American Indian Stereotypes Rayna Green This year at the Festival, Ameri­ cans will see some venerable and wonderful North American institu­ tions -a medicine show and a Caribbean-style Carnival. Some traditional aspects of these per­ formances, however, will not be seen on the Mall because we have asked the performers not to show them. Rather than exercise a silent censorship, we decided to bring the discussion to you, the public, and explore a rare part of our national heritage that we do not wish to put on the Mall. We are speaking of ethnic stereotypes - here mainly of American Indians - that are often presented through acts and costumes in the enter­ tainments we feature this year. Although certainly traditional and popular, and just as certainly often 2 innocent and well intentioned, some aspects of the stereotypes 1, 2 In many areas, health specialists are also Photo by Glenn Hinson for the Smithsonian. family andfriends. John Lee is an disturb many people and, for this herbalist, and his sister, Maude Bryant, is the human being is a whole, inte­ reason, we prefer not to present a midwife. They live outside Pittsbore, gral being, and, consequently, that them. Our friends from the carni­ North Carolina, and they service other respect, trust, and faith must be val and medicine show have agreed members oftheirfamily as well asfriends and neighbors. Photo by Jack Santino for mutually earned if curing and with this. the Smithsonian. healing are to occur. Medicine shows and carnivals Suggested Reading did not invent Indian stereotypes. and faith that a cure is possible Stories, songs, jests, jokes, sayings and forthcoming. Hand, Wayland, ed. American Folk Medicine. Berkeley: University of and artifacts like weathervanes, On the popular level, the California Press, 1976. cigar-store figures, dolls and paint­ medicine show "doctor" relied on Sontag, Susan. Illness As Metaphor. New ings have been in wide circulation folk humor, the verbal artistry of York: Vintage Books, 1977. since the first Native American his "pitches," and entertainment Yoder, Don. "Folk Medicine," in Folklore and immigrant American met. In to sell his products. Today, myriad and Folklife: An Introduction, ed. Richard cartoons, maps and travel book over-the-counter popular medicine Dorson. Chicago: University of Chicago illustrations, the Indian Queen rely on slick and expensive media Press, 1972, 191-215. figure -a large, full-bosomed, campaigns to convince us of their naked, barbarous woman with her curative powers. The performance hand on a spear and her foot on factor has been institutionalized the head of an alligator-was the in clinical medical practice as symbol of the New World's promise "bedside manner." The term itself and peril. Later, the Indian Prin­ is testimony to the need of the cess figure -slimmer than her medical specialist to use the com­ "Mother," draped in a classic gown, munity's beliefs and symbols to create a receptive frame of mind Rayna Green is afolklorist and Director of and an attitude conducive to heal­ the Project on Native Americans for the ing in the patient. The healers, American Association for the Advancement of Science. She is a memberofthe curers, and herbalists who prac­ Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma and has tice folk medicine teach us that written extensively on Indian stereotypes. 18 tiara on her head, torch in her hand and surrounded by Revo­ lutionary heroes like George Wash­ ington -came to be the symbol of freedom from the Old World. Her real but myth-laden counterparts, Squanto, Pocahontas and Saca­ jawea, came to represent the epitome of the Good Indian, that is, Indians who aided white men in conquering their own country "Buffalo Bill's Wild West," ca. 1890. Wild tion to serving as an amusing and countrymen. The Indian West Show Poster. Courtesy of the Library endorsement of the product's of Congress, Division of Prints and value. The image conveyed was "sidekicks" of television and West­ Photographs. ern movies, the Lone Ranger's generally other than that of the Tonto and Red Ryder's Little Bea­ demanded their removal about Indian healer: The Kickapoo Co. ver, are, in a way, Pocahontas' 1925-50. Indians were standard had hundreds of real Indians brothers. As wars and conflicts figures in print advertising as well. dancing, weaving baskets, playing over land worsened between Native Indian medicines were commer­ the drum, doing feats to demon­ people and white settlers, however, cially introduced in the 18th strate health and strength and, the Bad Indian figure came to be century, and soon over 80 brands naturally, making herbal prepara­ just as prevalent as the Good In­ of "Indian" medicine were on the tions. But most of the "Indians" in dian. Geronimo and Sitting Bull market. The white "Indian" doctor medicine shows were Mexicans, were the real-life counterparts of was a familiar sight to most blacks, and white men made up in Indians in stories and songs who people, as were the brightly colored red-face and costume. All wore col­ massacred innocent settlers, ads, booklets, and calendars is­ orful costumes, most of which dashed out the brains of children, sued by the "doctors" to tout their eventually became a standardized and made captured women into products. Popular acceptance of combination of various tribal re­ drudges for cruel warrior masters. the medicines came from a belief galia from Plains Indian groups. Princess and Squaw, Warrior and that Indians were healers, superior Popular as the medicine shows Brave, Noble and Ignoble Savage, knowers of Nature's ways. Early were, however, no other single all became stereotype characters in settlers hastened to obtain Indian form of American popular enter­ American folk and popular rep­ remedies when they could, be­ tainment contributed as much to ertoires. Many real aspects of In­ friending Indian curers and devel­ common stereotypes of the Indian dian traditional cultures have en­ oping their own versions of Indian as the Wild West Show. The Wild riched American cuisine, lan­ medicine. Many best sellers like West Show projected the figure of guage, landscape and art, but the "Indian Doctor's Dispensary" the Plains warrior as the essential some Americans think only in (1813), "The Indian Guide to American Indian and, along with stereotypes. Health" (1836) and the "North its cousin, the Western movie, it Indian images have been pro­ American Indian Doctor" guided became the real-life West in the jected in popular entertainments popular American health practices minds of many. At least ten major since the 1700s. On the American for years. road shows played from 1884 to stage the Dying Cherokee warrior Medicine shows were one of the 1938, when the Western movie and and the Indian princess who major popular entertainments of circus effectively took over the Wild leaped for love were applauded, the late 19th and early 20th West Show's function of public and their Savage cohorts were centuries. Shows varied from large spectacle. Buffalo Bill's Wild West condemned. In American com­ tent operations to single wagon Show and Congress of Rough Rid­ merce, the Indian became a major productions, though it is probably ers was the first show and proto­ advertising device. One of the most the image of the single wagon with type, and it played to over six important Indian "gifts" (modern an "Indian" doctor pitchman that million people in 1893 alone. Native people would call it our last most people remernber. The pur­ Carnivals, circuses, and med­ revenge, perhaps) was tobacco, pose of the Indian presence in icine shows were not the only and cigar-store Indians decorated medicine shows was, however, American institutions that fea­ American sidewalks until fire laws principally entertainment, in addi- tured stereotyped Indians or 19 Wildroot magazine advertisement, n.d. Photo by Rayna Green from the Warshaw Collection of Business Americana, Museum of History and Technology, Smithsonian Institution. parade as "Indians." With out­ rageously elaborate outfits of feathers, sequins, and spangles, the "chiefs" lead their "tribes" in 1 2 Afro-Caribbean-influenced dance steps down the avenues of New Orleans. Playing Indian, whether on the screen, in a child's game, in a Scout Merit Badge competition, medicine show sales pitch, Mardi Gras, hobbyist dance contest, or half-time entertainment, seems to be a compelling activity for the American people. They don't easily give it up. Folklore sometimes in­ cludes material that, however un­ intentionally, is harmful to the positive public self-image of others. The decision to omit these aspects is a kind of censorship, but one that reaffirms the best of KIOF..APOO INDIAN tradition. That the performers from the medicine show and Car­ FCG TALLOW TO MAKE KICKAPOO INDIAN SALVE. nival have agreed to appear with­ out some of their customary cos­ 1 "Red Cloud Chewing 1bbacco," ca. 1875. others playing Indians. Ordinary 1bbacco ad. tumes and acts speaks well of the Photo courtesy of the Division Americans join the Boy Scouts and of Prints and Photographs, the Library of richness of their traditions and other fraternal organizations like Congress. the fairness and openness of their the Improved Order of Red Men; minds. 2 Kickapoo Medicine Company Ad Card, they dance in hobbyist groups and n.d. Photo by Rayna Green from the Warshaw Collection of Business Americana, subscribe to magazines that adver­ Suggested Readings Museum of History and Technology, tise the best places to acquire Berkhojer, Robert. The White Man's Indian: Smithsonian Institution. beads, feathers, and costume ele­ Images of the American Indian from ments for "authenticity." Columbus to the Present. New York: Knopf, 1978. In the 1920s groups of black Coen, Rena Neumann. "The Indian as Mardi Gras-goers in New Orleans Noble Savage in 19th-Century American began to march in the Carnival Art." Unpublished PhD. dissertation, 20 Folklore and the Vietnamese Community in the United States Maxine Miska University of Minnesota, 1969. For refugees, community is an bers they hoped to bring to safety Fife, Austin F. and Francesca Redden. immediate concern. Vietnamese, lost in the escape. Arriving with "The Pseudo-Indian Folksongs of the the newest wave of refugees to fragments of their families and Anglo-American and the French Canadian," Journal of American Folklore, American shores, have been communities, the Vietnamese in 67, Nos. 265,266 (July-Sept., Oct.-Dec. plucked from their families and Washington, D. C., have vigorously 1954) 39-52, 379-394. communities so suddenly that woven a network of community Friar, Ralph and Natasha Friar. The Only their children sometimes thought activities through neighborhood Good Indian: The Hollywood Gospel. New they were just taking a vacation in grocery stores, restaurants, the York: Drama Books Specialists, 1972. the Philippines or Guam. Buddhist church, Catholic organi­ Green, Rayna. "The Image of the Indian in Approximately 130,000 Viet­ zations, a bistro, Vietnamese lan­ American Vernacular Culture," in guage schools, senior citizens' Handbook of North American Indians, namese arrived in the U.S. in late Volume 4. Washington. D.C.: Smithsonian 1975 and were sent to four holding groups, and newspapers. Institution, forthcoming. camps-Camp Pendleton, Calif., The history of Vietnam has often -----· "The 'Indian' Anecdote in Fort Chaffee, Ark., Eglin Air Force combined political domination by American Folklore," Southern Folklore Base, Fla., and Fort Indiantown foreign empires with Vietnamese Quarterly, 39, (Sept, 1975}, 233-262. Gap, Pa. Most left the camps mastery of the colonizer's culture. -----· "The Pocahontas Perplex: the through the help of American China occupied Vietnam in 111 Image of Indian Women in American sponsors in the form of various Culture," Massachussetts Review, 16, B.C., and during the 1000 years of (Spring 1975}, 698-714 religious or secular groups who Chinese rule that followed, the Hawkins, Roger. "Those Indian Songs," accepted financial responsibility Vietnamese adopted the Chinese 1 The Ragtimer, May-June 1970, 5-9. for them. After four years, they are writing system, the Buddhist reli­ now settled in major urban areas. gion, and an administrative and The adults have learned English governmental system based on and have been retrained for new ._Confucian philosophy. In A.D. professions; their unemployment 939, Vietnam gained its indepen­ rate is below the national average. dence from China, and for the next Cultural change also has been rapid; in some families the grand­ parents speak little English and the grandchildren speak little Vietnamese. Nonetheless, the tra­ ditional pattern persists of the three generations of an extended family living and working together. In Vietnamese terms, a family con­ sists of the passing on responsibil­ ity and gratitude from generation to generation. For the boat people fleeing Viet­ nam, the passage to America is longer and less certain. Families leave in small boats, not knowing whether they will find a country to accept them, or perish at sea. Many have seen the family mem-

Maxine Miska is a doctoral candidate in Folklore and Folklife at the University of Pennsylvania. She didfolklorefield re­ search in Taiwanfrom 1974 to 1976 and is Music is among the rich traditions currently co-director of the Folk life Center Vietnamese bring with them to this of International House in Philadelphia, country. Photos by Nicholas Bacher for the Pennsylvania. Smithsonian 21