~lN~~~~N~lNl~~l'lllb,lONlt )

I

I English Phonetics: l (i)

Whcre syrnbuls appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a voiced . Shaded areas denote art~culationsjudged ~rnp~~~ible

CONSONAN E (NOK-PULMONIC)

Frmt Central Back Example, 1.1 Airstream and Articulation

Speech sounds are made by modifying an airstream. The air- stream we wjll be concerned with in this book involves the passage of air from the lungs out through the oral and nasal cavities (see Open OTHER SYMBOLS Whem >vrnbuls appear :n pain. the one figure 1).There are many points at which that stream of air can be in Vurcelesa labial-xlar 6 ~iveolo-pal.llaliricat~vcs to the ngllt reprracnts a rounded vuw~.l modified, and several ways in which it can be modified (i.e. constricted W Voied labialvelarappmximiint 1 Alveolaz lateral flap q Mlrcd l.lblal-pal.llal appimanl fj ~imultaneous and X in some way). The first point at which the flow of air can be H X~icelrsscp~ghltal iticanva SUPRASEGMENTALS Afrncarci and iitiublr nrticulntio~,~ modified, as it passes from the lungs, is in the larynx (you can feel Voiced rpi~lut:alhlratrrc can be ~e~resc~t~dby two Primary stress joined by s tlr bar 11n~icssar).. the front of this, the Adam's apple, protruding slightly at the front ? Ep!g'~t!ii p!ns;\," k^p , Secondary slreri ,founa'trJan of your throat; see figure l),in which are located the vocal folds DIACRITICS Diacritics may he placed above a symbol wtha descender, e err.T? : e: . <, -d ' Hrlihmg v (or vocal cords). The vocal folds may lie open, in which case the Vu~celess IJ ,, Breathyvoi,ed b a , Ucntal td - Exba~short P airstream passes through them unimpeded. Viewed from above, the v Voiced S L Creaky voiced L_, Apiral L d ! Minor [foot) group I/ Major hntonntlon) gruup vocal folds, when they lie open, look like this: t~ rl.. . Syllable break ~i.22kt More rounded _ Lmkln8 (abscnre of n break) Leas rounded i I'aiatalilcd ti dl " N~~~Irc~ense d" Advanced 11 Vclanzd t3 dk Lataralrclrase d1 TONES ANU WORD ACCENTS - _ Rehactd Pharyngesilzcd tF d' ' No audiblerelease d7 I.EVEL CONTOUR "1 l i.~bs~ugh g or A fi~i,,,: " Ccnhnlizcd e - Mlmzrd orphar)npealizcd f e l High 6 v Fallsrg Mid-ccnbalized '2 L llrtiseli = alveolu !,iratlvci e : 5 l~ld 6 I~lghnsln~ , Syllabic Lowcrrd $ =voiced bilabialapproxirrantl n (0 I. e ,I ris,ng , Nlm-syllabic , Adrdnced Tongue Root 9 8 J &,l', l<,," P q ruaing-falling l Doivnstep f Global rsc ' Rhotlcih aL aL RchactcdT~~ngu~R~o~ Open vocal folds t Upsap i Glubal i811 Figure 2 The International Phonetic Alphabet The vocal folds may be brought together so that they are closed, (revised to 1993, corrected 1996) and no air may flow through them from the lungs:

xviii English Phonetics: Consonants (i) English Phonetics: Consonants (i)

t a ; since the space between the vocal cords is referred to as the glottis, we will refer to sounds produced at this c place of articulation as glottal sounds. There are many other places I of articulation; we will identify a further seven. Firstly, sounds in which the airflow is modified by forming a con- striction between the lower lip and the upper lip are referred to as bilabial sounds. An example is the first sound in pit. Closed vocal folds

One way in which the outgoing stream of air may be modified is by applying a certain level of constant muscular pressure sufficient to close the vocal folds along their length, but only just; the build- up of air pressure underneath this closure is sufficient, given the degree of muscular pressure, to force that closure open, but the air 'pressure then drops, and the muscular pressure causes the folds to close again. The sequence is then repeated, very rapidly, and results in what is called vocal fold vibration. You should be able to feel this vibration if you put your fingers to your larynx and produce the sound which is written as in the word hazy (although you will probably also feel vibration elsewhere in your head). Sounds which A bilabial sound: the first sound in pit are produced with this vocal fold vibration are said to be voiced sounds, whereas sounds produced without such vibration are said Secondly, sounds in which there is a constriction between the lower to be voiceless. lip and the upper teeth are referred to as labio-dental sounds. An To transcribe speech sounds, phoneticians use the International example is the first sound in fit. Phonetic Alphabet (the IPA: see figure 2); the IPA symbol for the sound written in hazy is [zl. You should be able to feel the pres- ence of vibration in [zl if you put your fingers to your larynx and produce [z], then [S] (as in miss), then [zl again: [zl is voiced, whereas [S] is voiceless. This distinction will constitute the first of three descriptive parameters by means of which we will describe a given consonantal speech sound: we will say, for any given conson- ant, whether it is voiced or voiceless.

1.2 Place of Articulation

We will refer to the points at which the flow of air can be modified as places of articulation. We have just identified the vocal folds as A labio-dental sound: the first sound in fit English Phonetics: Consonants (i) English Phonetics: Consonants (i)

Thirdly, sounds in which there is a constriction between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth are referred to as dental sounds. An example is the first sound in thin.

An alveolar sound: the first sound in sin

Sounds in which there is a constriction between the blade of the tongue and the palato-alveolar (or post-alveolar) region are called A dental sound: the first sound in thin palato-alveolar sounds. An example is the first sound in ship.

For the remaining places of articulation, let us distinguish between the tip, the blade of the tongue, the front of the tongue and the back of the tongue (as in figure 1).Let us also distinguish vari- ous points along the upper part of the mouth. We will identify four different areas: the alveolar ridge (the hard, bony ridge behind the teeth; see figure l), the hard palate (the hard, bony part of the roof of the mouth; see figure 11, the palato-alveolar (or post-alveolar) region1 (the area in between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate), and the velurn (the soft part at the back of the roof of the mouth, also known as the soft palate; see figure 1). Sounds in which there is a constriction between the blade or tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge are called alveolar sounds. An A palato-alveolar sound: the first sound in ship example is the first sound in sin. Sounds in which there is a constriction between the front of the tongue and the hard palate are called palatal sounds. An example is the first sound in yes (although this may be less obvious to you; we will return to this sound below). Engiish Phonetics: Consonants (i) English Phonetics: Consonants (i)

any given sound we will say whether it is voiced or voiceless, and what its place of articulation is. But to distinguish between the full range of speech sounds, we will require a third descriptive para- meter: . To idenhfy the manner in which a sound is articulated, we will identify three different degrees of constriction (complete closure, close approximation and open approximation), and thus three different categories of consonant: stops, and appraximants.

1.3.1 Stops The articulators in question may form a stricture of complete clos- A palatal sound: the first sound in yes ure; this is what happens when one produces the first sound in pit. Here the lower and upper lips completely block the flow of air from Sounds in which there is a constriction between the back of the the lungs; that closure may then be released, as it is in pit, and may tongue and the velum are called velar sounds. An example is the then produce a sudden outflow of air. Sounds which are produced first sound in cool. with complete closure are referred to as stops (or ). We may describe the first sound in pit as a voiceless (transcribed as [p]) and we will henceforth identify all consonants with three-term labels of this sort. The consonant in abbey is also a bilabial stop, but differs from that in pit: it is voiced. This consonant (transcribed as [b]) is a voiced bilabial stop. The first sound in tin is a voiceless ; it is transcribed as [t]. Its voiced counterpart is the consonant in ado. This sound, the voiced alveolar stop, is transcribed as [dl. The first sound in cool is a voiceless ; it is transcribed as [k]. Its voiced counterpart, the voiced velar stop, is transcribed as [g]; an example is the consonant in ago. We have now identified bilabial, alveolar and velar stops; stops may be made at many other places of articulation, but we will ignore A velar sound: the first sound in cool those, as they are not relevant to the study of English. There is one l further stop which we must mention, however, as it is very com- mon in the speech of most speakers of English. This is the glottal 1.3 Manner of A culation: stop (transcribed as [?I). It is made by forming a constriction of Stops, Fricatives and 1 complete closure between the vocal folds. This is the sound made instead of [t] in many Scottish and pronunciations of, for We have now identified eight places of articulation: glottal, bilabial, example, the word butter. We will see that it is present in the speech labio-dental, dental, alveolar, palato-alveolar, palatal and velar. For of almost every speaker of English, no matter what the accent.

rti English Phonetics: Consonants (i) English Phonetics: Consonants (i)

There is no question of describing the as voiced or - opposed to zuail) and which (as opposed to witch; its place of articula- less, since it is articulated in the glottis itself. tion is labial-velar (explained in 1.3.3). A third is the glottal fricative [h], as in the first sound in hit. This 1.3.2 Fricatives sound is produced by bringing the vocal cords into a constriction of close approximation, so that friction is produced. As the vocal cords Let us now distinguish between complete closure and anot'her, less are not vibrating, we will take it that this is a voiceless sound. extreme, degree of constriction: close approximation.Sounds which are produced with this kind of constriction entail a bringing together of the two articulators to the point where the airflow is not quite 1.3.3 Approximants fully blocked: enough of a gap remains for air to escape, but the The least radical degree of constriction occurs when the articulators articulators are so close together that friction is created as the air come fairly close together, but not sufficiently close together to escapes. Sounds of this sort are referred to as fricatives. create friction. This kind of stricture is called open approximation. The first sound in fin is created by bringing the lower lip close Consonants produced in this way are called approximants. to the upper teeth in a constriction of close approximation. This The first sound in yes is an . It is produced by bring- sound is a voiceless labio- (transcribed as [fl). Its ing the front of the tongue close to the hard palate. Although the voiced counterpart (the voiced labio-dental fricative, transcribed as sides of the tongue are in a constriction of complete closure with [V])is the consonant in Eva. the upper gums, the air escapes along a central groove in which the The first sound in thin is created by bringing the tip of the tongue front of the tongue is not close enough to the hard palate to create into a constriction of close approximation with the upper teeth. friction. This sound, transcribed as [j], is a voiced palatal approxim- This sound is a voiceless dental fricative, transcribed as 101. Its voiced ant. Approximants are normally voiced, so we will not discuss any counterpart, the voiced dental fricative (transcribed as is, for [a]) voiceless counterparts for these sounds. some speakers, the first sound in the word that.2 The first sound in many English speakersf pronunciation of rip, The first sound in sin is created by bringing the tip or blade rope, rat, etc. is an approximant. It is produced by bringing the blade of the tongue into a constriction of close approximation with the of the tongue into a constriction of open approximation with the alve- alveolar ridge. This sound, transcribed as [S], is a voiceless alveolar olar ridge. This approximant, transcribed as [.I], is referred to as fricative. Its voiced counterpart, the voiced alveolar fricative (trans- an alveolar approximant. As with [j], the sides of the tongue form cribed as lzl) is the consonant in zoo. a constriction of complete closure with the gums at the sides of the The first sound in ship is created by bringing the blade of the tongue mouth, but the air escapes along a central groove without creating into a constriction of close approximation with the palato-alveolar friction. For most speakers (and in varying degrees, depending on region. This sound, transcribed as [S], is a voiceless palato-alveolar the accent), the tongue body is somewhat retracted when 1.11 is fricative. Its voiced counterpart, transcribed as [3], is the second con- uttered; it is therefore often referred to as a post-alveolar approxim- sonant in seizure. ant, but 'alveolar approximant' will suffice for our purposes.3 Fricatives may be articulated at any point of articulation, but many We will be looking at more English approximants in chapter 2. of those sounds are irrelevant to the study of English. However, we l For the moment, let us identify one further such sound, the sound will mention three. l at the beginning of wet. In producing this sound, the lips form a con- One is the voiceless velar fricative [XI,found in the speech of many striction of open approximation: there is no friction produced. But Scots, in words such as loch. Another is the voiceless fricative [M], its articulation is more complicated than that of [j], the palatal again found in the speech of many Scots, as in words like whale (as 1 approximant, since it also involves another articulation, between the English Phonetics: Consonants (i) English Phonetics: Consonants (i)

back of the tongue and the velum (i.e. a velar articulation). We will (d) a voiced dental fricative therefore refer to it as a voiced lahial-velar approximant; it is tran- (e) a voiced labio-dental fricative scribed as [W]. 3 What phonetic property distinguishes each of the following pairs of sounds (e.g. [p] and [b]: voicing; [S]and [S]: place of articu- Notes lation; [t] and [S]:manner of articulation)?

1 Many phonologists and phoneticians use the term 'palato-alveolar', (a) [kl and [g1 (b) [bl and [dl (C) [dl and [zl but the chart of symbols used by the International Phonetics Associa- (d) [zl and L31 (e) [S1 and [31 (f) Id1 and [g1 tion uses the term 'post-alveolar'. It will suffice for our purposes if the student takes the two terms to be interchangeable. There are no rigid physiological divisions between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate; 4 Which of the following English words begin with a fricative? the transition from one to the other is a continuum. And the range of articulations which can be made in between the two is relatively varied, ship psychology veer rotlnd plot philosophy think leading some phoneticians to distinguish alveo-palatal from palato- late xylophone alveolar articulations. We will simplify by ignoring these details. 2 Many speakers of English do not have a voiced dental fricative; rather, 5 Which of the following English words end with a fricative? the sound lacks friction: it is a voiced dental approximant. 3 The articulation of an [I] kind of articulation in some American and West stack whale swim epitaph half halve hash haze phase Country accents is also referred to by some as retroflex approximant. The use path cuts pleads term 'retroflex' means that blade and tip of the tongue are chrled upwards and backwards to some extent, so that the underside of a part 6 Which of the following English words begin with a stop? of the tongue forms the relevant articulation. Somewl~atinaccurately, we will use 1.11 for these sounds. l philanderer plasterer parsimonious ptarrizigan psyche charismatic cereal carplng kinky ghoulish gruelling guardian thick tickle bin dreary Exercises 7 Describe the position and action of the articulators during the 1 Give the appropriate three-term description for each of the fol- production of the following sounds (e.g. [d]: the blade of the lowing sounds (e.g. [kl: voiceless velar stop): l tongue forms a constriction of complete closure with the alve- olar ridge; the vocal cords are vibrating):

2 Give the appropriate phonetic symbol for each of the following sounds:

(a) a voiced palato-alveolar fricative (b) a voiced alveolar stop (C) a voiced velar stop