12 lines long and contains approximately a hundred words.

How many key words or terms per summary wereidentified? The IBM analysis tells us that the averageis 8 key terms per summary. These key terms were used as entries in the indexing system.

Where did we find clips in existing films? Based upon a five segmentcategorization of the films, 1696 of the clips were found in the first1/5 of the film. Twenty per cent in the second 1/5, twenty-three per cent in themiddle 1/5, twenty-two per cent in the next 1/5, and nineteen percent in the last 1/5. I think we would have hypothesized at the beginning of the project that we would find more clipsin the introductions and summaries than in thebody of the film. The reverse seems to be true.

Obviously, there are many other findings of a lesser nature that are not described in this report, but those findings will be included in the final printed report that 78 will eventually be submitted to the U.S. Office of Education.

RECOMMENDATIONS:

As a result of out study, a number of recommendations can be made. First, we might comment on the selection of the professional "decision" makers. In the judgment of those on the project, those people selted by tiro companies to a:zcerpt thcir existing motion picture footage should have two general types of abilities:

1. They should be competent in their subject matter field. This is relatively obvious and we are totally convinced, for example, that only a science major can excerpt science films.

2. We believe that, in view of the fact that these excerpters are really making decisions for teachers and decisions for students, they should have some sensitivity to and some experience in the teaching and education field. We suggest experi- enced teachers competent in a subject matter area be used to make the excerpting decisions.

Second, we are greatly concerned about the film formats in the educational motion picture field of today. There are three formats: (1) The super 8,(2) the standard 16mm, and (3) the standard 8. There are, also, two types of sound management prevalent: The optical or magnetic sound. We have no "axe to grind" about any of the three general formats. We have no bias or preference between optical or magnetic sound. Our only concern is a genuine fear that the single concept cartridge film idea will never really "get off the ground" until such time as some reasonable standardization of format is done within the industry itself. So we would plead with those of you who represent industry to resolve this dilemma.

Perhaps it isn't even necessary to standardize on one single format, but it certainly is necessary to reduce the number of formats that are being considered today. Several others, in addition to the three listed above are in existence. There is a 70 millimeter format, and there are some double 16mm formats. Many of these differing systems contain a lot of good ideas, and yet those of us in education who have to spend tax dollars will have to use some judgment on buying equipment that will fit quantities of film and buying films $

79 that will fit existingequipment. The question of inter-changeability of films betweencartridges, and cartridges between machines must bestudied and eventually resolved.

Again, let me reiterate--we'renot an 8mm project, we're not a 16mm project; we are aproject concerned with the management-ofideas for instruction in thefilm media.

Third, if we were asked torecommend very brieflythe kind of equipment wewould like to seedeveloped, it could be described asfollows:

We think it shouldbe capable of runningat both conventional sound andconventional silent speeds. It obviously should besimple and lightweight. It should have silent machine a soundcapability. You can always have a by turning off thesound button. It should bedesigned with a specificaudience in mind. If it is to be aclass- function in that room projector,it should be designed to kind of learningsituation. If it is forindividual study We or learning,perhaps a differentdesign can be used. think one of the primeneeds is for equipmentto have the ability to reproducesound as well asimages.

If you were tomanufacture thesemachines, what would they need to sellfor? We are convincedthat in the $150 to $200 dollarprice range you wouldsell vast quantities less than half of the equipment. This figure represents the cost of present16mm equipment (or 8mmsound machines), of and it representsperhaps somethingin'the neighborhood twice the cost of 8mmsilent equipment. This is a compromise in a sense,but we would speculatethat school administrators would buyquantities of equipmentif it were in this price bracket.

Fourth, we would makerecommendations on the costof films themselves. We would like to seethem competitive with reference materialin libraries. School districts askance when youask and budget reviewboards tend to look for $150 films. When you ask for a$10 book there's no general problem. We would like to seethese in the same price category. 80

What does information of this type cost now? Sound film strips cost 50 cents per minute of material. Silent 8mm film clips sell at $5 per minute of material, and 16mm sound film at $10 per minute. These are not production prices but are market prices to the consumer. We would like to see a $10 cartridge sound film of the 3 to 4 minute length indicated earlier in the report.

SPECULATIONS:

The nature of our investigation is one that requires considerable speculation, in that there isn't a lot of concise and analytical data that can be scientifically organized. The nature of the field necessitates some "hypothetical hunching." What kinds of things might happen if the single concept idea really developed into a major part of the audiovisual field? Perhaps filmed encyclopedias might develop.Several film production companies that we have visited have expressed an interest in a single concept film reference library.

We would speculate that until a very high volume is reached, both in hardware and films, the prices indicated in the above paragraphs will not come about. In the American business community, price is primarily a function of market volume. Single Concept films can be a high volume item leading to very reasonable prices.

We would like to see the equipment placed within departments in schools, and within grade levels, and even, perhaps, within rooms in certain instances. It is not unreasonable to supply a teacher with a projection device of the type visualized in this report. Collections of films placed within buildings or within departments and perhaps even within grades, would be a corollary to equipment accessibility.

One of the exciting speculations concerns individual learning with individual study carrels. This kind of material should be available for youngsters to study at their own pace in libraries or instructional material centers. This is not a new idea. It is already being done in many cases, and it is quite exciting. 81

We think it is evenpossible that these could eventually be retailed locally(as are paperback books) so that youngsters working in chemistry couldpick up a set of clips at their bookstore or corner schoolsupply center and study ontheir own in their ownhomes. (Could they even be a part of ahome entertainment center?)

In summarizing thereport, we must againemphasize the interdependency between thefilm and the hardware. One cannot grow withoutthe other. We would suggest to thoseof you in industrythat each leans heavily uponthe other, and that therefore, you mustcooperate in the developmentof the single concept field.

We think of theinterdependency of equipment andfilms, then volume andprices, as the old "chicken and eggproblem." Perhaps it can bebroken by the excerpting route. Large volumes of film are necessary,and we think large volumesof very adequatefilm can be retrieved fromexisting motion picture film.We think that the morefilm clips are used the more likely itis that traditional filmswill be used. We think the conception of thesingle concept idea was anin- teresting and very important one.We're anxious to see it grow to maturity. We think that teachersmust and will learn to use this kindof filmed material indifferent and newer ways than they arepresently using film. Those of you in industry must help to solve someof the problems, some ofthe pitfalls that we havesuggested.

In a very general sense,the four areas that wethink single concept filmsfit into very nicely are: First, classroom instruction,the illustration ofprinciples and the like; second, individualinstruction in library situations;third, illustrative support intelevision programing, andfourth, and perhaps the mostexciting, their place withinthe programing concept. Programing is being done todayalmost totally in verbal methodsand it is obvious toeducators that verbalizationis not enough in programing.We think single concept filmsshould occupy some ofthose frames now held by verbal descriptions.

Educators do not need tobe convinced of theteaching power of thefilm medium. We are excitedand sold on the single concept film idea,and we would pleadthat industry and education cooperateto hurdle the numerous"pitfalls" in order to reap thebenefit of the "promises"of single concept films. 82

Our last question is, does thisrepresent the end of a presentation, or the beginning of a new modeof instructional use for films? CHAPTER VI

BIRS: A SYSTEM OF GENERAL PURPOSE COMPUTER PROGRAMS FOR INFORMATION RETRIEVAL

John F. Vinsonhaler

Typically, computer users draw littledistinction between computer hardware and software. Most scholars and scientists are so thoroughlyoccupied with their own disciplines that they find little time to learn theintricacies of computer programming. For such individuals, the usefulnessof any particular information processing system is asmuch limited by the availability of general purpose programs as by the computa- tional power of the system.Thus, collections of general purpose computer programs are of enormoussignificance in computer applications. Collections of general purpose computer programs have been extensivelydeveloped in the area of data processing by such researchers as Cooley and Lohnes(1962), Dixon (1962), Tryon and Bailey (1966), etc. Currently, such general purpose systems are being developedin other areas of computer application, includingInformation Retrieval. Un- fortunately, most of the Information Retrieval(IR) Systems are of ratherlimited generality. While a vast array of IR programming_ systems are currently in use(Berul, 1964), most are speAal purpose systems,i.e., they are based upon single methods of developing IR Systemsdesigned for implementation at particular computer installations,etc. For example, while Key-Word-In-Context (KWIC) programs are generallyavailable at most computer installations, such programs arelimited to the development of IR Systems based uponpermuted author- title printed index. Similarly, while the INFOL System (CDC, 1965) or the Rand Catalogue System(Kay and Ziehe, 1965) can be used todevelop a variety of IR Systems, bothcollec- tions of programs are designed forimplementation on a particular type of computer.

A few systems of general purpose programs arecurrently available in the area of InformationRetrieval. To begin with, Janda (1966) recently released TRIAL, ageneral purpose IR Systemspecifically designed for the retrievalof abstracts of documents punched on cardswithout internal organization, by means of traditionallogical searches also punched on cards. Another somewhat more general IR programming system is the Generalized InformationSystem (GIS) now under preparation for the IBM 360Series of Computers (IBM, 1965). 84

The GIS provides an extension of TRIAL in that the GIS is capable of searching specific portions of abstracts and may be easily used to generate printed indexes for collections of information. However, GIS is designed for a particular line of computers, whereas TRIAL is designed for any computer utilizing FORTRAN, the most commonly available programming language.

At present, there appears to be only one system of truly general _purpose computer programs for Information Retrieval in the behavioral sciences: The Basic Indexing and Retrieval System (BIRS). Essentially, BIRS is a set of fundamental pro - grams designed to allow scholars and scientists to use their own locally based computer to construct and maintain a variety of IR Systems. Thus, BIRS may be viewed as a set of essential IR tools. The research worker may use these tools to construct the type of IR System which best meets his immediate needs.

In general, BIRS may be adapted to the development of any IR System having the following characteristics: First, each of the informational elements (e.g., documents, summaries of documents, references to documents, etc.) retrieved by the IR System must be punched on cards. Second, for purposes of indexing or retrieval, each of these informational elements must be describable by a collection of terms (e.g., a set of key-words indicating the topical content of the element, etc.). Within these rather broad limits, BIRS may be used to construct and maintain a variety of IR Systems ranging from computer generated books with author/subject indexes, to computer based searching and retrieval systems with automated retrieval of informational elements in response to users' questions.

The development of BIRS has particularly emphasized three major characteristics which have proved especially important for general purpose systems: portability, simplicity, and adaptability. Portability refers to the ease with which BIRS, or IR Systems based upon BIRS, may be transferred from one computer installation to another. In general, such systems should be easily implemented at most university computer centers, since BIRS is written entirely in a FORTRAN IV level language, and uses the minimum storage configuration generally availablein scientific computer centers: 32,000 words of core storage and six tape drives. The iorm of BIRS described in the present report is currently implemented on the Control Data Corporation 3600 at Michigan State University. Implementations of the system 85 at other installations are nowin progress. Simplicity refers to the ease of using BIRS or IRSystems based upon BIRS. In order to be of maximal value ineducation and behavioral science, BIRS shouldbe easily used by any researcher,regardless of his technical backgroundin IR or computer science. Accordingly, the system is constructed tohandle IR processing in the most straightforward mannerwith a minimum degree of controlrequired of the user. In addition, a comprehensive Technical Manual(Vinsonhaler, 1966) has been developed for the system whichprovides a background reading in IR, and thorough descriptionsof all programs. Adaptabil- tx refers to the degree towhich individual scholars may adapt the system to their own purposes. This characteristic is of particular importance ineducational and behavioral science IR, because of thediversity of informational needs and the necessity forexperimentation with various typesof IR methods within thesefields. Adaptability implies both ease of modificationand flexibility of use. Ease of mod- ification is designed into the systemby using so-called "open-ended, modular" constructionand by organizing the programming according to Vickery's(1965) theoretical analysis of IR Systems into independentclusters of dependent operations. Thus, each program in BIRSperforms a separate basic operation and may be modified orreplaced without major changes in the remainingcomponents of the system.Flex- ibility is built into the system by(1) completely automating only those clerical operations commonto most IR systems; (2) allowing the user to controlthe operations which are nonclerical and dependent uponhis particular IR needs; and (3) providing the user with achoice among programs and among methods within asingle program.

THEORY

Most currently functioning IRprogramming systems are designed to implement ratherspecific types of IR Systems (W, 1966). Hence, such systems aredeveloped ad hoc with minimal theoretical foundations. In contrast, BIRS isdesigned to implement many typesof IR Systems. Consequently, an attempt hasbeen made to establish anexplicit theoretical basis for the methods usedin developing the system.

The general design of BIRSis based upon an extension of Vickery's (1965)theoretical analysis of IR Systems. Es- sentially, this theoreticalmodel is an abstractionof the 86 functioning of mosttraditional libraries,and provides a basis for systems like BIRS,which permit users todevelop automated or partiallyautomated IR Systems,which are firmly based upon familiar traditional-librarymethods.

The fundamentaltheoretical model for SIRSis summarized in Table 1, and isdiscussed at length inthe Technical Manual discussion of for the system(Vinsonhaler, 1966). A complete analogous IR Systemmodels is also available(Fossum, 1966).

TheBIRS theoretical model assumesthree types of funda- and mental informationalelements: abstracts, descriptions, with questions.. Three fundamentaloperations are associated these elements: information storage,_indexing, and retrieval, These basic operations maybe clarified byanalogy with traditional library operations. Information storagecorresponds to the maintenanceof the collection ofbooks and periodicals in the traditionallibrary, i.e., the storageof documents for retrieval by access label or"call number." Information indexing corresponds tothe maintenance of anindex to the contents author, title, or sub- of the library, i.e.,the maintenance of ject catalogs. Finally, informationretrieval operations are analogous to the processof searchingauthor-title, or subject catalogs for the"call numbers" ofrelevant documents, and then retrievingthe documents,themselves, by means of their "call numbers."

Essentially, BIRS is anopen-ended collectionof independent computer programsorganized according tothis general theoretical model.Thus, the systemincludes a separate set of computer programsfor each of thethree fundamental opera- Each tions of informationstorage, indexing,and retrieval. component program isdesigned to aid the userwith a single fundamental operation. To construct aparticular type of IR System, the usersimply selects the propercomponent programs. The main advantageof this "modular"design is flexibility. Since the fundamentaloperations are mutuallyindependent, the component programs maybe used or modifiedindependently. Hence, differentcomponents may becombined in various ways to produce a varietyof IR Systems. Similarly, the entire system may beselectively modified byreplacing existing components (or adding newones) for one fundamentaloperation- - without any modificationof componentsdesigned for other basic operations. 87

TABLE 1: Fundamental OperationsPerformed by IR Systems

OPERATION DESCRIPTION concerned with the pre- l(FORMATION These operations are of the basic informa- STORAGE paration and storage tional elements tobe processed by thesystem. ABSTRACTINGAbstracts (a) aredefined as basic informational elements, e.g.,summaries of documents. This process consistsof the preparationof abstracts for input tothe IR System. defined as collections INFORMATION Information files are file are FILE of abstracts. The contents of the where a denotes any MAINTENANCE sets of the form , abstract and La denotes aunique label or access numberfor the abstract. This operation consists ofpreparing or updating the file, so that abstracts maybe located by means of theunique access labels. concerned with the pre- INFORMATION These operations are descriptions of the INDEXING paration and storage of topical contents ofabstracts. defined as topical de- ANALYSIS Descriptions (da) are scriptions of abstracts,which are to be used to locate abstractsby subject content, e.g., sets of key-words. Analysis is concernedwith the preparation ofdescriptions for eachab- stract in theInformation File. defined as indexes to DESCRIPTION Description files are collections of de- (INDEX) information files, i.e., of the form . FILE scriptions and labels link between topicde- MAINTENANCE These files provide a scriptions (da) andabstracts (a) by means of the unique accesslabels. The operations consist of preparing orupdating the contents of the index. concerned with the re- INFORMATION These operations are stored in theinformation RETRIEVAL trieval of abstracts file , by meansof descriptionsstored in the index ordescription file ,in response toquestions (a) submittedby users. Questions are defined asrequests for abstracts QUESTIONING of a by topic. A question(a) is a description class of abstracts, e.g.,a set ofkey terms defining the type ofinformation of interest. Questioning refers tothe process ofstating such search requests.

1 88 TABLE 1 continued:

SEARCHING Searching refers to the process of using the description file to locate relevant abstracts. Thus, searching includes reading questions We comparing questions and descriptions (qida), and storing the locations (q,La) of relevant abstracts. RETRIEVING Retrieving refers to the process of reading relevant abstracts from the information file, i.e., using the results of searching (q,La) to output relevant abstracts, (q,a). 89

The fundamental operations performed by SIRS are summarized in Table 2. As indicated in the table, the preparation of abstracts and questions must be performed by the user. All other fundamental operations may be performedby the user, performed by the user aided by BIRS, or performedentirely by BIRS, under the control of the user.

The preceding discussion provides only abrief summary of the general theoretical foundations of BIRS. Each component program in the system rests upon morespecific theoretical considerations, which are fully discussed in theTechnical Manual (Vinsonhaler, 1966),

THE SYSTEM

The initial version of the BasicIndexing and Retrieval System (BIRS/I) is now fully operative onthe CDC 3600 at Michigan State University. Essentially, BIRS/I is designed to generate IR Systems using theso-called method of "coordinate index " -- descriptions of abstracts arelimited to un- ordered sets of key descriptive terms. This initial system has been implemented on two typesof CDC 3600 configurations and has been used to generate avariety of IR Systems. We are now ready tobegin implementing BIRS/I on other typesof computers.*We do not expect to encountermajor difficulties, since all programs are written in aFORTRAN IV level language and require modest storagefacilities (32,000 words of core storage and three tapedrives).

The computer programs included in BIRS areeach designed to perform one of the three basicoperations of IR Systems described in the previous section. Table 3 summarizes the functions performed by the seven programsincluded in the initial system, BIRS/I.

*Copies of BIRS/I and the PreliminaryTechnical Manual (Vinson- haler, 1966) are available at cost fromthe Learning Systems Institute, 201 Erickson Hall, Michigan StateUniversity, East Lansing, Michigan, 48823. 90

TABLE 2: Fundamental IR Operations Performed by BIRS

OPERATION PERFORMED AIDED PERFORMED BY USER BY BIRS BY BIRS

Information Storage

Abstracting Yes No No

Information File Maintenance Yes Yes Yes

Information Indexing

Analysis Yes Yes Yes

Description File Maintenance Yes Yes Yes

Information Retrieval

Questioning Yes No No

Searching Yes Yes Yes

Retrieving Yes Yes Yes

Ca 91

collection of com- Briefly, BIRS/Iincludes a minimal Thus, ponent programscovering the threemajor operations. aid the user withinforma- one program(IFMP) is provided to provided tion storage; threeprograms(DAP, DFMP, PIP) are (DFSP, IFRP) areprovided for for informationindexing; and two program(EXEC) information retrieval. Finally, one additional manipulation of the system asa is provided toaid with the operation from the sys- whole, e.g., to callcomponents into tem library tape, with BIRS, the In constructing anyparticular IR System and researcher mayutilize various typesof cards, tapes, and reports used or gen- printed reports. The cards, tapes, to the erated with thesystem may beclassified according fundamental IR Systemoperation which they serve. input for IR Systems Table 4 summarizesthe main card abstracts, descriptionsof developed withBIRS/I. As shown, The ab- abstracts, andquestions are allinput on cards. the user. The stract andquestion cards mustbe prepared by descriptor cards maybe prepared bythe user or by BIRS programs. of cards It should benoted that notall of these types are neededfor allapplications. be used with IR Table 5 summa:Azesthe tapes which may As with component Systems developedby BIRS/I programs. with one of the programs andcards, each tapeis concerned abstracts, the DFT major IR operations: The IFT contains of abstracts,and the QFTcontains contains descriptions relevant to the questions and the accessnumbers of abstracts questions. will require the useof As before, notall IR Systems automated systems re- all tapes. In general,only completely systems replacetapes quire all tapes. Partially automated with printed reports. used with IR Sys- Table 6 summarizesthe printed reports As indicated,each type tems developedfrom BIRS/I programs. with one of thethree major of report ismainly concerned operations. 92 TABLE 3: Component Programs of the Basic Indexing and Retrieval System (BIRS/I)

OPERATION PROGRAM FUNCTIONS

Executive EXEC The Executive Program is designed to store and retrieve component programs comprising BIRS.

Information IFMP The Information File Maintenance Storage Program is designed to read informational elements from cards, assign a unique access number to each element, and store the element on the Informa- tion File Tape (IFT), so that the element may be retrieved, given its access number.

Information DAP The Descriptive Analysis Program is Indexing designed to aid the user with the (Descriptive ta3k of indexing or classifying in- Analysis) formational elements. In general, DAP reads informational elements either from the IFT or from cards and searches them for key words. Thus, DAP may be used either to perform a word frequency analysis or to automatically index informational elements. Information DFMP The Description File Maintenance Indexing Program is designed to read de- (Description criptions (i.e., sets of indexing File Maintenance) terms) and access numbers of informational elements from cards and store them on the Description Fia.e Tape (DFT) to provide an index to the contents of the Informa- tion File Tape (IFT). The user may manually generate the card input for the DFMP, or use either the IFMP or the DAP, to aid him with this task. Information PIP The Printed Indexing Program is de- Indexing signed to prepare a traditional (Printed author or subject index using in- Indexing) formational elements read from cards or from the IFT, or using descriptions read from cards or from the DFT. The IFMP may be used in 93 conjunction with this program to generate a listing of informational elements organized by access number.

Information DFSP The Description File Searching Pro- Retrieval cram is designed to read requests (Automated for particular types of informational Searching) elements (stated as sets of key terms) from cards, to search the DFT for relevant informational elements, and to store the access numbers of the most relevant elements on the Question File Tape (QFT). Information IFRPThe Information File Retrieval Program Retrieval is designed to read requests and access (Automated numbers of the relevant informational Retrieval) elements from the QFT, retrieve the corresponding informational elements from the IFT, and print both the requests and the relevant informational elements for the user. 94 TABLE 4: Cards Used with Component Programs of BIRS/I

OPERATION CARD TYPE FUNCTION

Executive BIRS Control cards are used to select and Control Control component programs and govern their Cards operations. Each cai0 is punched with a *$ in the first two columns, followed by a control phrase. For example, cards calling the IMP would contain *$IFMP. Information Abstract Abstract cards are used to input Storage and Cards informational elements to be pro- Indexing cessed by the system. An abstract may consist of any set of information punched on from one to fifty cards. Each abstract is identified by a unique "access number" or "label," normally assigned by BIRS programs under the user's control. The following is an example of a very simple abstract punched on cards. *$ABSTRACT "LABEL" BENNETT, G.K., BENNETT, M.G., WALLACE, W.L., AND WESMAN, A.G. COLLEGE QUALI- FICATION TEST. PSYCHOLOGICAL CORP. GENERAL INTELLIGENCE FOR COLLEGE EN- TRANTS AND ADULTS. SIXTH MENTAL MEASUREMENTS YEARBOOK, O.K. BUROS, GRYPHON PRESS 1965, ENTRY NO. 450. TEST LIBRARY NO. C1033.

Information Descriptor Descriptor cards are used to input Storage and Cards topical descriptions of abstracts Indexing for further analysis. Descriptions are sets of key terms describing the topical content of abstracts. Each abstract is separately described by a set of up to 30 terms, identified by means of the "label" or access number of the abstract being described. Terms are separated by commas, and the latter portions of long terms are ignored. There are no other restrictions on the content of terms. 95 Descriptor cards may be generated by the user or by BIRS/I programs. The following is an example of a description of the abstract given above. *$DESCRIPTOR "LABEL" BENNETT, WALLACE, WESMAN, COLLEGE, QUALIFICATION TEST, PSYCHOLOGICAL CO, GENERAL, INTELLIGENCE, ENTRANTS, ADULTS.

Information Question Question cards are used to query Retrieval Cards automated IR Systems developed with BIRS/I, i.e., to request thatcom- ponent programs search for and retrieve abstracts relevant to given topics. Question cards are used to indicate the topics of interest. Each search request is indicated by means of a set of up to 30 terms, separated by commas. The following is an example of a request for abstracts dealing with general intelligence for adults. *$QUESTION GENERAL, INTELLIGENCE, ADULTS 96 TABLE 6: Tapes Used with Component Programsof BIRS/I

OPERATION TAPE CONTENTS AND FUNCTION

Executive BIRS The BIRS Library Tape contains com- Library ponent programs of the system. The programs are read fromcards and stored on the tape by the Executive Program. Programs may be called from the tape by means of executivecontrol cards.

Information IFT The Information File Tapecontains Storage and abstracts read from cards and stored Retrieval so that each can belocated given its unique access number or "label."The IFT is generated by the IFMPand is used by the DAP, the PIP, and theIFRP.

Information DFT The Description File Tape contains Indexing and key-term descriptions and access Searching numbers or "labels" of abstracts. Descriptions and "labels" are associated so that abstracts may belocated by topical content.The DFT is generated by the DFMP from descriptor cards prepared by the user, or by the DAP. The tape is used by the PIP, and the DFSP. QFT The Question File Tape contains questions read from question cards, and access numbers ofrelevant abstracts. The QFT is generated by the DFSPand is used by the IFRP. 97 TABLE 6: Printed Reports Used with ComponentPrograms of BIRS/I

OPERATION REPORT TYPE CONTENTS AND FUNCTION

INFORMATION Printed This report consists of a STORAGE Information printed equivalent of the File Information File Tape, i.e., a listing ofabstracts printed in numerical order of access number. The printed Informa- tion File is generated by the IFMP from abstract cards or from the IFT.

INFORMATION Content This report consists of a con- INDEXING Analysis tent analysis of word usagein Report abstracts, read either from cards or from the IFT. The report is generatedby the DAP, which also may be used to automatically index each abstract by selecting key termsand punching them on descriptor cards. Printed This report consists of a Index printed equivalent of the De- scription File Tape, i.e., an index for locating abstracts by topic. Since this index is designed for manualsearch- ing, a term-entry indexis prepared. That is, all key-terms are printed inalphabetical order and each term is followed by the "labels" or access numbers of abstracts relevantto the term. The printed index is produced by PIP fromabstract cards, the IFT, descriptorcards, or the DFT.

INFORMATION Abstracts This report consists of the re- RETRIEVAL relevant sults of an automated search per- to questions formed by the DFSP. Eachquestion originally stated on cards is printed and following it therel- evant abstracts--inorder of relevance. The report isgenerated by IFRP from the OFT andIFT. 98

As before, different types of IR Systems will require the use of different types of printed reports. Thus, systems emphasizing manual searching and retrieval will require the use of a printed information file and a printed index, while automated searching and retrieval systems will require printed reports containing abstracts relevant to specific questions.

To summarize the preceding discussion, BIRS is essentially a general purpose indexing and retrieval system. It is designed to permit the construction of IR Systems which locate summaries more complete documents stored in auxiliary files. Thus, IR Systems developed with BIRS are analogous to the reference services offered by traditional libraries. Thus, BIRS/I programs may be used to produce a printed equivalent of the author-title, subject index or an automated approximation to the reference-librarian.

APPLICATIONS

To clarify the preceding brief description of the Basic Indexing and Retrieval System, let us consider a concrete example of the use of the initial system, BIRS/I, in connection with a recently completed demonstration project at Michigan State University. The purpose of the project was to establish a computer based library of all psychological tests, currently in print, which are purported to measure general intelligence. To implement the library, a list of tests was compiled from major reference works on currently published standardized psychological tests (Buros, 1961; 1965).Next, specimen sets for all tests were purchased and stored in the College of Education at Michigan State University. Finally, brief abstracts were prepared for all tests. In general, each abstract included such information as principal author's name, title, publisher, etc. In addition, each abstract provided cross references to major reference works on psychological testing and to the sample test kits stored in College of Education files. The abstracts were punched on cards as illustrated in Table 4 of the preceding section.

We have experimented with a number of BIRS/I generated IR Systems for this test library. For the purpose of the present discussion, we shall describe only two applications: the development of a printed author-title catalog and an automated reference service for the test library. 99

The printed author-title catalog is essentially anin- dexed book describing all tests included in thelibrary, which is made available to users of the library. The catalog includes abstracts of all tests with a traditionalauthor index and a subject index produced by permutingkey words obtained from each abstract. The steps involved in generating such an indexed book are summarizedin Figure 1.

As shown in the figure, the first stepis to store all of the abstracts on an InformationFile Tape (IFT) with the Information File Maintenance Program (IFMP). This program reads the abstracts from cards, assigns unique access numbers, and stores both access numbers andabstracts on the tape. In this application, the programis also used to generate a printed report containing the setof abstracts ordered by access number.

The second step is to use thePrinted Indexing Program (PIP) to generate and print the key-word index. PIP reads control cards specifying the method of indexing and then uses the abstracts and accessnumbers on the IFT to generate the index, containing an alphabetizedlist of key- words. Each key-word is followed by the accessnumbers of the relevant test abstracts. The printed set of abstracts and the key-word index are combined toform the indexed book.

The automated reference serviceis essentially a question answering facility, permitting usersof the test library to request abstracts for particular typesof psychological tests. The procedures involved indeveloping and using such a service withBIRS/I are summarized in Figure 2 and Figure 3.

As shown in Figure 2, the first stepin generating such an automated IR System is to storeall of the abstracts on an IFT, by means of the IFMP.Next, each abstract must be indexed or described by meansof a set of key descriptive terms punched on cards. An example of such cards is given in Table 4, above. The descriptor cards may be manually generated by the user, orautomatically generated from the IFT by the DescriptiveAnalysis Program (DAP). In either case, these cards are used to prepare an index on a DFT, by meansof the DFMP, as shown in the figure. 100

FIGURE 1: Generating an Indexed Book with BIRS

*$ABSTRACT Printed Listing: cards con- test abstracts taining test in order of abstracts access number

Cards Printed Index: specifying key words method of followed by indexing access numbers of relevant tests 101

automated reference The procedurefor operating an In the caseof the service issummarized in Figure3. the system in test library, userssubmit questions to describing the typeof the form of setsof key-terms punched on cards as test ofinterest. These terms are illustrated in Table4, above. The cardscontaining questions are readby the DescriptionFile Search Program statement withall (DFSP), which compareseach question stored on the DFT. of the testdescriptions previously to permitthe Control options areprovided in the DFSP broadening selection ofvarious methodsof narrowing or specified by the user,a the search. Unless otherwise relevance) index iscalculated on thebasis similarity (or and of matching termsbetween questions of the number specified number descriptions, andthe accessnumbers of a selected by the programon thebasis of of abstracts are numbers similarity. The questionand access this index of retrieval abstracts arestored on theQFT, for for relevant Program by the InformationFile Retrieval from the IFT, question This programprints a reportfor each (IFRP). ordered by which includesthe set ofrelevant abstracts, the index ofrelevance. 102

FIGURE 2: Generating an Automated Searching and Retrieval System with BIRS/I

*$ABSTRACT *$DESCRIPTOR cards con- cards contain- taining test ing key word abstracts descriptions of test abstracts

FIGURE 3: Using an Automated Searching and Retrieval System with BIRS/I

*$QUESTION Printed cards de- .114/1. abstracts scribing for type type of of test test required 103

CONCLUSIONS

In conceptionand design, theBasic Indexing and to help the average Retrieval Systemrepresents an attempt initial step university scholar orscientist take an library technology,toward the full beyond traditional The utilization of computersin informationretrieval. inadequacies. initial version ofthe system includesmany suitable For example,BIRS/I does notinclude programs dictionary of synonymsin the for handling athesaurus or described by authors process ofinformation indexing, as handling more complexde- such as Bourne(1963), or for Maron and Kuhns(1960) scriptions ofabstracts, such as is designed tobe "weighted indexing."However, BIRS revised easily modified andimproved. In particular, a preparation. version of the system(BIRS/II) is now under to BIRS/I except Essentially, BIRS/IIwill be identical several new com- that the revisedversion will include of a thesaurusof ponent programspermitting (1) the use (2) the use oflogical synonyms ininformation indexing, ("equal to," "greater ("and," "or,""not") and algebraic questions for than," "lessthan") operatorsin stating of relevanceweights information retrieval,and (3) the use indexing andretrieval, i.e.,the use in both information describe with associatednumerical weights to of key-terms BIRS/II abstracts andformulate questions. In short, with the develop- will provide programscapable of aiding extensive use ment of any IRSystem, whichdoes not make natural language. of the syntacticstructure of merely preliminary Obviously, BIRS/Iand BIRS/II are collections of steps towardthe developmentof adequate Hopefully, computer programsfor informationretrieval. will join usin using, other scholarsand scientists MRS with moreadaptive improving, andeventually replacing like BIRS will systems of programs. At best, systems in the provide thefoundations for agrowing awareness of the usefulnessof computersin academic community with extending the contactof theindividual researcher the work of hiscolleagues. 104

Berul, L. Information Storage and Retrieval: A State of the Art Report, Auerbach Corp. September, 1964.

Bourne, C. P. Methods of Information Handling. Wiley, 1963.

Buros, O. K. The Sixth Mental Measurements Yearbook. Gryphon Press, 1965.

Buros, O. K. Tests in Print. Gryphon Press, 1961.

CDC. Computer Systems INFOL, 3400-3600, General Information Manual. Control Data Corporation, Palo Alto, California, 1966.

Cooley, W. W. anJ Lohnes, P. R. Multivariate Procedures in the Be'avioral Sciences.Wiley, 1962.

Dixon, W. J. (ed.). Biomedical Computer Programs. Health Sciences Computing Facility, School of Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles, 1964.

Possum, E. G., et. al.Optimization and Standardization of Information Retrieval Language and Systems. Clearinghouse for Federal and Technical Information, AD630 797, 1966.

Janda, K. and Tetzloff, W. H. "TRIAL: A Computer Technique for Retrieving Information from Abstracts of Literature." Behavioral Science. 1966, 11, 480-496.

IBM. Generalized Information System, Application Description. International Business Machines Corp., White Plains, N.Y., 1965.

Kay, M. and Ziehe, T. The Catalog: A Flexible Data Struct- ure for Magnetic Tape. Rand Memorandum RM-4645-PR. Rand Corp., Santa Monica, California, 1965.

Maron, M. E. and Kuhns, J. L. "On Relevance, Probabilistic Indexing, and Information Retrieval." Journal of the ACM 1960, 7, 216-244. 105

NSF. Current Research and Development in Scientific Documentation No. 14. National Science Foundation NSF-66-17, 1966.

Tryon, R. C. and Bailey, D. E. "The BC TRY Computer System of Cluster and Factor Analysis." Multivariate Behavioral Research 1966, 1, 95-111.

Vickery, B. C. On Retrieval System Theory. Second Edition, N.Y., Butterworth, 1965.

Vinsonhaler, J. F. (ed.). Technical Manual for the Basic Indexing and Retrieval System. College of Education, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 1966. CHAPTER VII

INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEMS

Dennis H. Jaroh

The ultimate goal of the educator might be toeffectively organize his material for presentation to the student so that upon the first presentation ofthat material the student gains full cognition of the concepts or the idea. If this goal is to be realized, it is necessary for the educator tohave sources of information andmaterial so organized and the equipment effectively operable that when the moment of learning has approached for the student, the development ofthe conceptual factors do not lag behind the pace set in themind of the learner.

To be specific in nature, we as educators needinforma- tion effectively organized and well presented in some format for classroom utilization. Secondly, we need more effective ways of getting at theinformation. Even though producers of materials have tried to give informative anddesirable annotations of their material, and have offered help in organization of the material into catalogs forindividual teacher searching; this isinefficient and time consuming for the educator. Thirdly, we need effective and efficient equipment that is easily operable for that educator whofeels that there are other effectivemethodologies, other than books, that can communicate the desired goals for learning.The successive delineations of these factors do not indicate a level ofim- portance, they merely point to the need that mustbe satis- factorily answered prior to the economically feasibleeduca- tional pattern that must be forthcoming if weinsist on public education of the highest quality for the masses.

It is from this goal of an educator that Idirect my remarks to you. Where could I find a good film on Southeast Asia, and specifically on the interaction ofcultural groups for a fourth grade class insocial studies and have the film last only Of minutes? Or as a producer of films, are there any films that havebeen produced with the specific purpose in mind that could meet the requirementsimposed of interaction, cultural groups, fourth grade level,41/2 minutes in length and be of high quality? Can these requirements be met? These two questions, though simple, are thebasis of the Single Concept Film ClipProject at Michigan State Univ- ersity under the direction of Dr. CharlesSchuller and Dr. Elwood Miller.

') 108

Let us first consider the typical educationalfilm as the teacher might strive to use it effectively. The general quality will be high but as usual some parts are of superior quality and yet other parts leave something to be desired. The film that is selected might be 12 minutes long and have excellent material scattered throughout the entire length of the film but with only seven minutes alloted for the actual showing, this quality film is passed over.Numerous individuals suffer from this serious problem, but most important, the student is gaining little or nothing from the time that was spent in searching for the film. This problem seems of little consequence with casual observation but when compoundedwith other inadequacies of communication the final result is an astronomical number of times that our antiquated systems of information handling has failed to meet the needs of the student that truly desires to learn. This specific problem of information handling leads us to the first of three considerations for this paper.

Information comes to the educator in the canned version of the film. If this canned version of information is to serve the purpose of communication,educators generally agree that effective utilization requires introduction and some form of follow-up.These activities require information about the film that is often inadequate from the annotation given in the catalog. In defense of the producers, it would be virtually impossible to include all of the pertinent information about films to allow adequate utilization. It is then necessary to find some form of information handling so that films can be sectioned into conceptual divisions.

In the film clip project it was our desire todelineate specific filmed areas that would explain a single concept or idea. For this purpose selected graduate students were asked to spend time looking at numerous films. This service was part of the project's budget, thus the quality of consideration given to each of the clipping operations could remain high. The initial clipping operations did not include the development of the treatment sheet and/or actual information that was to be partof the description. A short time later each of the clips were again viewed to determine the quality of material and adequacy of communication for a specific concept. The format of the treatment sheet was developed to include information about the parent film and producer, and the specifics of the clipped portion. 109

Each clip received anindividual title, accession number, spool number,and description. For the purpose of information handling, itis inadequate to identifyfilms by a single item unlessthis item is so distinctiveit only identifies groups ratherthan the specific material. It was, therefore, necessaryfor each of the subject areaspecialists to make a selectionof key words from theirdescriptive annotation of the excerptedportion of the film. These key words were thenunderlined and used as thebasis of the developed prim- thesaurus. In this initialphase of the project, the ary concern wasdevelopment of the methodologythat would allow for the retrievalof the specific film andthen a grouping of films thatcould be adequately used tocommuni- cate single concepts. Up to this point theentire project was subjectivein nature and theeducators utilizing this thesaurus would be boundby the limitations ofthe excerpting phase and theselections of the key words. While these limitations are imparing thequality of the selection ofthe desired films, thismethod is superior toselection by mere annotation found incatalogs.

Desiring to improve thequality of decision makingin film selection, itis imperative to reducesubjectivity and approach objectivesearching. At this point thedecision stor- was made toselect some effectivemethod of information age that wouldconsider the sum total ofthe area specialist's devel- annotation. We went to the BIRSsystem that was in the opmental stage atMichigan State Universityunder the direction of Dr. JohnVinsonhaler. Through his interest in our problems of informationstorage and retrieval,he accepted the challenge of storinginformation of some 818 filmclips selected from approximately450 films of our selectedsub- ject library.

The library of informationwould be only as good asthe information that would gointo the storage unitof the com- Entire treatment sheet puter. The task was clearlydefined. storage would give anobjective form ofinformation storage, but not all of theinformation is of pertinentnature for teacher utilization. Some decisions had tobe made about the material that should makefor effective classroom use. Thus, the selections were asfollows: Documentation or abstract number with the titleof the clip, film titlewith the producer, summary ofthe excerpted portion,subject area, level of use as determinedby the area expertexcerpting the concept, 110

and utilization data oftime, sound or silent,and coloror black and white. It should be noted thatthe timewas based on normal sound speed of 40feet of filmper minute. Each of the individual sheetswere marked for deletions. All of the sheets were key punched on IBM cards at theComputer Center under the direction of Joan Dunn. Verification wasmandatory, but finding the cost of machine verificationrunning inexcess of the initial printing time, we turned tovisual verification.

With the verifiedcards in numericalorder, we turned to Mr. John Hafterson theassistant to Dr.Vinsonhaler for further direction.The materialwas then placed in theIBM 3600 computer for initial storage on tapes. The first requestwas submitted to the computer in the form ofthe direction to printin order the complete listingof the informationthat should be found on the tapes. As expected, glaringerrors appeared. Cards had to be pulledfor the purpose ofcorrecting misspell- ings, sentence fragmentations, and indexingnumbers within individual card groups. Corrected cardswere then placed on the tapes after the computer was directed to delete thosecards containing theerrors. The information isnow stored in the three forms of treatment sheets, IBMkey punched cards,and on the tape of the 3600.

Information mustnow be retrieved throughsome instruction given to the computer. Any series of questionswould lead the computer to spend hours oftime in searchingthrough the total of the information stored. This is inefficientand expensive and at best could giverandom selection. The implementation of the BIRS system is necessary at thispoint. An index of key words in context would prove useful and improve theaccession of informationbeyond random levels. A series of directions were fed into the computeralong with the directionof overlook- ing certain wordssuch as conjunctions,articles, prepositions, and pronouns. With the first 100 ofthe abstracts, theinitial index was formed. This index consists ofthe indexed word and then the line of thecontextual material inwhich the specific word appears andas part of that individualline the abstract number and the number ofthe card within theabstract. Upon inspection of the indexand the impressiveamounts of information that was printed,it was determinedthat further deletions would be necessary if the index would becomplete enough and yet sufficiently brieffor an economicaldemonstration of its use. Deletions and correctionsmade on the basis ofthe first 100 of the abstractsproved useful in thefinal indexing phase 111

of the information.

Two hours and twominutes after the entireinformation file was fed into thecomputer a finalindex was produced. This specific index isapproximately 800 computerpages long. On the basis of thefirst 100 abstractswithout deletions, have the original timeand length of thefinal index would exceeded this alreadylong index by severalhundred pages Though without any markedimprovement in the finalproduct. the cost of thisinitial index is above$800.00, this is much less than the costof time to get acomparable index extracted from catalogannotations by producersand is of superior quality forutilization by educators. This index is in effect athesaurus produced bymachine and is applic- able for handsearching techniques.

We are not reallyconcerned withapplicability of the index for manualsearches, because we areat the threshold of the machineautomated search forfilms of high relevance factors to the specificconcept that can bebest demonstrated through effective useof the film medium. file The next phaseconsists of buildingthe descriptor specific for the automatedsearch program. This file is a linkage of words of theindex to the abstractthat represents the excerpted singleconcept film thathas been stored on individual spools. Cards are prepared bythe computer for the purpose of thisfile construction. Printed forms of that would this process could beobtained from the computer identify either a wordand a series ofabstract numbers for where this term ap- each of the placesin the entire library number and pears or thecomputer couldidentify the abstract list all of the indexedterms that appearwithin the context- ual material originallysubmitted. This, then in very gen- taken for the pro- eral terms representsthe series of steps data duction of the bankof information forthe retrieval of about specific singleconcept film clips.

With the advent ofthis vast-amount ofinformation and to the system ofretrieval, I wish todirect your attention educa- the individualsthat might find usefor this in the The tional setting ofthe classroom orlearning laboratory. responsibility forlearning must be acceptedby either= the individual has to accept teacher or thestudent and the other formal school setting. the alternateroles offered in the 112

If it be the teacher that accepts this responsibility, plans are developed for the direction of the communication of descriptive information that clearly defines or refines the concepts that lead the student to learning or developing the general cognition of ideas. If the student accepts the responsibility for learning. he may arrive at cognition without some of the steps of the master teacher. In either case, there may be a time when the idea becomes functional in the behavior pattern only if the film medium is utilized efficiently and with imme- diacy. The traditional method of retrieval of relevant footage for specific subject material has been from the film catalog or from direction offered by others with experience.

Presently, we are testing the BIRS system through the use of questions derived from actual film requests. These requests for film footage have come to me in the form of the typical question. An example of such a question might be: What film is available on the source of moisture in the atmos- phere. This type needs further refinement if the automated search is to be efficiently used. Specific information is needed to break the general idea into the components of either evaporation or condensation, or the combination of both physical phenomena, the possible desired grade level of usage, and possible length. This refinement might be handled by any individual familiar with the printed thesaurus derived from the indexing operations.

The single question or any series of questions are then fed to the 36 00 computer with other information about the film selection. Other information might include the level of relevance that would be acceptable, the number of abstracts that should not be exceeded in the searching operations, and the method of reporting the findings.Thus, the programming of the computer has been organized for these operations and within short times (milliseconds of time) returns sheets of data about the various films of the library. If these films are used they may clearify meanings of questionable or unclear concepts.The major concern at this point is to so phrase the question to indicate to the computer the words for which films have been gathered in our library. The teacher, after receiving the information about the films that are available on this subject, has the opportunity of individual selection based upon the number of films allowed and the relevance factor programed into the specific operation. Upon the actual selection of the desired film, the physical storage of the film clips is the next location at 113

which the teacher is found.

It should be noted atthis point that onlyinformation is handled by the computerand not the storage or thephys- ical manipulation of thefilms for showing. Even though programs couldbe devised for this purpose,it seems dis- tant in the futurethat public schools systems orindividual schools would have thecapabilities for automated systems from the inception ofthe question or statementof need to the direct end productof showing of the film.

If the student takesthe responsibility forhis own learning throucjh eitherself-designed programs or the learning laboratory, hehas the opportunity offollowing the identical steps of totallymanual searching in catalogs,the partially automated technique, ortotally automated retrieval of information about thefilm library. In either case of student or teacher acceptanceof the responsibility forlearning, the latitude anddepth of search is magnifieddue to the rapidity of computer retrievalof the pertinent information. Almost no time is lostin tedious catalog searchof one producer and then on to the nextproducers annotations because of the centrality andcoordinate system of indexingof the computer.

The uses to which thisindexing system could be put are varied. When the appropriatemoment of learningarrives, both the educator andthe student wouldfind valuable time saved and a wider rangeof filmed material forclearification of the individual concepts orgeneral idea development.

But, to what other usesmight this system serve? Pro- ducers of films areconstantly searching thefield to identify subject areas that have notbeen captured on film orthose that need seriousreconsideration in the filmmedium because of lack of informationat the time of theoriginal filming, or because ofdate, or any other ofthe multitude of reasons for film production. Even the equipmentmanufacturer may find valuable use ofsuch a system Zordirect information. If others find that films arereadily available, a stateof emer- gency willarise ior adequatelyoperable equipment necessary for either individualviewing stations or classroomutilization.

1 114

In summary, the comFuterized approach to film information depends on adequate storage and retrieval systems of information. The quality and quantity of information dependson the original source, whether it is done by academicians,or more practically, done by the producers of the original material. Verification cf input is a requirement of all informationon IBM key punch cards. The pattern of questions and key words used for searching the information file requires eitherthe thesaurus produced or the knowledge of the questioner. The applicability of any one of the clips dependsupon the film excerpted, the equipment used in viewing, and the qualityof the presentation in which that clip is used.

The direction that has been given throughout thisproject is only one of the possible variations ofthe computerized approach to information storage and retrieval the given form of treatment sheets. Should this project of information handling be dropped, and the ultimate goals ofthe educational system be readjusted to the traditional system of usingtotal educational films regardless of the valuethey give to understanding of concepts? I would like to think that thoseassem- bled here have the courage to take this informationstorage direction, and the challenge ofa unified approach to banks of information about the single concepts recordedin their films. The acceptance by the professional educator of both the single concept idea and the learning laboratoryshould point to the need for such information handlingand spur producers interested in gaininga larger share of the media market to effectively form jointly organizedsources of information comparable to this initial project. 116 Information Storage for the SCFCP . NEED I, MO .00 MEP II1 II1 4110 MI110 MOMIP Information I Film------Educational films------producer Area ...... ,Excerptingfilms ....oPhysical storage specialist for single concepts of single concepts -...... ,...... ! on spools bynumber Treatmtent sheet construction . =WNW ....:\ ilr Media . ....Identification of pertinent NN* specialist information for retreival I \N% 4? Key punch...4.1BM Keypunch cards operator (1machine or manualverification) .\\\ Verifig*d IBM Cards NN. Computor....IntroTuction of BIRS.Information stored on tapes programmer 'It Information file \ construction(I FT) ! \id Partin r indexi..--(only afew words in context entries) Correction deletion additions 1 Information file /construction (PIP) Printed Index ProgramAg /-/ ./..../.. IAdejateforManual. r Searching ri(DAP) Data AnalysisProgram DescriptionNi, Card Production ! 1 Description File Construction 4e* 1 (DFMP) DescriptionFile Maintainenci! e Program I if I Abstracts with descriptor words

. 1 -*Index of words withabstract numbers a...... 117 StudentResponsible for Learning

MEI 1111111 MED OM IMO OM CPO MOW =IS IMO MEI MIMI MID WM MD ------..sidi, 4 Teacher Student----...... SI min Unit Plan i 1 I I I I I I Doily Plan I I ..-IdentificationI I IP .... woo of concept i I 010 Specific Concepts Desired ... 0 ss, I I .0- I 1 I ... I I I Met hqdologya"" I I Selection "I":"------..... I I I 2. * I 3. Educational Films....°-----...... Cognition of __I I ...... "-.concept -----: I 4. AI I 5. i I 6. I I V I Identification of an adequatefilm I 00..., I I ---,Searching of identificationof key words film catalogues ofconceptN Thesaurus Question ....v .61 ../°. .0-'1°' IBM Card Production ... Key Punched with KeyWords

N. N N K E Y x TOTAL EDUCATIONALFILMS ---Manual Search N. --Single Concept Auto- mated Indexing & N Manual Search oirrplimentation of BIRS Totally Automated N Search Identification of film clips X, with relevence factors usingIndex #3

Selection /of desiredfilm clip for the singleconcept 118 Information Storage for the SCFCP I Informsation------MM Min, fP OM* MOM 111111 MIMI AMEND I MI111- -- Film _a.__*Educationalfilms 4- producer ! 3 Area --iExcerpting films Physical storage speciallAt for single concepts of single concepts I on spools by number Treatmient sheet construction MEMMI10.11 Media....____.0.1dentiication of rtinent NN.N I specialist information forretreival I NN

Key punch .,IBMKeiy punch cards NN operator (machine or manual verification) NN Verified IBM Cards N.N Computor Introduction; of BIRS 4I'Informationstored on tapes programmer 1 X InformationI file N construction (IFT) . Ik. . i rartial index (only a few I words in context entries) 1 I Cor Irection deletion I additions Information file .7construction (PIP) PrintedIndex Program ..---- 1 Adequate for Manual 4''' Searching (DAP) Data Analysis Program Description Card Production

Description File Construction (DFMP) Description File Maintainence Program bstracts with descriptor words Index of words with abstract numbers 119 Teacher Responsible for Learning

...Teacher _1 I 11 - ---- =END SEIM IMIOMEE. =END 1 IMMI Iftepmg.,. aStudent btnitPlan I ItI I + 1 Daily Plan 11 1 'I I i Identification I of concept I 1-----.... SpecificConcepts Desired . i I Methodology I. 01: Selectior7.....2. %463. Educational Films---...- Cognition of I 4. 1 "'"4"4-.1=----A4,concept o I 5. I I 6. 1

Identifation of anadeq uate film I I 0000 . N1 ------*Searching ofof Identification of key words film catalogues ofconcept

MINEM - Thesturus tuestion ..../. i /. IBM Card Production Key Punched with Key Words

KEY 10TAL EDUCATIONAL FILMS .Manual Search Single Concept Totally Automated Search .Automated Indexing Implimentation of BIRS a Manual Search N Identification4 of film clips with relevence factors usingIndex #3 i *Selection of desired film clipfor the single concepti 120 Information Storage for the SCFCP

*Information Film p*Edutationolfilms producer Area ..._,*Exc rpting films __>Physical storage specialist for single concepts of single concepts on spools by number 4,_. 9-Treatment sheet construction Media___,_Idettificationof pertinent specialist * information for retreival

Key punch IBM Key punch cards operator '--* i(machine or manual verification) VerifiedIBM Cards Computor Introduction of BIRS*Informationstored on tapes programmer Information file construction(IFT) X Partial index (only a few words in context entries ) Correctioni deletion additions *Information file construction (PIP) Printed Index Program 1Adequate for Manual Searching *(DAP) Dota Analysis PK3gram

D"criptionCard Production

Description File Construction ati *(DFMP) Description File Maintainence Program 1

1 LAbstracts with descriptor words Index of words with abstract numbers 121 Computerized Information Storage 8 Retreival System flow chart

Teacher Student Unit Plan

Daily Plan Identification of concept Specific Concepts Desired Methodology Selection I. 2. 3. Educational Films Cognition of 4. concept 5. 6. Identification of an adequate film

Searching of Identification of key words film catalogues ofconcept --i Thesaurus *Question

*IBMCard Production Key Punched with Key Words

KEY * Key Steps for Information Storage aRetreival Actual direction steps taken for *Implimentation of BIRS Electronic Inform- 4 ation Storagea *Identification of filmclips Retreival with relevence factors using Index #3

*Selectionof desired film clip for the single concept CHAPTER VIII

THE SHORT FILM IN AUDIOVISUALRESEARCH

Thomas F. Bals:-.!.11

The prospect of whatstudents might learn from short films is very interesting, or none of uswould be here. Perhaps even more exciting,however, is what we might learn. That is, what producers of films andeducators might learn about the communication process andlearning in general, and specifically, audiovisuallearning. I think that in no otheraudiovisual form, has the opportunity foruseful research been greater.

Consider the unfortunate filmresearcher of a few years ago. His first necessity was to establish thatlearn- ing from film was evenpossible, and later, that it was at least as efficient as other meansof instruction. But this told him very little about how todesign his film for maximum learning. Once the comparative studies hadestablished the feasibility and relativeefficiency of film, the researcher could turn his attention to theproduction variables within the film. For instance, various types of visuals, the pacing of the audio,the embellishment of the film for interest, and otherkinds of film design variables were investigatedin turn. The number of variables in instructional films- -the number of ways tofilm and cut together any given subject mattermadethis a slow process. The study of one variable at atime with "other things equal" drew the obvious criticismthat other things are seldom equal or invariant. For systematic determinationof effects due to production variables, thefilms were much too long, there were too many thingshappening, too many objectives were undertaken.

In designing films we haveall of the different techniques, or arts, of visualizingobjects, events and ideas. We have all of the different waysof putting words together to talk about them. Additionally, we have different degrees of relationsh4p between the audio andvisual elements. In almost all cases, the longer the film, the morethese ways or techniques vary.What's more, in any giveninstructional' film of extended length, we might expect tolist several

- 124

general objectives and any number of subordinate objectives. The prospectus for any single film may run the full tax- onomy of educational objectives.This, of course, immensely complicates the determination of learning criteria and their measurement.

Even with multivariate analysis, one has difficulty in sorting out the variables, and in drawing conclusions.

The instructional television researcher has had a difficult a time. The common length of television lessons he wished to evaluate was 15 minutes to an hour. Often he was charged with the overall evaluation of an entire series of such programs. It is impossible to relate the various factors in program design to various learning criteria under these circumstances. Yet, to break the programs down into smaller units, brings the question of whether or not the result has any meaning for the whole.

On the other hand, in the short, "single concept" films, many of these problems are considerably reduced.By definition, I guess, the films are short. There is very likely to be only one objective for a film, and this of narrow scope. If the objective is stated operationally, or very specifically, the measurement problem is simplified--the appropriate criterion for "learning" is predetermined. Also, in the short film, the variety of visual materials and visual presentation techniques is limited. We do not usually find the full range of possibilities. I would suggest that, of necessity, there is a greater unity or consistency in the visual presentation form.

The same would hold for audio presentation, if indeed there is sound.

Yet, this more limited film form, is a meaningful unit in the educational process. At least we hope it is. This is not to say that a single short film may be studied apart from the instructional system in which it is placed. Ultimately it must be evaluated in relation to the system, but its unique contribution may be considered first, and it 125

is this consideration that may provide us with some insights into the audiovisual learning process which have not heretofore been available. It may provide us with some principles for the design of instructional materials.

Because the short film is so limited in purpose and design, we pretty well know what its input to the systemis. Knowing the input it then becomes easier to determine its effect.

I would like to describe briefly, some of my own research in "single concept" films as an illustration of some of the possibilities. To date, almost all of our materials have been drawn from Dr. Miller's vast library of short films here at Michigan State.All of these were originally of conventional length.

One such film was extracted from a Disney production entitled "Switzerland." The segment we used deals with the cheesemaking process in the Swiss Alps. With some adaptation on the cutting table and at the typewriter, we had a film with 10 visual elements,shots or scenes, and 10 audio elements, short sentences. Its duration was just over forty seconds.

Our resultant film was some what unreal in that the audio and visual elements were precisely matched so that shot one and sentence one were simultaneously opposed and of equal duration; the same was true of shot two and sentence two, etc.

I had some hypotheses, drawn from the Broadbent model of a single channel cognitive utilization system.The basic tenet of the model is that the cognitive system accepts the input from only one sensory channel at atime. This would seem to rule out simultaneous audio and visual comouniation, except that Broadbent has also demonstrated that there is a short term storage capacity within the system so that elements from one channel can be stored, very briefly, while elementsfrom the other channel are being processed. I hypothesized, that if this were the case, a certain amount ofredundancy would have to be present in the audiovisual message, if it were tobe received in total. I will not attempt todefine redundancy, here, as I used it in the study. It was the sense of redundancydrawn from information theory andthere are many times when I wished I had found or coined another term. Suffice it to say that I wasattempting to measure the amount of compression possible in the audio andvisual elements.

There were three measures ofredundancy. One for the audio elements, another for thevisual elements, and the one that turnedout to be most important of all--redundancy in the relationship between thematched audio and visual elements. The latter was simply a measure ofhow well the audio and visual elements wererelated.

The filmfor parts of the film, was presented to'four groups of subjects who wereall within the age group for which the film was intended.

The first group saw and heardthe whole thing. They were then immediatelyasked to write down all of the audio and visual elements that theycould remember. It was assumed that immediate recallmight serve to index what entered the cognitive system and what did not. For each For each matched audio andvisual unit, the number of subjects recalling both elements wasrecorded. These indices of recall were later to berelated to the indicer of redundancy.

The second group, being exposedonly to the audio, provided us with an index of redundancy forthe audio elements--an index number for each of theten sentences.

The third group saw the visualelements, and provided an index of redundancyfor each of the ten shots in the film.

The fourth, a.,d final group wasasked to match random- ly sequenced audio and visual elementsto indicate the degree of perceived relationship betweenthe audio and visual elements that were actually matchedin the original film.

The groups were all similar in age,intelligence,etc. 127

correlated with the The indices ofrecall were then there was a very indices of redundancy.As was predicted, strong degreeof relationshipbetween "redundancy" as measured, and recall. Most of thecorrelations were they had above a chancelevel, in spiteof the fact that to be extremelyhigh under thecircumstances. the per- The best singlepredictor of recall, was visual elements. ceived relationshipbetween audio and If there were noperceptiblerelationship between the the visual was justfill two elements,for instance--when and while an audiopoint was beingmade--then there was the very lowrecall of bothelements. In fact, when relationship betweenaudio and visualelements was not clear, there waslikely to be no recallof either element; suggesting some sort the whole audio-visualunit was lost, of interferencebetween the twowhich negated the entire message.

Since all three measuresof redundancy contributed independently to theprediction of recall, theprediction high. of recall by multiplecorrelation techniques was very

This researchcontinues with othermaterials, and is to other measures of response. One project at present determine the mostappropriate time forthe introduction of the audio element. In oneexperiment, for instance, until the visual the audio elementis not introduced This element has been"established" for a fewseconds. will be compared tothe same materialwhere the audio and visual elements arebeing introducedsimultaneously, which we havefound, incidentally,is the most common case.

Hopefully, we willarrive at a set ofprinciples for is designing short filmsfor maximumeffect, although this a long wayoff. Also, we had somuch success predicting recall by using theinstruments formeasuring redundancy, that we are hopefulof adaptingthese 'co more general quick pretests ofshort cases. They would then serve as instruments to films. We might devisesimple evaluation efficiency of a given give an advanceindication of the film. 128

Finally, and ideally, we may ultimately be able to define "information" in terms that are appropriate for human communication, much like we are able to define"information" in mechanical systems. This will provide us with a much better means of assessing the cognitivecapacities of students. We may learn how much information can bereceived at cognitive centers before the capacityof the system is exceeded and interference or loss occurs.

Much of this latter is wishful thinking, butit does have some value, I think, for long term goals.For the moment in film clip research, it isinteresting and, I think, necessary to investigate the short term, orimmed- iate opportunities, this form of audiovisual presentation has for improving instruction. There is the continuing responsibility to evaluate what we do and then build into each successive effort what we have learnedfrom earlier work. In the single concept film we have much greater control of all the production variables that relate tothe learning variables. We can break the message down into its fundamental elements, and analyze the relative contribution of these elements to our more limited objectives. CHAPTER IX

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF USING A FULL FILM AND SHORT FORMAT FILMS TO TEACH CHEMISTRY

Lloyd A. Trinklein

Introduction

As Dr. Miller told you this morning, one of the primary functions of the USOE Single Film Clip Project at Michigan State University during its first two years of operation was to determine if it was feasible to excerpt footage from existing educational films which could be used as single concept films. As is shown in the report of the Project, the members of this Project (of which I was a member for two years) consider that it is truly feasible.

Several of us on the Project became concerned about the fact that so many of these excerpts could be made available, but we didn't really know in what way they should be used. During the spring of 1965 Ardith Hanna and I did a pilot use study at Detroit Denby High School. Although this was not a carefully controlled study, the results were positive enough that we were convinced that further research on the use of excerpts as single concept films was warranted.

So in the summer of 1965, a study was designed which made use of excerpts from the CHEM Study series of films. All twenty-six of these films had been excerpted by our project, and we thought that these excerpts could be used in high school classes for teaching the concepts involved in the films.

Because of the need to produce a reliable and valid instrument for testing, it was decided to use the film BROMINE-ELEMENT FROM THE SEA, which is used near the end of the school year in the CHEM Study curriculum. The Project had excerpted five segments of footage from this film which were entitled:(1) Correct handling of bromine, (2) Reactivity of bromine and solubility of bromine 130

compounds,(3) Preparation of aqueous bromine,(4) Lab- oratory extraction of bromine fromsea water, and (5) Commercial extraction of bromine comparedto the laboratory method. These excerpts included the major principles in the full film. The excerpts ranged in length from about 45 seconds to approximately 5 minutes. All of the filmed sequences used in the studywere 16mm color and sound motion pictures andwere projected in the classroom on standard 16mm sound projectors.

Design of the Experiment The Population and Sample

The population which was used for the studywas all of the schools within 125 miles of EastLansing, Michigan which had used the CHEM Study curriculumduring the school year 1964-65. So pL'esumably all of these schools had used the CHEM Study materials for at leastone year. All of the schools fitting this descriptionwere contact- ed, and finally sixteen schoolswere selected to participate. Only one school had more thanone teacher involved, the Henry Ford High School in Detroit. A total of 18 teachers used one of their classesas the experimental group. The final sample included 382students of which 231 were boys and 151were girls. Their ages ranged from 14 years 7 months to 18years 2 months. On the Otis Quick-Scoring Mental AbilityTest the studentswere along the entire IQ continuum from64 to 135. These students came from many types of schools: Large and small, public and parochial, and included thetotal range of socio-economic status. So the sample wasa rather typical group of high school students in Michigan.

The Criterion Measures

Two of the primary criteria for judging the validity of any study must be the reliability and validityof the instruments which are usedas criterion measures. The tests which were constructed for this studywere fieldtested and revised twice inan attempt to produce a reliable instrument. The original test was produced for the first pilot use study at Detroit Denby HighSchool. The answers on this testwere item analyzed; and, on the basis of the item analysis,a first revision was written. 131

In Decembei 1365 and January1966 a second pilot study was conducted at Detroit Denby HighSchool. The results of the use of the first revision ofthe test were again item analyzed, and a second revision waswritten. The second revision which was used in the majorstudy contained seventy-five true or false items which werebased on the subject matter content of thefilm excerpts.The result of these revisions was toincrease the reliability from .65 on the first test to .70for the post-test and .82 for the pre-test of the majorstudy. These reliability coefficients compare favorablewith many of the reliability coefficients listed for standardizedtests. The validity of the test was established ascontent validity. The content which theinstrument was designed to measure was concepts, descriptivematerial, and principles which were included in the film excerpts. Since the items of the test were based directly uponthe list of all of the individual pieces of factualinformation with the excerpts, the test should be reasonablyvalid.

The Application of the Treatments

The first CHEM Study classof the day for each of the participating teachers wasarbitrarily designated by the experimenter as the experimentalclass. Each teacher was unrestrictedin his teaching of chapternineteen of the CHEM Study text e:ceptfor the addition of one of the three filmed treatments. These three treatments are: (l) Film only,(2) Excerpts only; and (3) Acombination of the full film and the excerpts. To equalize the student exposure to the subject matterto be tested, each class saw the filmed portion ofthe treatment twice.

In the "film onlytreatment, the teacher taught in his usual method until he came to the section of the chapter which the curriculum planner had assigned as the proper time for the showing of the full film. Then he read the introduction to the film and showed it to the class. immediately following the viewing of the film, the content was discussed following the prescribed questions.After teaching the rest of the chapter, the teacher used the whole film as a review but without discussion.

In the "excerpts only" treatment, the teacher showed the excerpts twice. When the teacher reached a place in the chapter which had been arbitrarily assigned by the experimenter as a time for viewing one of the excerpts, he proceeded as follows: After reading the summary of the excerpt as an introduction, he showed the filmed sequence to the class. Next, he discussed the content following the prescribed questions. And finally, showed the single concept film again with no subsequent discussion.

In the combination treatment, the teacher followed the same procedure as the teacher using only the excerpts, except he did not show the excerpt the second time.Each of these teachers also showed the whole film as a review at the end of the chaptP,-, but without discussion.

Analysis of the Data

The data which were analyzed by this study were collected in the following way:

Before beginning to teach chapter 19 of the CHEM Study text to which the experimental film applied, the teacher administered the Otis Quick-Scoring Mental Ability Test. This test was used to gain a general level of ability for each student.Also preceeding the chapter, a pre-test was given to each student. After the teacher had taught the chapter in his normal manner with the addition of the film treatment, he administered the objective post- test to each of his students. Thus, the data which were available for analysis to test the hypothesis were student scores on the Otis, the objective pre-test, and the objective post-test. The scores on the Otis test were changed to IQ's by using the conversion tables furnished by the 133

The data which wereactually analyzed were publisher. and post-test differences betweeneach student's pre-test scores --his achievementgain. tested by thisexperi- The nullhypothesis which was ment can bestated thus:

There is nosignificant difference amongthe means of theachievement gains ofthree groups of students who havebeen taughtfactual information by means of afilm, excerptsfrom the film, or a combination of afilm and excerptsfrom the film.

Stated symbolicallythis hypothesisis: Mo : MA = MB =Md The legend forthese symbols is: MA = mean offilm only treatment

MB = mean ofexcerpts onlytreatment

Mt = mean ofcombination treatment with unequal numberof One wayanalysis of variance used first to testthe replications withinthe group was The independentvariable used inthis null hypothesis. variables analysis was thetreatment, andthe dependent The analysis of were IQ andthe differencesscores. and treatment variance computedfor difference scores Using the degrees showed an Fstatistic of63.63972. 2 and within treatments of freedombetween treatments as 3.07 was necessary as 379,and F ratioof greater than at the .05level ofsignificances. This for significance the means shows that there wassignificant differenc2 among were of the threetreatments whenthe difference scores of analyzed with treatmentsalone. But an analysis IQ's and treatment, variance table wasalso computed for This statistic which gave an Fstatistic of 29.60496. significance. was alsosignificant at the.05 level of variance among the Therefore, there wasalso significant Because of thesignifi- means oftreatments on IQalso. IQ, the data were cant variance amongthe treatments on analysis of covariance was again analyzed;but this time used to controlfor IQ.

With 2 and 37Bdegrees of freedom, anF statistic of the null greater than3.07 is requiredfor rejection of 134

hypothesis at the .05 level of significance.Thus with a computed F ratio of 63.893, the null hypothesis of no significant difference among the means of the thre3 treatment groups can be rejected, and the alternative hypothesis can be accepted.

Because the null hypothz.alz, 1.-1.3 rejected, the Scheffe method of multiple comparisons ..an be used to determine if there is a directional relationship among the means. Using the method outlined in Guenther, a 95% confidence interval for each comparison was calculated. Using this confidence interval, significant variance was found between Mband MA, showing Mt to be significantly greater than MA. Signifi- cant variance was also found between MA and MB. This significance by Scheffe comparisons allows the establishment of the following directional relationship:

MC> MA > MB or the adjusted mean of the combination treatment was significantly greater than the adjustedmean of the film treatment which was significantly greater than the adjusted mean of the excerpts treatment. Thus, it can be concluded that the achievement gain by the combination treatmentwas significantly greater than the achievement gain by either of the other treatments, and the achievement gain by the film treatment was significantly greater than the achievement gain by the excerpts treatment.

Conclusions

What conclusions can be drawn as a result of this study?At least one major conclusion can be drawnas a result of the present study:

With CHEM Study chemistry studentsa combination of a full film and excerpts from that film produces greater achievement gain in the factual knowledge contained in the film than either the whole filmor the excerpts alone.

By separating the film into meaningful segments and by using the whole film as a way of drawing together all of the individual ideas into a complete entity, significant 135 learning took place. Although the adjusted mean of the achievemer.t gain by the film only group wasfound significantly greater than the excerpts only group,the author does not leel that it is justified inconcludins that it is better to use a whole film ratherthan excerpts from that film for the transmission offactual information. The major reason for this negativereaction to one of the findings of the study is due to the designof the experiment. In the "excerpts onlytreatment, the students were shown the sequences throughoutthe teaching of the chapter. Thus, they had seen some of theexcerpts almost a week before taking the post-test. In the "films only" treatment, the studerts saw the film as areview of the chapter only one day prior totaking the post-test. So the students in the film cnly treatment mightretain more information because of the timefactor alone.

Recommendations

Based upon the analysis of thedata collected in this study, I would like to make thefollowing recommendations: Although the single concept film treatmentin this study was found to be theleast desirable of the three treatments, significant -.earningdid take place in the treatment which included the use of thesefilmed sequences. In addition, the students in the "filmonly" treatment, and those in the combination treatmentresponded on a questionnaire that they felt that many timesthe longer chemistry films contained too much information forthem to absorb all of it. The students also respondedthat they thought the excerpts were easy to understand. Thus, if the subject matter had been broken down into smaller amountsin shorter films, perhaps the subject matter couldhave been more easily assimilated. Therefore, I recommend that single concept films be made available in greaterquantities to teachers for use in their classrooms.

i second recommendationis specifically for producers of educational films. Since the major finding of this study is that greater achievemntgain is possible through a combinationof a long film and shorterfilms illustrating specific concepts or principles withinthe longer film and since the results of a auestionnaire tothe combination 136 treatment students showed them to be overwhelmingly in favor of the combination over either the film or the excerpts alone, I recommend that the producers of educational films consider producing a package of films. This package should include single concept films to teach specific principles within a major area and a longer film which would serve as a means of summarizing the specific ideas within the shorter films. This idea of preparing film packages has already been done by Eothen Films. They have prepared several film packages for use in the public schools of England and in specialized schools such as nursing schools. Now that convenient methods of handling short, cartridged films are available, these "film coordinates" are a reasonable possibility.

A further recommendation also concerns the use of single concept films. Until the present, almost all programing was done by some form of verbalization. Since the technology is now available for convenient handling of single concept films, short filmed sequences could be utilized in many ways in programed instruction.When motion is required to present an idea in its correct perspective, a motion picture film should be utilized.Modern technology would provide the machines if some innovator presented the idea.

I would also like to make the following suggestions for further study:

1. h replication or replications of the present study should be done in another subject matter area and at different grade levels.

2. A study should be conducted to determine the effectiveness of other uses of whole film--short film combinations for purposes other than the transmission of factual information.

3. A determination of the most effective placement of the whole film in the combination should be carried out.

4. A study of retention should be done.

5. A comparison study of the individual use with classroom use of the short films in the combination would also be very profitable. THE DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

In order tofacilitate rapid and intensive discussion during the last twodays of the National Conference, thefollowing questions were prepared bythe planning committee as a stragedy to trigger immediatediscussion. The three sub groups were encouragedto use these questions as a "point of departure"but not restricted to those questions onthe prepared list. Each of the three groupsreceived a differing set of questions,selected from the matrix of questions that arereflected in the next several pages. CHAPTER X

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA CENTER

SINGLE CONCEPT FILM CLIP PROJECT NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CARTRIDGED FILMS

QUESTION SET ONE

"General questions needing a position of perception"

8mm New Medium? 1. From the point of view of industry, and of education..... is the 8mm film, and, more particularly the cartridgedfilm, seen as developing into areplacement of present 16mm film systems?Or is 8mm really a different medium from 16mm? If the latter, what generalizations can be made about the use of an 8mm system?

Interdependence 2. There is an interdependence between the Question software and the hardware. Education has a vested interest in both. Who takes the lead in determining standards? Can standards she developed that will satisfy all of the interest groups?

Markets 3. At least three possible marketingoutlets can be identified. The categories might include the school market, the home market and the student bookshop market. Which is likely to have the most influence on films in terms of format,content and treatment standards? Which of the three is most likely to be the major market in the short-range? What about the long-range?

Market 4. Is enough information available atthis Survey point in time to establish marketing sur- veys in order to predictwith any degree of accuracy what is in the future for the cartridged film field?

/3 140

Information 5. A central repository of data about cartridged films would be of untold value to users of such materials. Is it reasonable to anticipate that software producers will cooperatein developing a comprehensive cataloging and information system such as the one described at thismeeting?what steps could be taken at this conference to initiate planning for such an information system?

Electronics 6. Electronic systems of storing and displaying information similar to that now held in large part on motion picture film are already available. Each passing year increases the sophis- tication and lowers the cost of managing such information on tapes or discs. Should such electronic systems be a part of the planning in both the production of filmed material as well as in its display at thepoint of use?

Research 7. The Wagner paper indicates that modular films ('n a sense cartridged films) can be a tool for increasingly sophisticated research in learning and teaching. :,,,hat is the best method to rapidly organize such research? It is of prime concern to educators, but is it any less important to the commercial interests?

Educators 8. Recent trends in the instructional Role materials field in general seem to indicate that educators and commercial interests must work more and more closely in the development of curricular materials, particularly in the realm of communicating ideas and information. Where is the place of the scholar in this configuration? Also, what is the proper place of the teacherwho is most- ly concerned with effectively using such 141 systems of materials? In short, what is the role of the educator in the "grand design" of such instructional programs? MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY INSTIWCTIONAL MEDIA CENTER

SINGLE CONCEPT FILM CLIP PROJECT NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CARTRIDGED FILMS

QUESTION SET TWO

A series of necessary decisions or "Points of compromise" which may led...

At some point, system aesigners must make a series of decisions that are results of cam- promase and organizational necessity. And so we arrive at The Conference "Kitty- Gritty."

Basic Mechanics 1. Listed below are some of the points identified by the conference planners as needing direct discussion by the conferees.Although they are stated in elliptical form, we believe they capture the issues involved.

A. Format of film size, that is 8mm, Super amn or Mauer 8nn or others, such as the Panacolor system. B. Sound-silent, and the place of either or both. C. Optical-magnetic sound. D. Cartridge compatibility, between hardware. (i.e. Tape cartridges in autos.) E. Interchangeability of film between cartridges. F. Film apeed, 16, 18, 24 frames per second. G. Picture-sound separation pattern. H. Standards in graphics and print size for production of such materials. I. Release print quality.

Calurramise 2. Writers often identify the "concept of Questions compromise" as the genius of the American 144

Social system. Compromise is possible in some of the problemareas of standardization. Here are two hypothetical examples!

A. A rational, short-range plan over a period of years might be developed in the transition from standard 8mm to Super 8mm film as the basic format. (Other systems could be inserted in place of the 8-Super 8.) Thus, on given dates, producPrs of hardware and software would make the shiftor transition to a newer or differing system. The game of commercial "one upsmanship" would be tabled for this period of time.

B. A plan might be developed in which certain areas of instructional materials (or areas of film utilization) would use 8mm as their basic medium, while others would use Super 8mmas their medium. For example, a ground rule might be established that Supet 8mm be used for front projection while standard 8mm film would be used for small, rear-screen projection.

Despite the obvious flaws in the above two cases, is such a "compromise plan" a practical way of resolving some of our problems?

New Name 3. Does this group see any need for a new name for the "single concept" film? Is a precise, operational definition necessary (or even possible) for such films? Could this group suggest a bettername and agree upon a satisfactory definition?

as illust/dted in the Wagner paper. What suggestions might thisgroup make in terms of solving this important problem?

ii t MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA CENTER

SINGLE CONCEPT FILM CLIP PROJECT NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CARTRIDGED FILMS

QUESTION SET THREE

...for more effective film use in classroom instruction--as well as provide an element for acv; Ian%wative instructicnal systems.

Teacher 1. Proper and effective use of any instruc- Education tional medium requires teacher education (or re-education).An analysis needs to be made of the discrepancy between what teachers know now and what they need to know in order to use such materials effectively. Then a method of attacking this discrepancy must be designed.

Does a mutual or ioint interest on the part of the educational group and the business interests exist?What type of a joint support planmight be initiated to solve the "effective" use problem?

Use 2. Should any attempt be made to set "use" Parameter parameters on 8mm or single concept films? ("Use" considered in terms of instructional content and in terms of learner grouping.) Would such information be of advantage to the producers of materials and hardware?

Budgets 3. Budgets can be planned more precisely if purchasers know the approximate life of films and equipment. Is it logical to expect industry to provide the user with base information on the life expectancy of equipment and filmed material?

TV Use 4. The Project staff feels that single concept cartridged films are superbly suited 148

for use in television programing for instructional purposes. Can equipment standards be established for such a use of cartridged films? (Much as the radio announcer selects and "plugs in" his commercial or public service announcement.)

Pricing 5. The Bailey paper opens a door on the question of pricing policies on marketed films. The policies of the producers of films seem to have always adhered to a "rule of thumb" that dic- tates the price of the film as primarily determined by the number of screen minutes. No print cost nor production price seems to enter into the pricing plan. In the market place, consumers see very little difference in film prices.Mr. Bailey seems to ask if the educational community will "stand still" for pricing policies that directly reflect the original production figure, as well as the print costs, of the film. Educators who buy films have much the same question, asked in terms of why all films seem to cost the same amount. Is the place to break this habit to the mutual advantage of both film producers and educators in the virtually new cartridged film area?

Tie-In 6. Is it possible to establish some criteria or ground rules for the so-called "tie-in" sale? Packages of hardware and software make a great deal of sense in one context, but in another they seem to raise serious limitations. Is such a marketing technique necessary or desirable? ....yrsel T TIMUIr 7. DIX 0 LIT/ /WI T C, Inc. ...,,,,,,,,,,,-.., Joh4.J alia.V1.10

Three men of national stature, prominent in the instructi'nal media and audiovisual field, graciously consented to act as chairmen of the three subgroups. The real conference dialog took place within these three groups. Dr. Gabriel Ofiesh of The Catholic University, Dr. Paul Witt of Teachers College, Columbia University, and Dr. James Brown of San Jose State University were the three men that added so greatly to the dimensions of the conference. Their reports on the three discussion groups follow in the next section of the report on the National Conference.

it CHAPTER XI

Dr. Gabriel Ofiesh

Our primary concern was not the promotion of any hardware-software system, rather it was to make it possible for students to learn. We felt that we've been relegating the student to the lowest priority in our concern and have shown unusually great concern with teachers teaching through readily accessable messages through the medium of motion pictures, rather than students learning.

The reason we just used the term messages is because CAMP of us were confused about what "softwale" is. Apparcnt- ly, to many media people, software is hardware that you can bend. To many others in the field of educational technology and to some key people in the USOE, Dr. Bright for example, software is the message, the stimuli configurations, the illustrations, the graphics, the audio itself, the sound waves, what is being said, what is being communicated. I think this is in the area that needs some clarification in the profession. In this conference, we have used "software" as something you can bend and "message" referring to frame content, etc.

The basic view that emerged from the latter part of the discussion, was that cartridge modular oriented films creates new kinds of learning experiences for studentsand new relations between films and those students and teacher relationships.

What is it that is unique about the cartridge? Let's talk about it in terms of learning it produces rather than in terms of any particular physical feature. In this respect, therefore, the most unique aspect of a cartridge which makes this possible is accessibility. Because of its accessibility, we have, therefore, increasedthe availability of many new kinds of experiences for any individual, small groups, and large groups. We have an increase in flexibility and options available to the messages designer. we feel that the message designer in discrete,modular areas can exercise a set of design option which he didn't have available before. Along with this, we have an increase in methodology options available to teachers.

A teacher could now turn to a modular system in a very difficult to teach area, request that it be produced or at least have it available on the shelf knowing that her 152 difficult students may be helped didacticallyby this particular modular. So the area of methodology options available to teach, the area of options availableto the student, the area of options available to themessage designer are all increased because of the cartridge dimension.

Another unique feature of the cartridge is the potential motivational value it has due to its limited timespan. We felt that even to students, especiallya preschooler, or the elementary school child, there isa motivational value in just handling the cartridge itself.The repetitiveness, ease of operation, ease of logistics, modular aspects of thematerial, flexibility of message design, precisionin terms of design intent, a facility for getting operational field test data that we would not get originally,are providing these and possibly other characteristicsa means for col- lecting massive amounts of empirical and discretedata for further learning research and useful learningmanagement experience.

The concern with standardizationwas a constant issue throughout the Conference. There are no fast and concise answers. Nor did we feel there ought to be. Currently, available cartridge film materialscan provide valuable services to educations Standardization, though of valid importance in some circumstances, should not be usedas an excuse for delaying utilization of this important andnew concept. Therefore, we recommend that educators should evaluateexist- ing hardware and software in the light of specificrequire- ments in their own institution, and should thenproceed with utilization, selecting the cartridge systemmost appropriate for each individual application.

On the other hand, we also felt it was incumbenton producers to furnish as complete informationas possible on these elements which relate to each of these mechanics. Information should be made availableas to whether a cartridge was suitable for a variety of devices, and what could be donewith the materials in it. We felt this is more important than standardization. More often, utilization is hindered because of lack of information- -not lack of standardization.

The Conference strongly recommends that ongoing national organizations representing vitally interested sectionsof this field, including suchgroups as those mentioned, should commence. 153 joint discussions. We would hope that such discussions would lead to the establishment of an effective, coordinated, and continuing voice representing the combined influences of their memberships and seek to stimulate increased utilization, expanded research, and encourage the creation of new and valid cartridge film programs, and, hopefully, promote a degree of what I would like to call "psychic-standardization" in this field. That is standardization through understanding. We feel this should be a priority item emerging from the recommendations of the Conference.

This also brought us into the area of the effectiveness or 111.azning mtariala anA here I may be treading on tender ground with respect to whether I PM =presenting the consensus of the group or not. The instructional effectiveness of cartridge fiLas is an equally appropriate consideration of all media and film materials. It is likely, however, that the requirements for effectiveness measures and criteria will first be focused on the cartridged film because it can be more easily handled and effectiveness data more readily acquired. This issue cannot be resolved in our discussion group, nor do I anticipate that it will be resolved in this Conference. It is recommended, however, that the matter of an evaluated criteria of learning effectiveness of media be the subject of a national conference sponsored by the USOE.

Unless the professional people involved in the area of auditing the effectiveness of materials do not do this, then other agencies will do it for them. Therefore, I personally urge that this be a matter of internal auditing and concern. If you don't report on the effectiveness of your materials, I think other people will report on the effectiveness of those materials. Therefore, I think that this data is an absolute necessity in an area of growth and development.

I think the cartridge film itself is something that lends itself to precise measurement, effectiveness, and validation and, therefore, we must look through it in order to open the whole area of effectiveness of our learning materials. I do think that this is something that cannot be resolved here, but I think it is something that is a matter of urgency, nationally, and something that may lead to another conference. 154

School and producerrelations: Schoolmen must give the equipment manufacturers avalid design list ofparticulars. The schools' needs andpromises should be determinedand dis- charged to industry. Hopefully, an instrumentationwill emerge thatreflects the teachingaspirations of the curriculum people. Cooperative studies of schoolneeds can permit industries to respond to theproblems. Knowledgeable schoolmen must beexpected to design afluid, flexible and artisti- cally viable medium. Leadership and initiativerightfully must start with theeducators. Their design must also be carefully crafted and fieldtested to achieve the bestinstrumenta- tion design. I think the consensusof the discussion group at this point was that theeducators must state explicitlyfor a change what they wantfrom the producers ratherthan expect the producers toanticipate what the educatorswould like to will have. Until the educators dothis, we don't think there be any convergence.

Finally, I think gettingback to Paul Witt's discussion group with respectto communication, we areconcerned about the lack of a national-focalpoint Z.-1r the disseminationof guidelines and informationregarding developments in newmedia such as the cartridgemodular film. It is known and there are concerns in the USOEin the following related areas: (1) Rapid developments in new juniorcolleges (one going up everyweek) and this possiblyincreasing one to two everythree weeks in the next few years. (2) Educational learning resourcematerials centers which aregoing to be geared withproviding materials for individualizedself-instruction. (3) Dial access systems,audiovisual informationretrieval dial access systems. (4) Trends from group andlockstep learning to in- dividualized learning. (5) Trends from memory toinquiry, discovery and conceptuallyoriented learning. (6) New means of audiovisualtransmition of information tohuman receivers which are presently hiddenin the laboratoriesof hardware manufacturers.

The USOE is at this pointconcerned with developing guidelines for potential users,for designers of new educational facilities, andteachers and so forth. On the other hand, it's almost aschizophrenic type ofoperation because there is no relationshipapparently between these concerns and the concerns in theUSOE. If the present schism continues between these concerns,the role of significanceof findings of this Conferencein relation to these trendswill be limited. 155

We should fully explore the significance of the 8mm cartridge against these developments, and we should insist that the USOE allow this to happen. We are concerned at the present, the USOE, although interested in developing guidelines for users in the various media of educationalfacilities, has at present no central mechanism for disseminationof findings of these conferences, or of material to support guidelines. The USOE has no mechanism for effective dissemination of the findings of other related conferences.

This Conference was a necessary, but not sufficient condition. Follow through " necece=ry. :It have tc real ice that if there is no follow through to thesedeliberations, in the USOE, and through a dissemination mechanism that should be established, then that this was really justanother fine Conference. Therefore, we would like to recommend that this matter should be brought to the attentionof the Com- missioner, and not only with respect to the cartridge but to respect to all media, and probably bring it to theattention of the National Advisory Committee on new educationalmedia which was established by act of Congress to advise the Com- missioner of Education on developments and legislationwith respect to new media.

I think that I-was personally (as a new memberof this group) quite stimulated by the dedication and the quality of its concern that I have apparently noted here, notonly the part of the educators, but especially on the partof the producers in trying to work with the educators to meet the problems and the concerns which emerged with ourdiscussion group. We should all keep constantly in mind that our ultimate target really is notthe teacher but it is the student. CHAPTER XII

Dr. Paul Witt

Mr. Offenhauser described the procedures of the American Standards Association for establishing technical standards of the kind about which we are concerned. He will give Woodie Miller the references which describe these procedures.

We talked about the possibility of involving the Bureau of Standards in the establishment of standards for the 8mm field. We discussed the possible potential rnle cf the Ed- uecitiuudl PLoducts information Exchange in the setting of standards for this field. We also discussed the influence of the Federal Government in influencing matters such as standards, due to its control of Federal funds that are being made available through the U.S. Office of Education for the purchase of equipment and materials.One member of our group very wisely warned us against dangers ofestablishing standards too early. Someone described this danger as "rig- idizing" standards today and, thereby, handicapping the development of the medium and its equipment tomorrow.

There was a fairly general consensus that standards will be determined in the market place. As one member of our group said, "What school people will buy will set the standards."We were also reminded of Lou Forsdale's comment yesterday that if film and projectors are not used, standards are of little importance, and that if they are used, and used extensively, they will wear out and then we will be able to replace them with new models.

We noted that there is a real need for different kinds of equipment or different models of equipment for different uses. We disposed of the "sound-silent" question very quickly. We agreed that both sound and silent film are needed. It was our view that present production methods as well as the importance of excerpting sections of existing films will determine the answers to questions regarding film speed and the distance between picture and sound. It was also our view that present production methods permit us to go either to optical or to magnetic sound in duplicate prints.

We felt that the questions regarding cartridge compatibility and the interchangeability of film between

/5". _ /S7 cartridges are of greatest importance.We were agreed that :t is urgent to achieve cartridgecompatibility and the inter- ....:nangeability of file between cartridges. We believe we shocld be able to perform these operations in workshops.

We gave only brief attention to the questionsregarding gat, Super 8 or Maurer 8. Once again, we concluded that these questions will be answered in the marketplace. We did not discuss the matter of the quality of releaseprints. If we nad. I suppose we might again have decidedthat the buyer will be the one who decided.

Software is crucial. It is the program that counts!We need films that will enable pupils to learn.

It was suggested in our group that weneed to study con- yestiai film forms in order to discoveruseful adaptations of these forms as well as othercreative ways for utilizing the noviag image in the new hardware toachieve more effective and moire efficient teaching andlearning. We need more imaginative research and experimentationin the design of software. we need to explore variation in film length, modular designs for sets of films, etc.

Several members of our group stressedthe importance of flexibiltti in film utilization. Films must be useful in a variety of situations. As a matter of fact, it is now true teat films are often usedextensively outside of the areas for which they were oesigned despitethe fact that producers exercise great care inspecifying the areas for which they are designed.

Another illustration of uses notanticipated by producers was reported by oneof our commercial members who told usthat foreign countries nave purchasedlarge quantities of silent don film after they discoveredthey can easily adapt these fiLms for use in situations whereEnglish is not the language of instruction.

A related tangential statementmade in our discussion which I think is very important, wasthat it is quite prevalent today in school systems forthe concern for a multiethnic approach in edu==tion to be a veryinfluential factor in the evaluation stnd selection offilm as well as other kinds of in- structtorl materials.while some of us may not be sosenitive 159

to this factor andwhile it is not reallythe basic consideration in evaluatingand selectingmaterials, present social conditions makethis concern almost afinal over- riding criterion.

ROLE OF THE EDUCATOR INDEVELOPMENT OF CURRICULUMMATERIALS

In our discussionof the educator'srole in the development ofcurriculum materials, we wereconcerned particularly about this rolewith reference tothe emerging instruc- in tional systems.We did not definethe educator's role materials development inprecise terms. Nonetheless, I think current the report of oneof the producersin our group as to practices in theutilization of educationalpersonnel in there are places materials production,made it clear that and for the mediaspecialist, the subjectmatter specialist However, one of the the classroom teacherin this process. producers commercial representativespointed out that the the are going tomake the finaldecision because they are he noted ones whoinvest their money. On the other hand, difficulty making de- further that theproducers have great cisions regardL materials because ofthe plurality of pedagogical view amongthose of us in theprofession. One report regarding-;.he use of educatorsin materials produc- that it is the tion which I found veryinteresting, indicated practice of a certainproducer to employ atraditionalist work together on pro- and a progressistand to have them decides duction problems. In the end,however, the producer finds it whose advice he isgoing to follow. He apparently valuable to havecontrasting points ofview. producers are now It was alsoreported to us that many study utilizing therecommendations of themajor curriculum Several of the groups indesigning and producingmaterials. professional educatorsassociated with thesecurriculum to pro- groups arealso serving asconsultants and advisors that the ducers. In my view, thesedevelopments indicate significant role infa- commerical producersplay a highly cilitating moderncurriculum developments.

Communication difficultieswithin the profession this is occupied our attentionfor a time. We agreed that communication,educa- a veryserious problem. Due to poor and file, tors in largenumbers, leaders aswell as the rank They are are often unawareof advances inmethodology. 160 equally unaware of the existence of many new materials. It's imperative that we continue to work on this problem. It is vital that we get information about materials and methods to administrators and supervisors. It is equally urgent that we get it to classroom teachers, as well.

We talked about the efforts of the traditionaljournals to do this job and recognized that they aren't succeeding completely. It was suggested that we may need new approaches. Specifically, it was suggested that we try the "Life" magazine format. It was pointed out that the new USOE magazine, "Amer- ican Education," is attempting to do this.

We also noted that the USOE is not facilitating the communication of the research findings and the outcomes of other governmentally sponsored and supported educational enterprizes.

We were agreed that there is a need for anorderly, work- able, national information system. Somebody asked, "Do we need to revive AVCOPI?"We talked about the Educational Media Index, the DAVI task force which is at work on thisproblem, and ERIC which is now being developed. Someone reported that in Ohio the medical doctors are being kept abreast ofdevelopments in their field by means of a special radio network. Some doctors participate in professional in-service education via their car radios as they drive from call to call. It was suggested in our group that we could make greaterand more effective use of the amplified telephone in sharing resource peoplethroughout the country. One member of our group proposed thepossibility of this group passing a resolution on the communicationproblem.

The education of teachers is of vital importance. It is, of course, related to the communications problem which Ihave just been discussing.We noted that the USOE is now turning its attention to people. The USOE has been in the hardware- software phases, but is now going to put heavyemphasis on people. In the future, the USOE will place heavyemphasis on what can be done to prepare educational personnel. Attention will be given to in-service as well as pre-service education in order to help teachers utilize new media and the newer teaching techniques.

We talked also about the significance of the recentin- stitutes for media personnel and teachers in varioussubject fields. Media were a very prominent feature of these institutes. it

161

Our group is veryhopeful that the currentappraisal of the results of theseinstitutes will substantiate ourardent hopes that theseinstitutes have been of great valuein ad- vancing modern education. We think we will reapbenefits from these institutesfor several years to come. There have been between 6,000and 8,000 participantsin those institutes.

It was also suggestedthat future Federallegislation will undoubtedly bedeveloped in terms of theresults of the appraisal of theseinstitutes or at least theappraisal will have significanteffect on future Federallegislation.

Industry must also assumemajor responsibility fored- ucating teachers,especially those in-service, to usethe I think, newercommunications media. It was made explicit, that this responsibilitywill be particularly urgent as we begin to adopt andutilize major instructionalsystems as a commonpractice.

We have noted theinfluence of the Federal Government on theestablishment of standardsthrough the granting of in dis- funds. We have pointed outthe role of government semination of information. Another point is that theinfluence of categoricalaid which we have beenhaving in recent years, is very, verymarked on the developmentof the curriculum; and aseducators concerned aboutthe development of elementary,secondary, and highereducation in this country, we must givethis matter seriousattention. We must recognizethe potential influenceof the knowledge industry on the developmentof curriculum.

We, too, talkedabout new names. We agreed thatit is an urgent but not asimple problem. It is actually very complexin nature. Some new names I heard wereshort films, short single subject,films, cartridge loopfilms, chaptered filmsall of which you havealso heard before, here and elsewhere. How short is short? When is short no longershort? I guess I cansummarize our discussion of the new name bysaying that maybe his namereally is Pluto, but if everyoneelse calls him Rover, wemight just matters as wellcall him Rover, too,and get on with other of more importance. F-.

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The commercialrepresentatives in our group werequick to tell us thatthere is not enoughinformation available to those concerned withsurveying the market. I tried to press for some specifics as towhat they wanted. In general, they want more informationabout the utilization ofexisting materials and the potentialutilization of future materials. In- dustry wants to know whatit is the educator really wants. The answer is not asimple one in that Americansociety is, and always has been,pluralist. However, I think this is a fact of life which is mostfortunate and with which weshould thankfully live.

Obviously, in the light ofwhat I said earlier about communication, the values ofthis conference will depend on the extent and theeffectiveness of our efforts tocommuni- cate what we havelearned to our professionalcolleagues. And let's not forget thatthe individual classroom is one of our professional colleagues. Another value of this conference grows out of ourpersonal contact. As one individual in our group said,"Some of the best ideasemerged from our conversations in the halls as westand around the coffeeurn." Personally, I have enjoyedbeing here. I found the formal sessions as well as theinformal sessions around thecoffee urn extremelyvaluable. I would like to express mypersonal thanks to the plannersof this Conference forgiving me the privilege of being here. CHAPTER XIII

Dr. James Brown

Is the 8mm really adifferent medium? In the opinion Rather of our group, wedecided it is not adifferent medium. that offers lotsof it is a film in adifferent format---ore possibilities that weshould capitalize upon. Two possibili- (1) low cost, which ties that seem quiteobvious are these: time, really, in may enable usto have filmsfor the first about, partic- everyclassroom, and (2) easeof use, trought ularly, through recentdevelopments in filmcartridging. that There were somein our group,however, who thought different medium. One the 8mm filmshould be regarded as a possibility of the reasons putforth for thisview was the sequences" or, of using filmsof this typein "chaptered suggested in BobWagner's divided somewhatalong the lines presentation of yesterday. There were somein our group, in mind that too, who feltthat the 8mmproducer should keep might be on a one-to-onein- a potential useof his product timate basis such asmight occur withindividual projection on acartridge-type projectorin a carrel. confused in What aboutterminology? We were somewhat for the best term our group onterminology. So we looked with a "best one," per- to use. We really didn'tcome up just plain haps, but the one weused most frequently was "short film." decided What size is bestfor the shortfilm? Our group well encourage that Super 8 wasthe best, andthat we might as Super the present trendand cooperatewith the "inevitable." of Eastman'scorporate plansfor years, we 8 has been part is the for- find, and Eastman seemsto believethat 8mm Super favor in ithe market. The fact mat thatshould gain greatest standard 8mm equipment that many schools nowhave access to particularly impor- was notconsidered by our groupto be a standardization in thatsize. tant reasonfor future Whether any onefilm Sound vs. silent: what is better? thought, upon itssub- should be silent orsound depends, we Preferably though, ject matter, purpose,and intended use. of being used we said, evensound filmsshould be capable communication, and silently---withoutseriously handicapping used. We decided especially ifinstructor commentaries are require ti-at anyfilm, wiether that goodteaching will often 164 or not it is produced as a sound film, should be capable of being used silently for certain instructional purposes. We realize that this may make quite a difference in the content and treatment of a particular film. Judging by what the Film Clip Project people discovered in their analysis of their film clips, it would appear that about 50% of them would have had to have been in sound in order to make them fully intelligible to viewers unassisted by instructors. Perhaps if we design short films from scratch, we should keep in mind the fact that it is often a desirable thing to do to use short segments silently with interpretations by teachers or tutors in charge or in some other "non-standard" way.

The silent film days still seem to say something to us that has a bearing on short film production.Perhaps we need to use and to exploit all the tricks of the trade that were used when we made good silent films. Perhaps we should study this art and learn more about communicating in the short film format---without sound track if we want to. Creative and useful productions of many different kinds may result.

Re-doing sound tracks. Our group considered the possibility of re-doing sound tracks (adding new ideas on the spot) to be important in using short films. We were not particularly worried about the further intentional or inadvertent addition of unwanted or inappropriate comments on sound tracks which does seem to have been of considerable concern to lots of people. It seemed to us to be rather unreal to consider this possibility as a deterrent to the use of magnetic track film.

Magnetic vs. optical tracks. Eastman reported in our group that pre-striped 3mm stock will be on the market next Monday. It was quite obvious, I think, that our group favored magnetic track on 3mm in the short film version. We did not see a particular necessity to have a combination of magnetic-optical tracking.When we were given the choice to discuss whether we considered the optical or the magnetic track to be more preferable, I believe I am right in stating that our group favored the magnetic track because of its flexibility of application somewhat along the lines of things mentioned previously in this report.

The decision of our group was to recommend that a magnetic stripe be put on every film when it is sold, whether or not it was pre-recorded. This arrangement would then permit 165

local adaptation possibilitiesand the addingof desired sound to it. There was the furtherfeeling that magnetic sound, in its presentform, could providebetter quality sound than presentlyavailable optical systems.

What is the mostdesirable type ofprojector for 8mm reproducing films? Our group said itshould be capable of magnetic sound or ofusing films silentlyin cartridge form. cartridges of many It should also becapable of accepting lengths, preferably, but atleast the minimum of a4-minute to capitalize film. It should besimple to operate so as willing to use films, per- on appealingto teachers who are haps only shortfilms, that do notgive much trouble in that getting and usingrelated equipment. It was believed there are many timeswhen teachers wouldonly use such short films---when they werevery, very easyto get and when there was no botherwith complicatedprojectors. We believed we shouldkeep inexpert personsin mind when designing pro- amount of use jectors for 8mm films. Perhaps the greatest of short 8mm filmswill be on the one-to-onerelationship have no tech- of the learning carrelinvolving people who nical background foroperating equipment. The simpler the better, then, in thatparticular situation.

Marketing problems. Can we standardizethe cartridging to of 8mm films?We believed thatit would be desirable standardize on cartridging.We also felt that weshould divorce the problem ofcartridging from theproblems of printing and distributingshort films. If possible, we thought, the purchasershould decide theformat in which he wishes to have his productcartridged. If this is the case, cartridging probablywill have to beavailable in many for- for the mats. There was considerablesupport in our group idea that propercartridging methods wouldfind their own way in an openmarket competitionand that we should not try to force anearly standardization,in this respect, be- feeling that fore we are readyfor it. There was also the Standard, 8mm Super, or the marketing ofshort films in 3mm 16mm format may bewasteful to the consumer,but not that it will be especiallywasteful to theproducer. deal of What about the homemarket? There was a great interest in our groupin the home market.We thought generally that thismarket ought notdictate the educational market's interest andstandards. Nevertheless, we agreed PIR4

166

that neither should it be ignored. Rather, we thought it deserved to be encouraged. Some believed that libraries-- - school libraries, as well as publiclibraries---would also be in the short cartridge film businessby loaning out materials in this form as they now loan out books.

We then discussed the homeentertainment center. Units in the home that would reproduce 8mmcartridge films were thought to be important. The possibilities of a "box attach- ment" to an ordinary television setto convert it to a video- tape recorder-playback unit werealso recognized.

Use in stora e and retrieval oerations. Uses of short films, and especially those in the 8mmformat, for information storage and retrieval(in dial access operations, for example) were also discussed. We decided that we were not yet at the point where muchcould be said about these developments, yet they must berecognized and considered by those in the field. We appear now to be on the vergeof important break-throughs in these areas. Perhaps the producers' real problems are only starting. No doubt new approaches will need to be made to matters pertaining tothe recouping of royalties, unauthorized duplications and uses,and the like.

In summary, our groupregarded the short film as an essential. It is with us; it is going to staywith us; it is going to grow in importance. There was concern by some that we should emphasize we aretalking about short films that are more than simply excerptsfrom films produced originally as longer, more complete films. We thought something needs to he said for the "art of the shortfilm as a short film"---a film that is originally planned andproduced that way.We ourselves should develop our skills andabilities to produce original films in this shorter form with moreprecision and more effectiveness than we nowdo. Even with the limitations of time and the physical aspects of a4-minute, 8mm, and Super 8mm format, there seemed still tobe a great deal that can be done to improve the product---especiallyif we start with the 8mm format in mind. Many producers have done thiswith a variety of film subjects. The future of the short film looks good. Si

THE SUMMARY POSITION

The followingsummarization to the National Conference onCartridge Films was prepared by theauthor with theeditorial assistance of Mr. CharlesL. Bollmann, Assistant ProjectDirector. CHAPTER XIV SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

Many of the suggestions of the Conference participants appear in one form or another in the three summary papers of the small group discussions. Many of them appear there in more than one formulation reflecting different points of view or different aspects of a central notion. An attempt will be made in this section to reflect upon someof the major and recurring points that have appeared previously in either the Conference papers or in the reports of the discussion sessions. These might be termed "major recommendations" or "suggestions" of the February Cartridged Film Con- ference.

A. Accessibility is the key attribute of the Car- tridged film.

There was much agreement with the position of Dr.Louis Forsdale of Teachers College on the "accessibility"feature of the cartridged film. Professor Forsdale has suggested for a number of years that the Oritirt film (and also the cartridged film) does in fact make films much moreaccessible to teachers and students than any otherkind of motion picture format. Professor Forsdale suggested that the most important thing (much more important than theRegular 8 vs. Super 8 problem that was discussed atlength) is the accessibility feature; that is, the cartridge caneliminate the need for inspection of a film after each use andthus permits the decentralization of film libraries. Films can then be stored much closer to the point of use.

The suggestion was made that it would beinappropriate and inadvisable to wait until all decisions aremade concerning 3mm standards before seriously investing moneyand time into the use of 8mm films in instructional programs. The nature of the 6mm film medium (whethercartridged or not) is such that with good utilization, thematerials and the equipment must of necessity 5e replacedmuch more often than with other types of motion picture systems. That is, a good library ofcartridged films or film clips, coupled with suitable machinery for using them,could very well wear out and need replacementin a much shorter time than 16mm films and equipment. Therefore, in a space of two to three, (certainly no more than five years) normaltransitions 170

could be made to replace equipment withnewer and less obsolete eauipment and films, if the 9mm standards do beginto firm uc in a particular direction. Therefore, many of the Conference members suggested that the educators are perfectly safe in investing money in reciular Smm equipment and regular 8mm filmsat this point in time, because with proper utilization thesemate- rials will be worn out before they nect, to be replaceddue to newer technological developments in the Super 8 field. This suggestion that school people should ,.et on with theuse of film in this medium was made by individuals from the industrialcom- munity and by some of the educators -resent.

B. There is a need for thorough and imaginative research with the short film.

It was felt that short films of this nature can play a major role in the area of research. It was suggested that good, le9icimate learning research can be done with the short, cartridged, modular film, and that it is irrelevant whether the Particular films appear in a Regular 3 cartridge or a Super 8 cartridges. It was suggested that we need more experience and new applications of films in this forztat, and that more ideas are likely to result from actually using films of this kind than from a priori hunches.

C. There is a great need for efficient dissemination of information about innovations with short films.

It was agreed that we have grave problems in disseminating information about educational innovations in general and cartridged films in particular. At this time there simply is not an effective Find rapid way to get up-to-date and,accurate information about: innovations out to educators at the local level. Of several methods suggested by the Conferees, the publication of a Life-like format picture publication devoted to innovations in education was well received. It was suggested that the U.S. 0Afice of Education might well look into the sponsorship of this kind of dissemination vehicle.

It was also suggested that 8mm films themselves might be made about educational innovations (such as the Single Concept Film Clip Project) and released to the field to use for dissemination purposes. I: was also suggested that a series of film loops might well be made on this Conference and the suggestions resulting from it. Film loops also night be useable in Wr

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disseminating informationin all areas ofeducational innovation as well asabout them selves Conferees that good It was generallyagreed by the "cross-fertilization" of in- dissemination wouldprovide for The Con- forwation between thevarious disciplines perse. agreed that serious ference members werealso almost totally informa- attention needs to begiven to thedissemination of tion within the vastand encompassingfield of education. instructional D. Short films aredesperately needed in television (whether The entirecuestion of the useof film clips instruction was dis- they be on amm or16mm), in television recommendations were cussed during themeeting. No firm There is little made but someserious questions wereraised. begin to use short seg- doubt that educatorswould like to films) in their tele- ments of films(such as single concept It was agreed vision programingfor instructional purposes. needed by professors that film resourcematerials are sorely and teachers who aredesigning and programingtelevision thought, could learning experiences.Cartridge films, it was meet thisneed.

There also seemslittle doubt thatfilm producers The would like to find a wayin which thiscould be done. accept- problem lies in thecopyright area,and procedures have not yet beendeveloped. able to producersand educators for school peopleto ob- An uncumbersome waymust 1Ie found while insuring film tain permission touse filmsin this way payment for such use. producers areasonable royalty or that the film pro- It was suggestedby the ecl-:cators professional associ- ducers should gettogether in their own to ation, perhapsthe National AueioVisual Association, It was suggest- develop workableprocedures of thisnature. producers thateducators ought notto stand ed by the film part in the by and wait forthis to happen,but should take development of a setof workableregulations. educators should usewhat is E. In short-rPase, standards will bedeter- available row. In the lone -rance, :aimed in themarket place. 172

It was suggested thatindustrial people (including both filmmakers and machine manufacturers)and educators should de- vise plans aimed at a short-rangepoint of view. There are in effect two 8mm film systems: theRegular 8mmformat and the newer Super 8 system. The former is rather common,with many more units inoperation than the latter. Again, as indicated in the first section of this summary,the suggestion was made that the school people should notwait for all decisions to be made before they enterinto the use of films of this medium. It was suggested thatin the short-range, the use of materials which are available nowis appropriate, and that, in the long-range (perhaps three toten years), suitable and rational plans should be developedfor making the transition to newer and better systems asthey become available.

On the other side ofthis question, comments from many Conference participants reflectedthe feeling that some decisions do need to be made now and somedefinite commit- ments should be made bothby users and materials producersin- asfar as Regular 8 and Super8 are concerned. It was suggested that a time schedule of somekind might be set up so that the buyer would know,for example, that Regular 8 materials would be available inquantity for three, four, or perhaps five years, after which atransition would be made. Others, however, disagreed on this point,saying that the major decisions will be and properlyshould be made in the market place. Since it is very difficult topredict when a transi- tional time might arrive,this question was left unresolved in spite of the amount oftime spent on it.

F. No definitive statementwith regard to standards was developed. It was agreed, however,that standards would necessarily be determined in themarket place.

A considerable amountof time was given tothe discussion of the two major divergenciesthat have appeared in the 8mm field. Included were discussions of theRegular 8 vs. Super 8 film format and themagnetic-stripe film vs. the opticaltrack film. In general, theConferees agreed that the decisions on these basic points would notbe made on a rational,pre-planned and cooperative basis within theindustry, but rather in the open market place. It was suggested byConference members that a decision tosit down and jointly to hammer outstandards before the fact would be treadinginto the area of monopolistic, illegal activities anti thatparticipants in such cooperative endeavors might be subject toFederal anti-trust action. 173

It was generally agreedthat different companieswould more than likelytake different approaches tothese questions and that the finalstandard would be decided in the open market place. Some system(s) will win outbecause of their inherent value, orbecause of fortuitous timingin their introduction. Basically, decisions on standardswill be based upon what sells. The people from industrysuggest- ed that the educatorswould in effect set the standardswith their purchase decisions.On the other hand, theeducators tended to say that it wouldbe easier if industry were to set certain standards sothat anybody's film wouldfit anybody's machine,(or even more hopefully,anyone's cartridge would fit anyone's machine).

It should be injectedhere that Dr. Ray Wymanof the University of Massachusettsmade a pertinent pointwith his statement that:

"Meanwhile back in the classroom, theclassroom teacher is basicallydemanding a new freedom toadd this limited concept shortfilm to the classroom learning materials. She now has several ofthem. She can use anybody's chal.: onanybody's chalkboard, and anybody's overhead transparencyon anybody's projector, with very few exceptionsanybody's 16mm sound film on anybody's 2rojector. -Alen is the day going to come when we can addanybody's limited-concept motion picture to anybody'smachine so that we can have this new freedom toadd this free motionepisode to a regular classroomlearning situation. Now somehow this group needs towrestle with this situation and come to some sort ofsolution so that thisclass- room teacher,multiplied by many thousands, canhave this new motion picturetechnology in the classrooms. What the answer is, I don't-1-.now, but we simplycan't go in all thesedifferent directions and say,'you choose this, co with thisand then nobody else can use what you areusing'."

In reply to Mr. Wyman,the suggestion was madethat indeed some of tae other systemswhich he mentioned too:: some time in the openmarket to establishstandards now generally accepted in theeducation and industrial community, and that those standardswere notestablished over- night nor in a preconceived wayat conferenceslike the present one. 174

Mr. WilliamOffenhauser, an independentconsultant from be a bad New Canaan, Connecticut,suggested that it might not idea to include theAmerican StandardsAssociation in the discussion of standardsfor the 8mm single concept,cartridged film Committee of field. It was also suggestedthat the Standards the Society of MotionPicture & Televisioni;ngineers should be appraised of the concernof this Conference, andthe Conference Planners were instructed toforward some of these concernsto with this the SMPTE. The Society, however,has already dealt problem in some respectswithout reaching any greaterdegree of agreement thandid the February Conference.

It was suggestedthat the general Europeandecision (particularly in GreatBritan) to stay with Regular8 should not deter us from going aheadwith the development of newerand better systems forhandling 8mm images. Even in Europe, the Germans haveindicated that they mayestablish Super 8 as their standard. films G. Adequate informationabout the content of short might eliminate thenecessity of previewing theactual films.

Mr. Carl Nater, ofthe Walt Disneyorganization, injected the producer'sproblem of providingpreview sets of film thorny problem loops. The preview problemhas always been a for the film producersto deal with. The fact that already more than 4,000 filmloops are available makesthis concern about marketingtechnique a crucialconsideration. Audiovisual directors cannotpossibly look at the totalcol- lections of film loopsbefore making purchases. It was suggested that randomsampling of a set offilm loops was sufficient.

The Film Clip 1)::ojectstaff, however, suggestedthat even random sampling of thefilms themselves is not a veryrational way to solvethe problem, but thatinformation about the loops must be used inreaching utilizationdecisions. Such summary data can be organizedinto computer-controlledinformation banks where it can beefficiently searched. The technology is available to dothis, and yet it isabsolutely necessary for film producers tolet an unbiased partywrite (in standard The Project patterns) informationalsegments about thefilms. staff found itdifficult, if not impossible, to dothis from the descriptions of films asprovided by the filmproducers. It was suggestedthat a cooperativeendeavor among the film 175 producers to put togethersuch an "informationbank" about all single concept filmloops would repay them manytimes over. Then a central repositorycould provide allpertinent information about available loops on anygiven subject to the pro- spective purchaser who wouldthen forego previewingthe actual film material.

CONCLUSION

The writer of this summarywould suggest to thereader who is concerned withthe directions andpoints of view expressed during theConference, that he read verycarefully the papers includedin this report.Much relevant material is to be found in the papersof the three Conference sum- marizers, Dr. Paul Witt, Dr.Gabriel Ofiesh, and Dr. James Brown. Those three papers andthe other major Conference papers containvirtually all of the concernsraised and suggestions made at theFebruary National Conference on Cartridged Films at MichiganState University. CHAPTER XV

PART IC I PANTS Michigan State University Participants Attending Cartridged Films Conference February 22-24, 1967

BAILEY, Albert Mr. COX, Alva I. Jr. Mr. BAILEY FILMS, INC. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF CHURCHES

BALDWIN, Thomas Dr. DACCURSO, Salvatore V. Mr. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY JAYARK INSTRUMENTS CORP.

BARR, Donald Mr. DEVEREAUX, Alfred E. Mr. ARTHUR BARR PRODUCTIONS,INC. EYE GATE PRODUCTIONS, INC.

BARSON, John Dr. DUHAMEL, E. Donald Mr. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY A.B. DICK COMPANY

BECKWITH, Hugh Mr. EDEN, Tom Mr. BECKWITH & ASSOCIATES LEKAS PRODUCTS

BOEKEMEIER, Barbara Mrs. FINN, 'fames D. Dr. EYE GATE HOUSE, INC. UNIV. OF SOUTHERN CALIF.

BOLLMANN, Charles Mr. FORSDALE, Louis Prof. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIV.

BOWER, Joseph S. Mr. GENTRY, Castelle G. Dr. ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA UNIVERSITY OF MAINE

BRANDOU, Julian R. Dr. GEORGIADY, Nicholas P. Mr. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY MICHIGAN DEPT. OF EDUCATION

BROWN, James W. Dr. GEARHART, Richard C. Mr. SAN JOSE STATE COLLEGE EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY

BRYAN, Julien Mr. GERLACH, Vernon Prof. INTERNATIONAL FILM FOUNDATION ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY

CALVER, D.R. Mr. GOUGH, John A. Mr. GRAFLEX, INC. OFFICE OF EDUCATION

CARPENTER, C.R. Dr. HANNA, Ardith Mrs. PENN STATE COLLEGE MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

CHILDS, John Dr. HANSEN, Helge E. Dr. WAYNE STATE UNIVERSITY DEARBORN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 180

HANSON, Stanley J. Mr. MYERS, Nat Jr. Mr. AUDION CORPORATION FAIRCHILD INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTIONS HARTSELL, Horace Dr. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY NATER, Carl Mr. WALT DISNEY 16mm FILMS HOBACK, Frank J. Mr. BELL & HOWELL COMPANY NORBERG, Kenneth Prof. SACRAMENTO STATE COLLEGE HODGES, Marvin P. Mr. EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY OFFENHAUSER, William H.,Jr. Mr. CONSULTANT HUNT, G. Carleton Mr. DE LUXE LABORATORIES OFIESH, Gabriel D. Dr. THE CATHOLIC UNIV. OF AMERICA JOHNSON, Walter E. Mr. SOCIETY FOR VISUAL EDUCATION PAGE, James L. Dr. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY KNIRK, Frederick Mr. INSTITUTE FOR EDUCATIONAL PEIREZ, Ben Mr. DEVELOPMENT VIEWLEX, INC.

KREIMAN, Robert Mr. PFAFF, Gunter Mr. TECHNICOLOR CORPORATION MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

LEKAS, John P. Mr. PHEND, Harold W. Mr. LEKAS PRODUCTS AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR METALS

LE MAY, James E. Mr. RIDGWAY, David W. Mr. CORONET INSTRUCTIONAI FILMS CHEMICAL EDUCATION MATERIAL STUDY LEWIS, Stephen Mr. SCIENCE RESEARCH ASSOCIATES ROMANO, Louis Dr. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY MC COY, Edward Prof. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY ROSENBERG, Albert J. Mr. MC GRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY MAC FARLENE, R.T. Mr. GRAFLEX, INC. RUFFING, Charles Mr. MICHIGAN STATE DEPT. OF MALCOLM, Rex Mr. EDUCATION FILM ASSOCIATES SAKS, Lewis Mr. MILLER, Elwood E. Dr. EAST DETROIT PUBLIC SCHOOLS MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY 181

SCHULLER, Charles F. Dr. WITTICH, Walter A. Dr. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII

SCOTT, Robert T. Mr. WYMAN, Raymond Dr. EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY UNIVERSITY OF MASS.

SHERMAN, Mendel Dr. JONES, David Mr. INDIANA UNIVERSITY MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

SNIDER, Robert C. Dr. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOC.

STIFLE, E.M. Mr. SMPTE

SUCHY, Robert R. Mr. MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS

TAYLOR, Vi Marie Dr. OKEMOS PUBLIC SCHOOLS

TAYLOR, W.R.K., Jr. Mr. PANACOLOR, INC.

TAYLOR, T. Wayne Dr. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

TRINKLEIN, Lloyd D. Dr. SHIPPENSBURG STATE COLLEGE

VAN MOURICK, Lawrence L.,Jr. Mr. INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION FOUNDATION

WAGNER, Robert Dr. OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY

WATSON, Archie E. Mr. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

WHITE, Don Mr. NATIONAL AUDIO-VISUALASSOC.

WITT, Paul W.F. Prof. TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIAUNIV. FINAL REPORT CONTRACT NUMBER 0E-4-16-030

The Michigan State University

SINGLE CONCEPT FILM CLIP PROJECT

Part II

FINAL PROJECT REPORT

December 1, 1967

I am MIMI "Mll iriIlLr4n1IINWN II 1111104 es / I I / / I/ _ . . . - ( . . / I

/111111)

II. , . 1 \ N 1 \ SIIINPIM 11111 I IIIIII''IP41HIP"' il I II 4I I MIIIM NI 01111 EilP1 ll11111111111

U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare

Office of Education Bureau of Research U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION& WELFARE

OFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCEDEXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE

PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT.POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS

STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENTOFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDUCATION

POSITION OR POLICY.

SINGLE CONCEPT FILM CLIPPROJECT

Part II

FINAL PROJECT REPORT

0E-4-16-030

Dr. Elwood E. Miller,Project Director

December 1, /967

The research reportedherein was performed Pursuant to a contractwith the Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health,Education and Welfare. Contractors undertaking suchprojects under Govern- ment sponsorship areencouraged to express freely their professional judgmentin the conduct of the project. Points of view or opinionsstated do not, therefore, necessarily representofficial Office of Education position orpolicy.

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

East Lansing, Michigan ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Single Concept FilmClip Project at Michigan State was, in the best senseof the term, a team effort. The author wishes to formallyacknowledge the efforts of the manyin- dividuals who assisted inthe study. Especially valuable were the long-termefforts of the followingindividuals:

Dr. Charles F.Schuller, Project Chairmanand Director of the InstructionalMedia Center, Michigan StateUni- versity.

Dr. Horace Hartsell, nowof the Medical Collegeof the University of Texas, whoassisted in the design of the project.

Dr. James Page,Michigan State University,who directed the Project during itsfirst year.

Dr. Julian Brandou,Director of the Science-Mathematics Teaching Center, Michigan StateUniversity.

Dr. Castelle Gentry,The University of Maine.

Mr. Charles Bollmann,Michigan State University.

Dr. John Vinsonhaler,Michigan State University.

Mr. Dennis Jaroh, MacombCounty Community College.

In addition, thefollowing staff specialistsmade signi-

ficant contributions to the study:

Dr. Lloyd Trinklein,Shippensburg State College,Shippens- burg, Pennsylvania.

Miss Joy Kluge StateUniversity of New York,Fredonia, New York.

Mrs. Ardith Hanna, HuronValley Schcol System, Milford, Michigan.

iii iv

mt. Davle Jones,Alchigan State University.

mr. Gmeter Phaff,AdChigan State University.

The following factltymembers of Michigan StateUniversity served as the AdvisoryCommittee:

Dx. Charles F.Schuller, Chairs=

DT. John A. MAD=

Dr. T. Mayne T,:lor

Dr. Jallam B. Drama=

Dr. Mbrace C.Lartsell

2r. Laurence AL Sommers

Dr. Jabs L1 Sammy

De. Jars L. P

Prudenser Mulct P. AcCoy sommlacTxrers amide sa4ma Amoy fIlm prodmeersamd egs4onmet

l3uvemtIvac2.ms. IftamAs .1:4:amm omsmorlImotzams tcEtta success cad Tale

V.tac:0es Da maw. c. :awes are empecla.14 at t: sr.L Dm.1:.ey. or. Or. Pram Dram, Or- 4.11.1emDryan, Prceesmuc s PvcillaaLe_

Or :air:. SIMMAC. Sommcit. or_ anaeciterwAmma_ Mt. 1_1°.omotar;.ame or_ Lif.amm_ Mr_ nwrz.t.11410.1a, or. L.:, bossmitscl

aid'Tr- tam kumect Szwet Mr_ ammec.: Amoew anmect e_ V 4e.a.:-

.....smA4 aftwent rwareemme, tmilw mentztts zd as and mums tutawe* suMmotl..Z4 tto0* s._ The Director wishes to recognize the high degree of professional commitment evidenced by these individuals on behalf of the Project. The generalized nature of the investigation nade it necessary for us to seekadvice from multitude of indite _duals both in the educational community and in the business community. Their tine, effort, interest, and advice is deeply appreciated.

Elwood E. Miller Director Slagle =oacept Film Clip Pro:oct Zawtructiosal niedas =letter Itactl-iae State 2siversity East Idanslas.. Nractalgas Wovember, 196' TABLE Cr CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii

INTRODMITIC! 1 Problem 2 Purpose 4

7 NE'THOD

RESULTS ls

DIWUSSICNI 1!

cCOCLOSIONS, RACCNIMINIDDMIES.MID racuscrions 23

TER DOCUIIIIITS Or TIMPROM? 29

31 AMMINDIX I. INTRODUCTION

Short, single concept, looped-type films have been used in educational patterns for many, many years.As early as 1 1929, wood and Freemanwrote that the tine would come when

Short, one-idea films would be produced and find a place in instruction.

For many years, teachers have used parts of films 3n traditional pro)ectioe systems to illustrate single principles or ideas. Is the 1930's, film Loops illustrating single comcepts were proftzed at thePemmsylvaaia State University.

Met it was not mmtil the istrodectiom cf the TeChmicolor

Cartridged Single nomcept pro,ectam. Ls 1962 gnat the tine seemed to he really ripe for the widespread useof the short. simgle concept. sotilar type mooting pa:mxce Ls Lmortrectiom.

Severe/ staff emmiers tad tbe mIstagam State Daaversity's ameizarismeZ :emmar (since remamet LimitrertAlleaZ Nods& Custer) suclesmet s :,9*3 ttam mr-Aeopcsad isstreductisa and ate.::. - amiss ad sect cmucegm .1.12me raisst a somber ed rather seramms suggeemet ts the T.S_ t e f s ar se Siduca-

sze ttiam some remeac-m tames beadmismesd Idimmtsfy

.-.- awe t_ east amid Pr sat S_ Proems&amt.ims faztuCes ;pa taw Miss. TW* illimotMzn :ineemp :2111.Z21_ 2 and explore some of theseproblems. The Single Concept Film

Clip Project, ContractNumber 0E-4-16-030, was theresult of this mutual concern.

The Problem

Three major problems wereidentified as being areas for intensive investigation in thesingle concept field. The contract agreed to by the'U.S. Office of Educationand michigan

State University containedprovisioms for exploring allthree of these gemeral problem areas.

1) The first problem is oneof qummtity. It be-

comes quite Obvious as arethinks about the are -idea

or simgle conceptfilm. that literally tomsof thom-

moods of three fila gems snotbe available for im-

structiosal purposes. if thegeneral idea Ls to have

amy valltity. Zest as lihrarles most cesitazathem-

sands a vulomes Is order to IttlfectIvit. sisglot

concept flasaa.11ortiems einem comtass thoweemdeof

lips -.a sect ommer*: seit'ect memmter:welt :A! the,

ore ue eltlwt.zue.

zaimpes ant entremiC Dra4smiL produrt.aAm 4.11

emplems.:wie esthogre presnc.a% MP.* elms mamoiramett

=Nast trttiee et-. ties401L.. IMEE Desit JAWS .3Clt 3

might be many segmentsthat could be extracted,

edited, marketed, andused as single concept

films. The firzt charge ofthe contract, then,

was to explorethe possibility ofexcerpting from

existing films shortsegments that mightfit the

general criteriaof a single concept film.

Film producers werecontacted and requested to

supply films (at printcost) for the staff tostudy.

Ia= gemeral, the responsefrom nowt film producers

was very positive,and only is a few instances was

the Frolect refusedpermissiom to examine and to

cut mustangeducational films.

2) It was readalv apparenttram the begammang that

ammiter scler 1(1 s glad be as informs-

time system Ts retrievesect fIlm segments orsimg:-..e

114-t.rwctz.cma: -=sepciegot a npprzprlAmRtines

peTtarma. 1.7.ttmeigm t.radatzoma :z.bracIr are-.moods

OugmemMet eal, ore war' tc Zie mmit.Alleret. ;:t -

plotAima. vt4almwu-d ft-cc:1'; gas eima.:x realm..re *

=amputAcr;.sec-...r.ftrealtaze armee_ Tter Prr7lect apnea

miss.neric * tails pturew,...am t1,-.* storer4tZior

ruard.'..: art a=irielaart 4

considerations seemed to 3) Economic and engineering

indicate, in the early1960's, that the ( format

would be the most logicalsystem for single con-

cept films. Unfortunately, somedivergence of

opinion appeared withinthe business communityin

terms of standards. Three different formatsof amm

films were introducedand marketed in carious com-

binations with opticaland nagnetic soundtraCks.

Thus, the third ma-,%or areaof concern to the Project

was that ofexploring reasonatlestandards and equip-

ment for singleconcept films. This phase of the in-

vestigation eventuallyLead to the NationalConference

on CartridgedFilms in February of1967, reported

in Part 1of the Fizal beportof the Single Concept

?Ile Clip Frb:ect tothe :.S. ::ffice ofEducation.

The Purpose

lite purpose f the =staid 13. tt "tract. was

dewelbc pcact;.=az., vrstemsf:c tale storage.

sa,;.plAmranryt_ =.1111et OT 4X-M4Mr...;.-Tart

:41;:s 2ras els;.stmc ma4 prz7vort.;_mc ?memin

4: gilt irtrurst.am4- =34 ary. str-t...41-1111Pt t: =Zvi edmcmc.,iamai. ama pr-mcwi: aporzar..ei fr.tt t..ta ..1...tzraort.za amd 5 practical methods by which comparable systems can be established.'

In summary, the basic purpose of the investigation was to move the idea of single conceptfilms toward an effective utilization goal in order to provide these kinds of educational resource materials toteachers and educators in as rapid manner as possible. To this end, the Project staff has worked for three years. II. METHOD

For many years, portionsof existinginstructional films have been excerptedfor various purposes. Television

illustrations, classroomexperiences, and motivational

footage are examples offilm types that havebeen excerpted

on a limitedand sporadic basis. The introduction of an

Inexpensive cartridgeprojector in 1961 created aneed

for large numbers ofsuch single conceptfilms. Michigan

State Universityproposed the Single ConceptFilm Clip

Project to help fill thisobvious 'film gap.6

What Is A Single ConceptFilm?

Although there is sanequiestion at the appropriate-

ness of the tern"sIngle-concept* film. for the purposes

of the Michigan StateUniversity pro,ect. it vasdefined

as a short segmentof fils with a small.discrete. and

descrlbable lnstructianal content. Commerclay. the best

known example cf s films are those fomr-minute. closed-

looF rartr;dces.

Overall Prinect 3tectzvie

:964. the Vtitem States:t_lize ad fanonstans pros-.

ods !Luc TA* TIMINerr*.zt, mierate a Slas:.,Znaompm

Pry maraet .r.;t1 noroCalsi-Qa%pract.z.csa.:;* protons c tile

emit low.act;:za_ sit:case earritAllmascsa 8 projection of film clips (single-concept, closed-loop films) from existing 16mm instructional films.Films were surveyed and excerpted in the areas of foreign languages, science, and the social sciences. Although vital relationships exist between film size, speed, audience size, cost of projectors, and film material, the major concern of the project planners and operating staff was that of the short, closed-loop filmed sequences regardless of film format.

EXCERPTENG PROCEDURES

Previewer-Excerpters

Since the film excerpters were, in effect, to make decisions of a basic nature for classroom teachers and learners, excerpters were chosen on the basis of their subject matter competence and teaching experience.

Fare basic steps evolved az the process of studying and selecting film excerpts. me believe these steps will be a asefml ;made for ',others Ltterested , excerpting films.

Ylls Se:ocat-,-.am

=ata:.,cs and ht",ctmces sear : !cc pcsomising fling wk_;rt wel-e torT =-6ered scst pc irr:44.001e mem r s t- pcwiromed f::Ass we:, nms;.111ed ftc enwverpt_;.z4 gliwz-e re:iv-re-Ad 9 for any of the following reasons: (1) outdated; (2) disjointed; (3) too short; (4) too much dialogue between people visually involved in the film; (5) weak visual channel compared to audio;(6) poor coordination between picture and narration.

Clip Search

Searching for clips was the heart of the process and the most difficult step in the procedure.Clues for identifying excerpts were found to be either directorial

(for example; fades, abrupt jumps, written questions, or outline elements inserted in tie visual channel) or sub- tler cues in either the visual oz audio channel.

The excerpter marked the segments an the film itself and made entries on an editing card to provide the following information: (1) Systematic starting point: (2) footage Location of each clip:(3) clip titles: (4) usage and level designaticas: (S) additional instructions tothe fits editor.

Film Cutting

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Reworking Clips

Approximately two weeks later the excerpter again viewed the clip, but this time in isolation. Some clips were acceptable was is," a few were rejected, and othersneeded to be changed by additions or deletions. The previewer wrote specifications for inserts and "supers" which are necessary to convert part of a sound film into a single concept film. If the excerpt was to be given full production treatment, the art work for such additions had to be prepared, photographed, and added to the film in a laboratory process using a "B" roll to make a new internegative.

The previewer also carefully reconsidered the descriptive title of the ezcerpt at this time. This data was crucial for developing retrieval schemes.

Treatment Sheets

The final step was the imm-epara*ielm of a 'treatment Sheet."

Data about the physical Characteristics were copied am the 'beet from the notating card. Then the previewer wrote a summary of the excerpt uhlth t most Important terms were uncierlaised

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41111114 131

In December 1965 and January 1966 asecond pilot study was conducted at Detroit Denby High School. The results of the use of the first revision of the test wereagain item analyzed, and a second revision was written. The second revision which was used in the major studycontained seventy-five true or false items which were based onthe subject matter content of the film excerpts. The result of these revisions was to increase thereliability from .65 on the first test to .70 for the post-testand .82 for the pre-test of the major study. These reliability coefficients compare favorable with many of thereliability coefficients listed for standardized tests. The validity of the test was established as contentvalidity. The content which the instrument wasdesigned to measure was concepts, descriptive material,and principles which were included in the film excerpts. Since the items of the test were based directly upon thelist of all of the individual pieces of factual informationwith the excerpts, the test should be reasonablyvalid.

The Application of the Treatments

The first CHEM Study class of the dayfor each of the participating teachers was arbitrarilydesignated by the experimenter as the experimental class. Each teacher was unrestricted inhis teaching of chapter nineteen of the CHEM Study text except for theaddition of one of the three filmed treatments. These three treatments are: (1) Film only,(2) Excerpts only; and (3) A combination of the full film and the excerpts. To equalize the student exposure to the subject matter tobe tested, each class saw the filmed portion of the treatmenttwice.

Three procedures were used to control the teacher variable. First, the subject matter in the film is not expressly taught elsewhere in the curriculum. Secondly, the experimenter wrote a summary for eachfilm and each excerpt which were used by the teachers,and these summaries were the only introduction tothe film or excerpt. Thirdly, a series of questionsbased upon the fundamental principles in the film and excerpts was used as theonly basis of discussion of the filmed sequences. I In the "film onlytreatment, the teacher taught in his usual method until he came to the section of the chapter which the curriculum planner had assigned as the proper time for the showing of the full film. Then he read the introduction to the film and showed it to the class. Immed- iately following the viewing of the film, the content was discussed following the prescribed questions. After teaching the rest of the chapter, the teacher used the whole film as a review but without discussion.

In the combination treatment, the teacher followed the same procedure as the teacher using only the excerpts, except he did not show the excerpt the second time. Each of these teachers also showed the whole film as a review at the end of the chapter, but without discussion.

Analysis of the Data

The data which were analyzed by this study were collected in the following way:

Before beginning to teach chapter 19 of the CHEM Study text to which the experimental film applied, the teacher administered the Otis Quick-Scoring Mental Ability Test. This test was used to gain a general level of ability for each student. Also preceeding the chapter, a pre-test was given to each student.After the teacher had taught the chapter in his normal manner with the addition of the film treatment, he administered the objective post- test to each of his students. Thus, the data whicn were available for analysis to test the hypothesis were student scores on the Otis, the objective pre-test, and the objective post-test. The scores on the Otis test were changed to IQ's by using the conversion tables furnished by the 133

actually analyzed were publisher. The data which were differences betweeneach student's pre-testand post-test scores --his achievementgain.

The null hypothesiswhich was tested bythis experiment can be statedthus:

There is nosignificant difference amongthe means of theachievement gains ofthree groups of students who havebeen taught factualinformation by means of afilm, excerpts fromthe film, or a combination of a filmand excerpts fromthe film.

Stated symbolicallythis hypothesisis: The legend forthese Mo MA = MB = MC symbols is: M= mean offilm only treatment A = mean ofexcerpts only treatment MB M= meanof combinationtreatment

One way analysisof variance withunequal number of replications within the groupwas usedfirst to test the variable used in this null hypothesis. The independent variables analysis was thetreatment, andthe dependent were IQ andthe differences scores. The analysis of variance computed fordifference scores andtreatment showed an F statisticof 63.63972. Using the degrees of freedom betweentreatments as 2 andwithin treatments as 379,and F ratio of greaterthan 3.07 was necessary This for significance atthe .05 level ofsignificances. the means shows that there wassignificant differenc! among scores were of the three treatmentswhen the difference of analyzed with treatmentsalone. But an analysis variance table was alsocomputed for IQ's andtreatment, which gave an Fstatistic of 29.60496. This statistic was alsosignificant at the .05level of significance. Therefore, there wasalso significantvariance among the Because of thesignifi- means oftreatments on IQalso. cant variance amongthe treatments onIQ, the data were again analyzed; butthis time analysisof covariance was used to controlfor IQ.

With 2 and 37Bdegrees of freedom, anF statistic of greater than 3.07is required forrejection of the null 134

hypothesis ac the .05 level of significance. Thus with a computed F ratio of 63.893, the null hypothesis ofno significant difference among themeans of the three treatment groups can be rejected, and the alternativehypothesis can be accepted.

Because the null hypoth,1.31.:, Ne.,..J rejected, the Scheffe method of multiple comparisons be used to determine if there is a directional relationshipamong the means. Using the method outlined in Guenther,a 95% confidence interval for each comparison was calculated. Using this confidence interval, significant variancewas found between Mc and MA, showing Mc to be significantly greater thanMA. Signifi- cant variance was also found between MA andMB. This significance by Scheffe comparisons allows the establishment of the following directional relationship:

mc mA MB

or the adjusted mean of the combination treatmentwas significantly greater than the adjustedmean of the film treatment which was significantlygreater than the adjusted mean of the excerpts treatment. Thus, it can be concluded that the achievement gain by the combinationtreatment was significantly greater than the achievementgain by either of the other treatments, and the achievementgain by the film treatment was significantlygreater than the achievement gain by the excerpts treatment.

Conclusions

What conclusions can be drawnas a result of this study?At least one major conclusioncan be drawn as a result of the present study;

With CHEM Study chemistry studentsa combination of a full film and excerpts from thatfilm produces greater achievement gain in the factualknowledge contained in the film tha- either the wholefilm or the excerpts alone.

By separating the film into meaningfulsegments and by using the whole filmas a way of drawing together all of the individual ideas intoa complete entity, significant 135 learning took place. Although the adjusted mean of the achievement gain by the film only group was found significantly grEater than the excerpts only group, the author does not feel that it is justified in concluding that it is better to use a whole film rather than excerpts from that film for the trzinsmission of factual information. The major reason for this negative reaction to one of the finding$ cf the sudy is due to the design of the experiment. In the "excerpts only" treatment, the students were shown the sequences throughout the teaching of the chapter. Thus, they had seen some of the excerpts almost a week before taking the post-test. In the "films only" treatment the students saw the film as a review of thechapter only one day prior to taking thepost-test. So the students in the film cnly treatment might retain moreinformation because of the time factor alone.

Recommendations

Based upon the analysis of the data collectedin this study, I would like to make the followingrecommendations: Although the single concept film treatment inthis study was found to be the leastdesirable of the three treatments, significant learning did take placein the treatment which included the use of these filmed sequences. In addition, the students in the "film only" treatment, andthose in the combination treatment responded on aquestionnaire that they felt that many times the longerchemistry films contained too much information for them to absorb all ofit. The students also responded that they thought the excerpts were easy to understand. Thus, if the subject matter had been broken down into smaller amounts in shorterfilms, perhaps the subject matter could have been moreeasily assimilated. Therefore, I recommend that single concept films be made available in greater quantities to teachers for use in their classrooms.

A second recommendation isspecifically for producers of educational films. Since the major finding of this study is that greater achievementgain is possible through a combination of a longfilm and shorter films illustrating specific concepts or principles within the longerfilm and since the results of a auestionnaire to thecombination 136

treatment students showed them to be overwhelmingly in favor of the combination over either the film or the excerpts alone, I recommend that the producers of educational films consider producing a package of films. This package should include single concept films to teach specific principles within a major area and a longer film which would serve as a means of summarizing the specific ideas within the shorter films. This idea of preparing film packages has already been done by Eothen Films. They have prepared several film packages for use in the public schools of England and in specialized schools such as nursing schools. Now that convenient methods of handling short, cartridged films are available, these "film coordinates" are a reasonable possibility.

A further recommendation also concerns the use of single concept films. Until the present, almost allprogram- ing was done by some form of verbalization. Since the technology is now available for convenient handling of single concept films, short filmed sequences could be utilized in many ways in programed instruction. When motion is required to present an idea in its correct perspective,a motion picture film should be utilized. Modern technology would provide the machines if some innovator presented the idea.

I would also like to make the following suggestions for further study:

1. A replication or replications of the present study should be done in another subject matterarea and at different grade levels.

2. A study should be conducted to determine the effectiveness of other uses of whole film--short film combinations for purposes other than the transmission of factual information.

3.1,, determination of the most effective placement of the whole film in the combination should be carried out.

4. A study of retention should be done.

5. A comparison study of the individual use with classroom use of the short films in the combination would also be very profitable. THE DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

In order to facilitaterapid and intensive discussion during the last two days of the National Conference, the followingquestions were prepared by theplanning committee as a stragedy to trigger immediatediscussion. The three sub groups were encouraged to usethese questions as a "point of departure" but not restricted to those questions on the prepared list. Each of the three groups received a differing set of questions, selected fromthe matrix of questions that are reflectedin the next several pages. CHAPTER X

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA CENTER

SINGLE CONCEPT FILM CLIP PROJECT NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CARTRIDGED FILMS

QUESTION SET ONE

"General questions needing a position of perception"

8mm New Medium? 1. From the point of view of industry, and of education is the 8mm film, and, more particularly the cartridged film, seen as developing into a replacement of present 16mm film systems? Or is 8mm really a different medium from 16mm? If the latter, what generalizations can be made about the use of an 8mm system?

Interdependence 2. There is an interdependence between the Question software and the hardware. Education has a vested interest in both. Who takes the lead in determining standards? Can standards she devcloped that will satisfy all of the interest groups?

Markets 3. At least three possible marketing outlets can be identified. The categories might include the school market, the home market and the student bookshop market. Which is likely to have the most influence on films in terms of format, content and treatment standards? Which of the three is most likely to be the major market in the short-range? What about the long-range?

Market 4. Is enough information available at this Survey point in time to establish marketing sur- veys in order to predict with any degree of accuracy what is in the future for the cartridged film field? 140

Information 5. A central repository of data about cartridged films would be of untold value to users of such materials. Is it reasonable to anticipate that software producers will cooperate indeveloping a comprehensive cataloging and information system such as the one described at this meeting? .411at steps could be taken at this conference to initiate planning for such an information system?

Research 7. The Wagner paper indicates that modular films (in a sense cartridged films) can be a tool for increasingly sophisticated research in learning and teaching. T.Aihat is the best method to rapidly organize such research? It is of prime concern to educators, but is it any less important to the commercial interests?

Educators 8. Recent trends in the instructional Role materials field in general seem to indicate that educators and commercial interests must work more and more closely in the development of curricular materials, particularly in the realm of communicating ideas and information. Where is the place of the scholar in this configuration? Also, what is the proper place of the :..eacher whois most- ly concerned with effectively using such 141 systems of materials? In short, what is the role of the educator in the "grand design" of such instructIonal programs? MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA CENTER

SINGLE CONCEPT FILM CLIP PROJECT NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CARTRIDGED FILMS

QUESTION SET TWO

A series of necessary decisions or "points of compromise" which may lead

At some point, system designers must make a series of decisions that are results of compromise and organizational necessity. And so we arrive at The Conference "Nitty-Gritty."

Basic Mechanics 1. Listed below are some of the points identified by the conference planners as needing direct discussion by the conferees. Although they are stated in elliptical form, we believe they capture the issues involved.

A. Format of film size, that is 8mm, Super 8mm or Mauer 8mm or others, such as the Panacolor system. B. Sound-silent, and the place of either or both. C. Optical-magnetic sound. D. Cartridge compatibility, between hardware. (i.e. Tape cartridges in autos.) E. Interchangeability of film between cartridges. F. Film speed, 1C,, 18, 24 frames per second. G. Picture-sound separation pattern. H. Standards in graphics and print size for production of such materials. I. Release print quality.

Compromise 2. Writers often identify the "concept of Questions compromise" as the genius of the American 144

Social system. Compromise is possible in some of the problemareas of standardization. Here are two hypothetical examples!

A. A rational, short-range planover a period of years might be developed in the transition from standard 8mm to Super 8mm film as the basic format. (Other systems could be insertedin place of the 8-Super 8.) Thus, on given dates. produclerr-1 haxdwaLe and software would make the shiftor transition to anewer or differing system. The game of commercial "one upsmanship" would be tabled for this period of time.

B. A plan might be developed in which certain areas of instructional materials (or areas of film utilization) would use 8mm as their basic medium, while others woulduse Super 8mm as their medium. For example, a ground rule might be established that Super 8mm be used for front projection while standard 8mm film would be used for small, rear-screen projection.

Despite the obvious flaws in the abovetwo cases, is such a "compromise plan"a practical way of resolving some of our problems?

New Name 3. Does this group see any need fora new name for the "single concept" film? Is a precise, operational definitionnec- essary (or even possible) for such films? Could this group suggesta better name and agree upon a satisfactory definition?

Copyright 4. Problems of copyright and ownershiphaunt the film producer who is interested inex- cerpting existing filmed materials. Of equal interest is theconcern for the "author" in the case of the modular use of materials, 145 as illustrated in the Wagnerpaper. What suggestions mightthis group make in terms (1. solving thisimportant problem? MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA CENTER

SINGLE CONCEPT FILM CLIP PROJECT NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CARTRIDGED FILMS

QUESTION SET THREE

.,fnr mnre effective film use in classroom instruction--as well as provide an element for Alvv lilltVVOLJVC&.4--.A.A1,ructicnal-...t systems.

Teacher 1. Proper and effective use of any instruc- Education tional medium requires teacher education (or re-education). An analysis needs to be made of the discrepancy between what teachers know now and what they need to know in order to use such materials effectively. Then a method of attacking this discrepancy must be designed.

Does a mutual or ioint interest on the part of the educational group and the business interests exist? What type of a joint support plan might be initiated to solve the "effective" use problem?

TV Use 4. The Project staff feels that single concept cartridged films are superbly suited 148

Pricing 5. The Bailey paper opens a door on the question of pricing policies on mw:- keted films. The policies of the producers of films seem to have always a_dhered tc a "rule of thumb" that dic- tates the price of the film as primarily determined by the number of screen minutes. No print cost nor production price seems to enter into the pricing plan. In the market place, consumers see very little difference in film prices. Mr. Bailey seems to ask if the educational community will "stand still" for pricing policies that directly reflect the original production figure, as well as the print costs, of the film. Educators who buy films have much the same question, asked in terms of why all films seem to cost the same amount. Is the place to break this habit to the mutual advantage of both film producers and educators in the virtually new cartridged film area?

ie-In 6. Is it possible to establish some criteria or ground rules for the so-called "tie-in" sale? Packages of hardware and software make a great deal of sense in one context, but in another they seem to raise serious limitations. Is such a marketing technique necessary or desirable? ..,,,, ollismurrinr ovimnnmo inE, ..,...4,-Avi.c...A 4A...... ,JAA.J

Three men of national stature, prominent in the instructional media and audiovisual field, graciously consented to act as chairmen of the three subgroups. The real conference dialog took place within these three groups. Dr. Gabriel Ofiesh of The Catholic University, Dr. Paul Witt of Teachers College, Columbia University, and Dr. James Brown of San Jose State University were the three men that added so greatly to the dimensions of the conference. Their reports on the three discussion groups follow in the next section of the report on the National Conference. CHAPTER XI

Dr. Gabriel Ofiesh

Our primary concern was not the promotion of any hardware-software system, rather it was to make it possible for students to learn. We felt that we've been relegating the student to the lowest priority in our concern and have shown unusually great concern with teachers teaching through readily accessabie messages through the medium of motion pictures, rather than students learning.

The reason we just used the term messages is, because coma of us were confused about what "software" is. Apparent- ly, to many media people, software is hardware that you can bend. To many others in the field of educational technology and to some key people in the USOE, Dr. Bright for example, software is the message, the stimuli configurations, the illustrations, the graphics, the audio itself, the sound waves, what is being said, what is being communicated. I think this is in the area that needs some clarification in the profession. In this conference, we have used "software" as something you can bend and "message" referring to frame content, etc.

The basic view that emerged from the latter part of the discussion, was that cartridge modular oriented films creates new kinds of learning experiences for students and new relations between films and those students and teacher relationships.

What is it that is unique about the cartridge?Let's talk about it in terms of learning it produces rather than in terms of any particular physical feature; In this respect, therefore, the most unique aspect of a cartridge which makes this possible is accessibility. Because of its accessibility, we have, therefore, increased the availability of many new kinds of experiences for any individual, small groups, and large groups. We have an increase in flexibility and options available to the messages designer. We feel that the message designer in discrete, modular areas can exercise a set of design option which he didn't have available before. Along with this, we have an increase in methodology options available to teachers.

A teacher could now turn to a modular system in a very difficult to teach area, request that it be produced or at least have it available on the shelf knowing that her 152

difficult studentsmay be helped didactically by thispar- ticular modular. So the area of methodology optionsavail- able to teach, thearea of options available to the student, the area of options availableto the message designerare all increased because of the cartridgedimension.

Another unique feature of thecartridge is the potential motivational value it has dueto its limited time span. We felt that even to students, especiallya preschooler, or the elementary school child, there isa motivational value in just handling the cartridge itself. The repetitiveness,ease of operation, ease of logistics, modularaspects of the material, flexibility of message design, precisionin utilizaL145u lu terms of design intent,a facility for getting operational field test data thatwe would not get originally, are providing these and possibly othercharacteristics a means for col- lecting massive amounts of empiricaland discrete data for further learning research and usefullearning managementex- perience.

The concern with standardizationwas a constant issue throughout the Conference. There are no fast and concise answers. Nor did we feel there ought to be. Currently, available cartridge film materialscan provide valuable services to educations Standardization, though of valid importance in some circumstances, should notbe used as an excuse for delaying utilization of thisimportant and new concept. Therefore, we recommend thateducators should evaluate existing hardware and software inthe light of specific requirements in their own institution,and should then proceed with utilization, selecting the cartridgesystem most appropriate for each individual application.

On the other hand,we also felt it was incumbent on producers to furnish as complete informationas possible on these elements which relate to eachof these mechanics. Information should be made availableas to whether a cartridge was suitable for a variety of devices,and what could be done with thematerials in it. We felt this is more important than standardization. More often, utilization is hindered becauseof lack of information--not lack ofstandardization.

The Conference strongly recommendsthat ongoing national organizations representing vitallyinterested sections of this field, including suchgroups as those mentioned, should commence. 153

joint discussions. We would hope that such discussions would lead to the establishment of an effective, coordinated, and continuing v.4ce representing the combined influences of their memberships and seek to stimulate increased utilization, expanded research, and encourage the creation ofnew and valid cartridge film programs, and, hopefully, promote a degree of what I would like to call "psychic-standardization" in this field. That is standardization through understanding. We feel this should be a priority item emerging from the recommendations of the Conference.

This also brought us into the area of the effectiveness ui M?..tari_ala and here may be treading on tender ground with respect to whether I Pm =presenting the consensus of the group or not. The instructional effectiveness of cartridge films is an equally appropriate consideration of all media and film materials. It is likely, however, that the requirements for effectiveness measures and criteria will first be focused on the cartridged film because itcan be more easily handled and effectiveness data more readily acquired. This issue cannot be resolved in our discussion group, nor do I anticipate that it will be resolved in this Conference. It is recommended, however, that the matter of an evaluated criteria of learning effectiveness of media be the subject of a national conference sponsored by the USOE.

School and producer relations: Schoolmen must give the equipment manufacturers a valid designlist of particulars. The schools' needs andpromises should be determined and dis- charged to industry. Hopefully, an instrumentation will emerge that reflectsthe teaching aspirations of thecurric- ulum people. Cooperative studies of school needs canpermit industries to respond to the problems. Knowledgeable schoolmen must beexpected to design a fluid,flexible and artisti- cally viable medium. Leadership and initiativerightfully must start with the educators.Their design must also be carefully crafted and field tested toachieve the best instrumentation design. I think the consensus of thediscussion group at this point was that the educators muststate explicitly for a change what they want from theproducers rather than expect the producers to anticipate whatthe educators would like to have. Until the educators do this, we don'tthink there will be any convergence.

Finally. I think getting back to PaulWitt's discussion group with respect tocommunication, we are concerned about the lack of a national-focal pointfor the dissemination of guidelines and information regardingdevelopments in new media such as the cartridge modularfilm. It is known and there are concerns in the USOEin the following related areas: (1) Rapid developments in new junior colleges(one going up every week) and this possibly increasing oneto two every three weeks in the next few years. (2) Educational learning resource materials centers which are going to begeared with providing materials for individualizedself-instruction. (3) Dial access systems,audiovisual information retrievaldial access systems. (4) Trends from group and locksteplearning to in- dividualized learning. (5) Trends from memory to inquiry, discovery and conceptually orientedlearning. (6) New means of audiovisualtransmition of information to humanreceivers which are presently hidden in thelaboratories of hardware manufacturers.

The USOE is at this pointconcerned with developing guidelines for potential users,for designers of new educational facilities, and teachersand so forth. On the other hand, it's almost aschizophrenic type of operationbecause there is no relationshipapparently between these concerns and the concerns in the USOE. If the present schism continues between these concerns,the role of significance of findings of this Conference inrelation to these trends will be limited. 155

We should fully explore the significance of the 8mm cartridge against these developments, and we should insist that the USOE allow this to happen. We are concerned at the present, the USOE, although interested in developing guidelines for users in the various media of educational facilities, has at present no central mechanism for dissemination of findings of these conferences, or of material to support guidelines. The USOE has no mechanism for effective dissemination of the findings of other related conferences.

This Conference was a necessary, but not sufficient condition. Follow thrmilrill in ne,^-cc:ry. Tgc havc tc r^a14m., that if there is no follow through to these deliberations, in the USOE, and through a dissemination mechanism that should be established, then that this was really just another fine Conference. Therefore, we would like to recommend that this matter should be brought to the attention of the Com- missioner, and not only with respect to the cartridge but to respect to all media, and probably bring it to the attention of the National Advisory Committee on new educational media whilh was established by act of Congress to advise the Com- missioner of Education on developments and legislation with respect to new media.

I think that I 'was personally (as a new member of this group) quite stimulated by the dedication and the quality of its concern that I have apparently noted here, not only the part of the educators, but especially on the part of the producers in trying to work with the educators to meet the problems and the concerns which emerged with our discussion group. We should all keep constantly in mind that our ultimate target really is not the teacher but it is the student. CHAPTER XII

Dr. Paul Witt

We talked about the possibility of involving the Bureau of Standards in the establishment of standards for the 8mm field. We discussed the possible potential role of the Ed- ucational Pioducts information Exchange in the setting of standards for this field. We also discussed the influence of the Federal Government in influencing matters such as standards, due to its control of Federal funds that are being made available through the U.S. Office of Education for the purchase of equipment and materials.One member of our group very wisely warned us against dangers of establishing standards too early. Someone described this danger as "rig- idizing" standards today and, thereby, handicapping the development of the medium and its equipment tomorrow.

There was a fairly general consensus that standards will be determined in the market place. As one member of our group said, "What school people will buy will set the standards." We were also reminded of Lou Forsdale's comment yesterday that if film and projectors are not used, standards are of little importance, and that if they are used, and used extensively, they will wear out and then we will be able to replace them with new models.

We felt that the questions regarding cartridge compatibility and the interchangeability of film between 7 156 cartridges are of greatest importance. We were agreed that it is urgent to achieve cartridge compatibility and the interchangeability of film between cartridges. We believe we should be able to perform these operations in workshops.

We gave only brief attention to the questions regarding 8mm, Super 8 or Maurer 8. Once again, we concluded that these questions will be answered in the market plac3.We did not discuss the matter of the quality of release prints. If we had, I suppose we might again have decided that the buyer will be the one who decided.

Software is crucial. It is the program that counts! We need films that will enable pupils to learn.

It was suggested in our group that we need to study con- vential film forms in order to discover useful adaptations of these forms as well as other creative ways for utilizing the moving image in the new hardware to achieve more effective and more efficient teaching and learning. We need more imaginative research and experimentation in the design of software. We need to explore variations in film length, modular designs for sets of films, etc.

Several members of our croup stressed the importance of flexibility in film utilization. Films must be useful in a variety of situations. As a matter of fact, it is now true that films are often used extensively outside of the areas for which they were designed despite the fact that producers exercise great care in specifying the areas for which they are designed.

Another illustration of uses not anticipated by producers was reported by one of our commercial memberswho told us that foreign countries have purchased large quantities of silent 8mm film after they discovered they can easily staapt these films tm use .n situations where English is not the language of instruction.

A related tangential statement made in our discussion which I think is very important, was that it is quite prevalent today in school systems for the concern for a multiethnic approach in education to be a very influential factor in the evaluation and selection of film as well as other kinds of instructional materials. While some of us may not be so senitive 159

to this factor andwhile it is not reallythe basic consideration in evaluating andselecting materials, present social conditions make this concernalmost a final over- riding criterion.

ROLE OF THE EDUCATOR INDEVELOPMENT OF CURRICULUMMATERIALS

In our discussionof the educator's rolein the development of curriculummaterials, we were concernedparticular- ly about this rolewith reference to theemerging instructional systems. We did not definethe educator's role in materials development inprecise terms. Nonetheless, I think the report of one of theproducers in our group as tocurrent practices in the utilizationof educational personnelin materials production, madeit clear that there areplaces for the media specialist,the subject matterspecialist and the classroom teacherin this process.However, one of the commercial representativespointed out that theproducers are going tomake the finaldecision because they are the ones who investtheir money. On the other hand,he noted further that the producershave great difficultymaking decisions regardingmaterials because of theplurality of pedagogical views amongthose of us in theprofession. One report regarding the useof educators inmaterials production which I found veryinteresting, indicatedthat it is the practice of a certainproducer to employ atraditionalist and a progressistand to have them worktogether on production problems. In the end, however,the producer decides whose advice he is goingto follow.He apparentlyfinds it valuable to have contrastingpoints of view.

It was also reportedto us that manyproducers are now utilizing the recommendationsof the major curriculumstudy Several of the groups itdesigning and producingmaterials. professional educatorsassociated with thesecurriculum groups are alsoserving as consultants andadvisors to pro- that the ducers. In my view, thesedevelopments indicate commerical producers play ahighly significant rolein facilitating modern curriculumdevelopments.

Communication difficultieswithin the profession occupied our attentionfor a time.We agreed that thisis communication, educa- a veryserious problem. Due to poor tors in large numbers,leaders as well as therank and file, They are are often unawareof advances inmethodology.

ips 160 equally unaware of the existence of many new materials. It's imperative that we continue to work on this problem. It is vital that we get information about materials and methods to administrators and supervisors. It is equally urgent that we get it to classroom teachers, as well.

We talked about the efforts of the traditional journals to do this job and recognized that they aren't succeeding completely. It was suggested that we may need new approaches. Specifically, it was suggested that we try the "Life" magazine format. It was pointed out that the new USOE magazine, "Amer- ion Education," is attempting to do this.

We also noted that the USOE is not facilitating the communication of the research findings and the outcomes of other governmentally sponsored and supported educational enterprizes.

We were agreed that there is a need for an orderly, work- able, national information system. Somebody asked, "Do we need to revive AVCOPI?"We talked about the Educational Media Index, the DAVI task force which is at work on this problem, and ERIC which is now being developed. Someone reported that in Ohio the medical doctors are being kept abreast of developments in their field by means of a special radio network. Some doctors participate in professional in-service education via their car radios as they drive from call to call. It was suggested in our group that we could make greater and more effective use of the amplified telephone in sharing resource people throughout the country. One member of our group proposed the possibility of this group passing a resolution on the communication problem.

The education of teachers is of vital importauce. It is, of course, related to the communications problem which I have just been discussing.We noted that the USOE is now turning its attention to people. The USOE has been in the hardware- software phases, but is now going to put heavy emphasis on people. In the future, the USOE will place heavy emphasis on what can be done to prepare educational personnel.Attention will be given to in-service as well as pre-service education in order to help teachers utilize new media and the newer teaching techniques.

We talked also about the significance of the recent institutes for media personnel and teachers in various subject fields. Media were a very prominent feature of these institutes. 161

Our group is very hopefulthat the current appraisal of the results of these instituteswill substantiate our ardent hopes that these instituteshave been of great value in ad- vancing modern education. We think we will reap benefits from these institutes for several yearsto come. There have been between 6,000 and8,000 participants in those institutes.

It was also suggestedthat future Federal legislation will undoubtedly be developedin terms of the results of the appraisal of these institutes orat least the appraisal will have significant effect onfuture Federal legislation.

Industry must also assumemajor responsibility for educating teachers, especiallythose in-service, to use the newer communicationsmedia. It was made explicit, I think, that this responsibilitywill be particularly urgent as we begin to adopt and utilizemajor instructional systems as a commonpractice.

We have noted the influenceof the Federal Government on the establishmentof standards through thegranting of funds. We have pointed out therole of government in dissemination of information. Another point is that the influence of categorical aid which wehave been having in recent years, is very, verymarked on the development of the curriculum; and as educatorsconcerned about the development of elementary, secondary,and higher education in this country, we must give this matterserious attention. We must recognize thepotential influence of the knowledge industry on the development ofcurriculum.

We, too, talked about new names. We agreed that it is an urgent but not a simpleproblem. It is actually very complex in nature. Some new names I heard wereshort films, short single subjectfilms, cartridge loop films, chaptered films, all of which youhave also heard before, here and elsewhere. How short is short? When is short no longer short? I guess I can summarize ourdiscussion of the new name by sayingthat maybe his name reallyis Pluto, but if everyone elsecalls him Rover, we might just as well callhim Rover, too, and get onwith other matters of more importance. 162

The commercial representativesin our group were quick to tell us that thereis not enough information available to those concerned with surveying themarket. I tried to press for some specifics as to whatthey wanted. In general, they want more informationabout the utilization of existing materials and the potentialutilization of future materials. In- dustry wants to know what it is theeducator really wants. The answer is not a simple onein that American society is, and always has been, pluralist. However, I think this is a fact of life which is mostfortunate and with which we should thankfully live.

Obviously, in the light of what I saidearlier about communication, the values of this conferencewill depend on the extent and the effectivenessof our efforts to communicate what we have learned to ourprofessional colleagues. And let's not forget that theindividual classroom is one of our professional colleagues.Another value of this conference grows out of our personalcontact. As one individual in our group said, "Some of thebest ideas emerged from our conversations in the halls as we standaround the coffee urn." Personally, I have enjoyed beinghere. I found the formal sessions as well as the informalsessions around the coffee urn extremelyvaluable. I would like to express mypersonal thanks to the planners ofthis Conference for giving me the privilege of being here. CHAPTER XIII

Dr. James Brown

Is the 8mm really adifferent medium? In the opinion Rather of our group, wedecided it is not adifferent medium. offers lots of it is a film in adifferent format---ore that possibilities that we shouldcapitalize upon. Two possibilities that seem quiteobvious are these: (1) low cost, which really, in may enable usto have films forthe first time, brought about, partic- every classroom,and (2) ease of use, ularly, through recentdevelopments in filmcartridging.

There were some in ourgroup, however,who thought that One the 8mm film shouldbe regarded as adifferent medium. of the reasons putforth for this view wasthe possibility of using films ofthis type in "chapteredsequences" or, divided somewhat alongthe lines suggestedin Bob Wagner's presentation of yesterday. There were some in our group, that too, who felt thatthe 8mm producershould keep in mind in- a potential useof his product mightbe on a one-to-one timate basis such asmight occur withindividual projection on acartridge-type projectorin a carrel.

What about terminology?We were somewhatconfused in the best term our group onterminology. So we looked for to use. We really didn't come upwith a "best one," perhaps, but the one weused most frequently wasjust plain "short film."

What size is bestfor the short film? Our group decided that Super 8 was thebest, and that wemight as well encourage Super the present trendand cooperate withthe "inevitable." plans for years, we 8 has been partof Eastman's corporate for- find, and Eastman seemsto believe that8mm Super is the The fact mat that shouldgain greatest favorin the market. that many schools nowhave access tostandard 8mm equipment impor- was notconsidered by our groupto be a particularly tant reason forfuture standardizationin that size. film Sound vs. silent: what is better?Whether any one sub- should be silent orsound depends, wethought, upon its Preferably though, ject matter, purpose,and intended use. being used we said, evensound films shouldbe capable of seriously handicappingcommunication, and silently---without We decided especially if instructorcommentaries are used. whether that good teachingwill often requiretF.at any film, 164

or not it is produced as a sound film, should be capable of being used silently for certain instructionalpurposes. We realize that this may make quite a difference in the content and treatment of a particular film. Judging by what the Film Clip Project people discovered in their analysis of their film clips, it wouldappear that about 50% of them would have had to have been in sound in order to make them fully intelligible to viewers unassisted by instructors.Perhaps if we design short films from scratch, we should keep in mind the fact that it is often a desirable thing to do touse short segments silently with interpretations by teachersor tutors in charge or in some other "non-standard" way.

The silent film days still seem to say something tous that has a bearing on short film production.Perhaps we need to use and to exploit all the tricks of the trade thatwere used when we made good silent films. Perhaps we should study this art and learn more about communicating in the short film format---without sound track if we want to. Creative and useful productions of many different kinds may result.

Re-doing sound tracks.Our group considered the possibility of re-doing sound tracks (addingnew ideas on the spot) to be important in using short films. We were not particularly worried about the further intentional or inadvertent addition of unwanted or inappropriate comments on sound tracks which does seem to have been of considerable concern to lots of people. It seemed to us to be rather unreal to consider this possibility as a deterrent to theuse of magnetic track film.

Magnetic vs. optical tracks. Eastman reported in our group that pre-striped Omm stock will be on the market next Monday. It was quite obvious, I think, that our group favored magnetic track on 3mm in the short film version. We did not see a particular necessity to havea combination of magnetic-optical tracking.When we were given the choice to discuss whether we considered the opticalor the magnetic track to be more preferable, I believe I am right in stating that our group favored the magnetic track because of its flexibility of application somewhat along the lines of thingsmen- tioned previously in this report.

The decision of our group was to recommend that a magnetic stripe be put on every film when it is sold, whetheror not it was pre-recorded. This arrangement would then permit

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11 165

local adaptation possibilitiesand the adding ofdesired s^und to it. There was the furtherfeeling that magnetic sound, in its present form,could provide betterquality sound than presently availableoptical systems.

What is the most desirabletype of projectorfor 8mm films? Our group said itshould be capable ofreproducing magnetic sound or of usingfilms silently incartridge form. It should also be capableof accepting cartridgesof many lengths, preferably, but atleast the minimum of a4-minute film. It should be simple tooperate so as tocapitalize on appealing toteachers who are willingto use films, perhaps only short films, thatdo not give muchtrouble in getting and using relatedequipment. It was believedthat there are many times whenteachers would only usesuch short films---when they were very,very easy to getand when there was no bother withcomplicated p ejectors. We believed we should keepinexpert persons in mindwhen designing projectors for 8mm films. Perhaps the greatest amountof use of short 8mm films will be onthe one-to-onerelationship of the learning carrelinvolving people who have notech- nical background foroperating equipment. The simpler the better, then, in thatparticular situation.

Marketing problems. Can we standardizethe cartridging of 8mm films? We believed thatit would be desirable to standardize on cartridging.We also felt that weshould divorce the problem ofcartridging from theproblems of printing and distributingshort films. If possible, we thought, the purchasershould decide the formatin which he wishes to have his productcartridged. If this is the case, cartridging probably will haveto be available in manyfor- mats. There was considerable supportin our group for the idea that proper cartridgingmethods would find their own way in an openmarket competition andthat we should not try to force an earlystandardization, in this respect,before we are ready forit. There was also thefeeling that the marketing of shortfilms in 3mm standard, 8mmSuper, or 16mm format may bewasteful to the consumer,but not that it will be especially wastefulto the producer.

What about the home market? There was a great dealof interest in our groupin the home market. We thought generally that this marketought not dictate theeducational market's interest andstandards. Nevertheless, we agreed 166 that neither should it be ignored. Rather, we thought it deserved to be encouraged. Some believed that libraries-- - school libraries, as well as public libraries---would also be in the short cartridge film business by loaning out materials in this form as they now loan out books.

We then discussed the home entertainment center. Units in the home that would reproduce 8mm cartridgefilms were thought to be important. The possibilities of a "box attach- ment" to an ordinary television set to convert it to avideo- tape recorder-playback unit were alsorecognized.

Use in storage and retrieval operations. Uses of short films, and especially those in the 8mm format, for information storage and retrieval (in dial access operations, for example) were also discussed. We decided that we were not yet at the point where much could be said about thesedevelopments, yet they must be recognized and considered bythose in the field. We appear now to be on the verge of important break-throughs in these areas. Perhaps the producers' real problems are only starting. No doubt new approaches will need to be made to matters pertaining to the recouping of royalties, unauthorized duplications and uses, and the like.

In summary, our group regarded the shortfilm as an essential. It is with us; it is going to stay with us; it is going to grow in importance. There was concern by some that we should emphasize we are talking about shortfilms that are more than simply excerpts from filmsproduced originally as longer, more complete films.We thought something needs to be said for the "art of the short film as a short film"---a film that is originally planned and produced that way. We ourselves should develop our skills and abilities to produce original films in this shorter form with more precision and more effectiveness than we now do. Even with the limitations of time and the physical aspects of a 4-minute, 8mm, and Super 8mm format, there seemed still to be a great deal that canbe done to improve the product---especially if we startwith the 8mm format in mind. Many producers have done this with a variety of film subjects. The future of the short film looks good. THE SUMMARY POSITION

The followingsummarization to the National Conference onCartridge Films was prepared by the authorwith the editorial assistance of Mr. Charles L.Bollmann, Assistant Project Director. CHAPTER XIV SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

Many of the suggestions of the Conference participants appear in one form or another in the three summary papers of the small group discussions. Many of them appear there in more than one formulation reflecting different points of view or different aspects of a central notion. An attempt will be made in this section to reflect upon some of the major and recurring points that have appeared previously in either the Conference papers or in the reports of the discussion sessions. These might be termed "major recommendations" or "suggestions" of the February Cartridged Film Con- ference.

A. Accessibility. is the key attribute of the Car- tridged film.

There was much agreement with the position of Dr. Louis Forsdale of Teachers College on the "accessibility" feature of the cartridged film. Professor Forsdale has suggested for a number of years that the 8mm film (and also the cartridged film) does in fact make films much more accessible to teachers and students than any other kind of motion picture format. Professor Forsdale suggested that the most important thing (much more important than the Regular 8 vs. Super 8 problem that was discussed at length) is the accessibility feature; that is, the cartridge can eliminate the need for inspection of a film after each use and thus permits the decentralization of film libraries. Films can then be stored much closer to the point of use.

The suggestion was made that it would be inappropriate and inadvisable to wait until all decisions are made concerning 3mm standards before seriously investing money and time into the use of 8mm films in instructional programs. The nature of the 6mm film medium (whether cartridged or not) is such that with good utilization, the materials and the equipment must of necessity 5e replaced much more often than with other types of motion picture systems. That is, a good library of cartridgedfilms or film clips, coupled with suitable machinery for using them, could very well wear out and need replacement in a much shorter time than16mm films and equipment. Therefore, in a space of two to three, (certainly no more than five years) normal transitions 170

could be made to replace equipmentwith newer and less obsolete equipment and films, if the8mm standards do begin to firmup in a particular direction. Therefore, many of the Conference members suggested that the educatorsare perfectly safe in investing money in regular 8mm equipmentand regular 8mm films at this point in time, because withproper utilization these materials will be worn out before they needto be replaced due to newer technological developments in the Super 8 field. This suggestion that school people should geton with the use of film in this medium was made by individuals fromthe industrial community and by some of the educatorspresent.

B. There is a need for thorough and imaginative research with the short film.

It was felt that short films of this naturecan play a major role in the area of research. It was suggested that good, legitimate learning research can be done with the short,cartridged, modular film, and that it is irrelevant whetherthe particular films appear in a Regular 3 cartridgeor a Super 8 cartridges. It was suggested that we need more experience and new applications of films in this format, and that more ideas are likely to result from actually using films of this kind than from a priori hunches.

C. There is a great need for efficient dissemination of information about innovations with short films.

It was agreed that we have grave problems in disseminating information about educational innovations in general andcar- tridged films in particular. At this time there simply is not an effective and rapid way to get up-to-date aQ&pscurate information about innovations out to educators at the local level. Of several methods suggested by the Conferees, the publication of a Life-like format picture publication devoted to innovations in education was well received. It was suggested that the U.S. 0.:fice of Education might well look into the sponsorship of this kind of dissemination vehicle.

It was also suggested that 8mm films themselves might be made about educational innovations (such as the Single Concept Film Clip Project) and released to the field touse for dissemination purposes. was also suggested that a series of film loops might well be made on this Conference and the suggestions resulting from it. Film loops also might be useable in

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disserdinating informationin all areas ofeducational innovation as well as aboutthemselves.

It was generallyagreed by the Coiferees that good dissemination would providefor "cross-fertilization"of information between thevarious disciplines per se. The Con- ference members werealso almost totallyagreed that serious attention needs to begiven to thedissemination of information within the vastand encompassingfield of education. instructional D. Short films aredesperately needed in

television 2.min (whether The entirequestion of the useof film clips instruction was dis- they be on 8mm or16mm), in television cussed during themeeting. No firmrecommendations were There is little made but someserious questions wereraised. doubt that educatorswould like to beginto use short segments of films(such as single conceptfilms) in their television programing forinstructional purposes. It was agreed needed by professors that film resourcematerials are sorely and teachers who aredesigning and programingtelevision thought, could learning experiences. Cartridge films, it was meet this need.

There also seemslittle doubt that filmproducers The would like to find a wayin which this couldbe done. problem lies in thecopyright area, andprocedures accept- been developed. able to producers andeducators have not yet ob- An uncumbersome waymust be foundfor school people to tain permission to usefilms in this waywhile insuring film producers a reasonableroyalty or paymentfor such use.

It was suggestedby the educatorsthat the film producers should gettogether in their ownprofessional association, perhaps theNational Audio VisualAssociation, to It was suggest- develop workableprocedures of this nature. ought not to stand ed by the filmproducers that educators the by and wait forthis to happen, butshould take part in development of a set ofworkable regulations. what is E. In the short-range,educators should use standards will bedeter- available now. In the long-range, mined in the marketplace. 172

It was suggested that industrial people(including both filmmakers and machine manufacturers) and educatorsshould de- vise plans aimed at a short-range pointof view. There are in effect two 8mm film systems: the Regular 8mm format and the newer Super 8 system. The former is rather common,with many more units in operationthan the latter. Again, as indicated in the first section of this summary, thesuggestion was made that the school people should not waitfor all decisions to be made before they enter into the useof films of this medium. It was suggested that in theshort-range, the use of materials which are available now is appropriate,and that, in the long-range (perhaps three to tenyears), suitable and rational plans should be developed for makingthe transition to newer and better systems as theybecome available.

On the other side of this question, commentsfrom many Conference participants reflected the feeling that some decisions do need to be made now and some definitecommit- ments should be made both by users andmaterials producers in- asfar as Regular 8 and Super 8 areconcerned. It was suggested that a time schedule of some kind mightbe set up so that the buyer would know, for example, that Regular8 materials would be available in quantity for three,four, or perhaps five years, after which a transitionwould be made. Others, however, disagreed on this point, saying thatthe major decisions will be and properly should be madein the market place. Since it is very difficult to predict when atransi- tional time might arrive, this question wasleft unresolved in spite of the amount of time spent onit.

F. No definitive statement with regard tostandards was developed. It was agreed, however, thatstandards would necessarily be determined in the market place.

A considerable amount of time wasgiven to the discussion of the two major divergencies that have appearedin the 8mm field. Included were discussions of the Regular 8 vs. Super8 film format and the magnetic-stripefilm vs. the optical track film. In general, the Conferees agreedthat the decisions on these basic points would not be made on arational, pre-planned and cooperative basis within the industry,but rather in the open market place. It was suggested by Conference membersthat a decision tosit down and jointly to hammer out standardsbe- fore the fact would be treading into the areaof monopolistic, illegal activities and that participants in suchcooperative endeavors might be subject to Federalanti-trust action. 173

It was generally agreed thatdifferent companies would more than likely takedifferent approaches to these questions and that the final standard would bedecided in the open market place. Some system(s) will win out becauseof their inherent value, or because offortuitous timing in theil. introduction. Basically, decisions on standards will be based upon what sells. The people from industry suggested that the educators would ineffect set the standards with their purchase decisions.On the other hand, the educators tended to say that it would beeasier if industry were to set certain standards sothat anybody's film would fit anybody's machine, (or even morehopefully, anyone's cartridge would fit anyone's machine).

It should be injected herethat Dr. Ray Wyman of the University of Massachusetts made apertinent point with his statement that:

"Meanwhile back in the classroom, the classroom teacher is basically demanding a newfreedom to add this limited concept short film to theclassroom learning materials. She now has several of them. She can use anybody's char onanybody's chalkboard, and anybody's overhead transparency onanybody's projector, with very few exceptionsanybody's 16mm sound film on anybody's projector.When is the day going to come when we can addanybody's limited-concept motion picture to anybody's machine sothat we can have this new freedom to add this freemotion episode to a regular classroomlearning situation. Now somehow this group needs to wrestlewith this situation and come to some sort ofsolution so that this classroom teacher, multipliedby many thousands, can have this new motion picture technologyin the classrooms. What the answer is, I don't know,but we simply can't go in all these differentdirections and say, 'you choose this, go with this and thennobody else can use what you areusing'."

In reply to Mr. Wyman, thesuggestion was made that indeed some of the other systemswhich he mentioned took some time in the ()Penmarket to establish standards now generally accepted in the education andindustrial community, and that those standards were notestablished over- night nor in a Preconceived way atconferences like the present one. 174

Mr. William Offenhauser, anindependent consultant from New Canaan, Connecticut,suggested that it might not be abad idea to include the AmericanStandards Association in thediscussion of standards for the8mm single concept, cartridgedfilm field. It was also suggestedthat the Standards Committeeof the Society of MotionPicture & Television Engineersshould be appraised of the concern ofthis Conference, and theConference Planners were instructed toforward some of these concerns to the SMPTE. The Society, however, hasalready dealt with this problem in some respectswithout reaching any greaterdegree of agreement than did theFebruary Conference. -

It was suggestedthat the general Europeandecision (particularly in Great Brawl) tostay with Regular 8 should not deter us from going aheadwith the development of newerand better systems forhandling 8mm images. Even in Europe, the Germans have indicatedthat they may establish Super8 as their standard.

G. Adequate information aboutthe content of short films might eliminate the necessityof previewing the actualfilms.

Mr. Carl Nater, of theWalt Disney organization,injected the producer's problemof providing preview sets offilm loops. The preview problem has alwaysbeen a thorny problem for the film producers todeal with. The fact that already more than 4,000 film loops areavailable makes-this concern about marketing technique acrucial consideration. Audiovisual directors cannot possiblylook at the total collections of film loops beforemaking purchases. It was suggested that random samplingof a set of film loops wassuffi- cient.

The Film Clip Projectstaff, however, suggestedthat even random sampling of the filmsthemselves is not a veryrational way to solvethe problem, but thatinformation about the loops must be used inreaching utilization decisions. Such summary data can be organizedinto computer-controlledinformation banks where it can beefficiently searched. The technology is available to do this,and yet it is absolutely necessary for film producers to let anunbiased party write(in standard patterns) informational segmentsabout the films. The Project staff found it difficult, if notimpossible, to do this from the descriptions of films as providedby the film producers. It was suggestedthat a cooperative endeavor amongthe film 175 producers to put together such an"information bank" about all single concept film loopswould repay them many times over. Then a central repository couldprovide all pertinent information about available loops on anygiven subject to the pro- spective purchaser who would thenforego previewing the actual film material.

CONCLUSION

The writer of this summarywould suggest to the reader who is concerned with thedirections and points of view expressed during the Conference,that he read very carefully the papers included in thisreport. Much relevant material is to be found in the papersof the three Conference sum- marizers, Dr. Paul Witt, Dr.Gabriel Ofiesh, and Dr. James Brown. Those three papers and theother major Conference papers containvirtually all of the concernsraised and suggestions made at the FebruaryNational Conference on Cartridged Films at Michigan StateUniversity. CHAPTER XV

PARTICIPANTS

WI_ 1-7)

14 Michigan State University Participants Attending Cartridged Films Conference February 22-24, 1967

BAILEY, Albert Mr. COX, Alva I. Jr. Mr. BAILEY FILMS, INC. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF CHURCHES

BALDWIN, Thomas Dr. DACCURSO, Salvatore V. Mr. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY JAYARK INSTRUMENTS CORP.

BARR, Donald Mr. DEVEREAUX, Alfred E. Mr. ARTHUR BARR PRODUCTIONS,INC. EYE GATE PRODUCTIONS, INC.

BARSON, John Dr. DUHAMEL, E. Donald Mr. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY A.B. DICK COMPANY

BECKWITH, Hugh Mr. EDEN, Tom Mr. BECKWITH & ASSOCIATES LEKAS PRODUCTS

BOEKEMEIER, Barbara Mrs. FINN, James D. Dr. EYE GATE HOUSE, INC. UNIV. OF SOUTHERN CALIF.