Appendix A: for Further Reading

Appendix A: For Further Reading

Journals

Only the major and relatively widely available journals are listed. There are numerous more specialized research-level journals available in academic libraries.

Popular

Astronomy Astronomy Now Ciel et Espace Journal of the British Astronomical Association New Scientist Practical Astronomy Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Paciﬁc Scientiﬁc American Sky & Telescope

Research

Astronomical Journal Astronomy and Astrophysics Astrophysical Journal Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Association Nature Science

C. R. Kitchin, Telescopes and Techniques, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics, 231 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-4891-4, # Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 232 Appendix A: For Further Reading

Other Books by the Author

Exoplanets – Finding, Exploring and Understanding Alien Worlds, Chris Kitchin, Springer, 2011. Astrophysical Techniques 5th Edition, Taylor & Francis 2009. Galaxies in Turmoil, Springer, 2007. Illustrated Dictionary of Practical Astronomy, Springer, 2002. Solar Observing Techniques, Springer-Verlag, 2001. Photo-Guide to the Constellations, Springer-Verlag, 1997. Seeing Stars, co-author R. Forrest, Springer-Verlag, 1997. Optical Astronomical Spectroscopy, IOP Publishing, 1995. Journeys to the Ends of the Universe, co-author Adam Hilger, 1990. Stars, Nebulae and the Interstellar Medium, co-author Adam Hilger, 1987. Early Emission Line Stars, co-author Adam Hilger, 1982.

Star and Other Catalogs, Atlases, and Reference Books

Astronomical Almanac, HMSO/US Government Printing Ofﬁce (published annually). Allen’s Astrophysical Quantities, A. N. Cox (Ed), Springer, 2001. Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the Sun, K. R. Lang, Cambridge University Press, 2001. Cambridge Star Atlas, W. Tirion, Cambridge University Press, 2011. Deep Sky Observer’s Year, G Privett and P. Parsons, Springer-Verlag, 2001. Deep Sky Observing, S. R. Coe, Springer-Verlag, 2000. Encyclopaedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics, edited by P. Murdin, Nature and IoP Publishing, 2001. Encyclopaedia of Planetary Sciences, edited by J. H. Shirley and R. W. Fairbridge, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000. Field Guide to the Deep Sky Objects, M. Inglis, Springer-Verlag, 2001. Handbook of the British Astronomical Association, British Astronomical Associa- tion (published annually). Handbook of Double Stars: For the Use of Amateurs, E. Crossley, J. Gledhill, J. M. Wilson, Cambridge University Press, 2011. Norton’s Star Atlas, I. Ridpath, Addison Wesley, 2003. Observing the Caldwell Objects, D. Ratledge, Springer-Verlag, 2000. Planetary Nebulae: A Practical Guide and Handbook for Amateur Astronomers, S. J. Hynes, Willmann-Bell, 1991. Sky & Telescope’s Pocket Sky Atlas, R. W. Sinnott, Sky Publishing Corporation, 2006. Sky Atlas 2000.0, W. Tirion, Sky Publishing Corporation, 2000. Appendix A: For Further Reading 233

Sky Catalogue 2000, Volumes 1 and 2, A. Hirshﬁeld and R. W. Sinnott, Cambridge University Press, 1992. 3,000 Deep Sky Objects: An Annotated Catalogue, E. Aranda, Springer, 2011. Yearbook of Astronomy, Macmillan, published annually.

Practical Astronomy Books

Astronomical Spectroscopy for Amateurs, K. M. Harrison, Springer, 2011. Astronomy with Small Telescopes, S. F. Tonkin, Springer-Verlag, 2001. Backyard Astronomer’s Guide, T. Dickinson, Fireﬂy Books, 2007. CCD Astrophotography: High Quality Imaging from the Suburbs, A, Stuart, Springer, 2006. Choosing and Using a Dobsonian Telescope, N. English, Springer, 2011. Choosing and Using a Schmidt-Cassegrain Telescope, R. Mollise, Springer-Verlag, 2001. Choosing and Using a Refracting telescope, N. English, Springer, 2011. Complete Guide to the Herschel Objects: Sir William Herschel’s Star Clusters, Nebulae and Galaxies, M. Bratton, Cambridge University Press, 2011. Deep Sky Companions: The Secret Deep, S. J. O’Meara, Cambridge University Press, 2011. Deep Sky Wonders: A Tour of the Universe, S. French, Fireﬂy Books, 2011. Digital SLR Astrophotography, M. A. Covington, Cambridge University Press, 2007. How to Photograph the Moon and Planets with Your Digital Camera, T. Buick, P. Pugh, Springer, 2011. Observational Astronomy: Techniques and Instrumentation, E. C. Sutton, Cambridge University Press, 2011. Observing the Messier Objects with a Small Telescope: In the Footsteps of a Great Observer, P. Pugh, Springer, 2011. Observing the Moon, P. Wlasuk, Springer-Verlag, 2000. Using the Meade ETX, M. Weasner, Springer-Verlag, 2002.

Introductory Books

AstroFAQs, S. F. Tonkin, Springer-Verlag, 2000. Astronomy on the Personal Computer, O. Montenbruck, T. Pﬂeger, Springer- Verlag, 2000. Astrophysics is Easy! – An Introduction for the Amateur Astronomer, M. D. Inglis, Springer, 2007. Big Questions: The Universe, S. Clark, Quercus, 2010. 234 Appendix A: For Further Reading

Dark Side of the Universe: Dark Matter, Dark Energy, and the Fate of the Universe, I. Nicolson, Canopus, 2007. Deep Space, S. Clark, Quercus, 2008. Discovering the Solar System, B.W. Jones, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007. DK Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the Universe, Dorling Kyndersley, 2011. Galactic Encounters: Our Majestic and Evolving Star-System, From the Big Bang to Time’s End, W. Sheehan, C. J. Conselice, J. Baum, Springer 2012. Guidebook to the Constellations: Telescopic Sights, Tales and Myths, P. Simpson, Springer, 2012. Illustrated Guide to Astronomical Wonders: From Novice to Master Observer, R. B. Thompson, B. F. Thompson, O’Reilly Media, 2007. Universe, RA Freedman and WJ Kaufmann III, WH Freeman, 2010. Universe: Solar System, Stars and Galaxies, M. Seeds, D. Backman, Cengage Learning Custom Publishing, 2011. Appendix B: Constellations

Constellation Abbreviation Constellation Abbreviation Andromeda And Leo Leo Antlia Ant Leo Minor LMi Apus Aps Lepus Lep Aquarius Aqr Libra Lib Aquila Aql Lupus Lup Ara Ara Lynx Lyn Aries Ari Lyra Lyr Auriga Aur Mensa Men Boo¨tes Boo Microscopium Mic Caelum Cae Monoceros Mon Camelopardalis Cam Musca Mus Cancer Cnc Norma Nor Canes Venatici CVn Octans Oct Canis Major CMa Ophiuchus Oph Canis Minor CMi Orion Ori Capricornus Cap Pavo Pav Carina Car Pegasus Peg Cassiopeia Cas Perseus Per Centaurus Cen Phoenix Phe Cepheus Cep Pictor Pic Cetus Cet Pisces Psc Chamaeleon Cha Piscis Austrinus PsA Circinus Cir Puppis Pup Columba Col Pyxis Pyx Coma Berenices Com Reticulum Ret Corona Australis CrA Sagitta Sge Corona Borealis CrB Sagittarius Sgr Corvus Crv Scorpius Sco Crater Crt Sculptor Scl Crux Cru Scutum Sct Cygnus Cyg Serpens Ser (continued)

C. R. Kitchin, Telescopes and Techniques, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics, 235 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-4891-4, # Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 236 Appendix B: Constellations

Constellation Abbreviation Constellation Abbreviation Delphinus Del Sextans Sex Dorado Dor Taurus Tau Draco Dra Telescopium Tel Equuleus Equ Triangulum Tri Eridanus Eri Triangulum Australe TrA Fornax For Tucana Tuc Gemini Gem Ursa Major UMa Grus Gru Ursa Minor UMi Hercules Her Vela Vel Horologium Hor Virgo Vir Hydra Hya Volans Vol Hydrus Hyi Vulpecula Vul Indus Ind Lacerta Lac Appendix C: Answers to Exercises

2.1. (a) x8,148 (b) 19,051 2.2. (a) x21, 35.7 mm (b) x195, 3.8 mm (c) 0.7500, 2.7 m, 5.55 m 2.3. 391 m 4.1. 2 h 53 min 9.5 s 1h4min0s 6 h 11 min 50s 19 h 26 min 16 s 4.2. 46 310 1500 221 300 000 272 220 000 318 180 1500 4.3. 6 h 31 min 4 s 4.4. 4 h 42 min 55 s 4.5. 23 h 13 min 35 s 4.6. Sirius: 16 h 28 min 26 s Betelgeuse: 17 h 18 min 25 s Neither star would be visible 4.7. Altitude ¼ +70 200 5100; azimuth ¼ 107 070 5300 West 5.1. 50 160 5100 East 5.2. 8 370 5.3. 6 h 46 min 14 s 16 410 0800

C. R. Kitchin, Telescopes and Techniques, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics, 237 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-4891-4, # Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 238 Appendix C: Answers to Exercises

5.4. Venus: 1.597 years Jupiter: 1.092 years Pluto: 1.004 years 5.5. (a) No; lunar eclipses can only occur at full Moon. (b) Yes; the Moon’s orbit rotates in space once every 18.7 years, and so a solar eclipse can occur sometime anywhere around Earth’s orbit. 6.1. You should get times near to 11 h 42 min p.m. and 4 h 42 min a.m. 8.1. Sixth magnitude star: 9.87 1011 Wm2 8.2. Distance : 2.1 106 km 8.3. Distance: 4.8 mm 8.4. Height: 183 m (likely height in the range 150–200 m) 9.1. The galaxy extends from intensities of about 36,000–48,000. One (of many) suitable gray scalings would thus be:

CCD intensity Monitor level 0–35 999 0 36 000–36 049 1 36 050–36 099 2 36 100–36 149 3 36 150–36 199 4 and so on up to 48 600–48 649 253 48 650–48 699 254 48 700–100 000 255

10.1. Mean ¼ 959.58 s ¼ 0.302 S ¼ 0.0955 Thus the final answer should be 959.6 0.1 10.2. 12.6 0.1 3.59 0.01 5000 100 0.012 0.0007 or 0.001 0.0007 3.1 106 105 3 1016 3 1016 10.3. Number of asteroids ¼ 91.64 m – 558.9. (Number of asteroids ¼ 90 m – 560 is more in line with the number of significant figures in the original data.) Hence the number of asteroids in the range 15–16m (m ¼ 15.5) is 835. This predicted number is likely to be far too small since the original data show a much steeper than linear relationship (probably exponential) in the number of asteroids with decreasing brightness. Appendix C: Answers to Exercises 239

10.4. r ¼ 0.85. With nine degrees of freedom, we find from Fig. 10.3 that the significance level < 1 %. The correlation of student numbers with temperature is therefore highly significant. 10.5. t ¼ 2.59. The number of degrees of freedom is nine. So, from the graph in Fig. 10.3, we may see that the result of Student’s t test is a probability in the region between 5 % and 1 % (actually just slightly less than 5 %). Therefore, the result is significant and there is greater than 95 % chance that the stars’ separation has changed with time. 10.6.

NA ¼ 15 XA ¼ 8.305 sA ¼ 0.017 NB ¼ 12 XB ¼ 8.285 sB ¼ 0.021

Giving t ¼ 2.67 The number of degrees of freedom is 25. So from the graph in Fig. 10.3, we may see that the result of Student’s t test is a probability slightly less than 1 %. Therefore the result is highly signiﬁcant, and there is greater than 99 % chance that the star is a variable. 11.1. Magnitudes: 4.67, 7.91 11.2. 27 pc (for Jupiter to have an apparent magnitude of +28 – see Table 8.2); thus Jovian-sized planets could be detectable out to a few tens of parsecs. 11.3. For Betelgeuse, MV ¼6.05, and BC ¼ 1.7 so from Equation (11.3),

MBol ¼7.75 So from Equation (11.4) Luminosity ¼ 3.8 1031 W. Betelgeuse is thus 94,000 times brighter than the Sun. 12.1. 496 km s1 towards Earth. Appendix D: SI and Other Units

SI Preﬁxes

Preﬁx Multiplier Symbol atto 1018 a femto 1015 f pico 1012 p nano 109 n micro 106 m milli 103 m centi 102 c (not recommended) deci 101 d (not recommended) deca 101 da (not recommended) hecto 102 h (not recommended) kilo 103 k mega 106 M giga 109 G tera 1012 T peta 1015 P exa 1018 E

SI Units

Physical quantity Unit Symbol Angle radian rad Capacitance farad F (s4 A2 m2 kg1) Electric charge coulomb C (A s) Electric current ampere A (continued)

C. R. Kitchin, Telescopes and Techniques, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics, 241 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-4891-4, # Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 242 Appendix D: SI and Other Units

Physical quantity Unit Symbol Electrical resistance ohm O (m2 kg s3 A2) Energy joule J (m2 kg s2) Force newton N (kg m s1) Frequency hertz Hz (s1) Length meter m Luminous intensity candela cd Magnetic ﬂux density tesla T (kg s2 A1) Mass kilogram kg Power watt W (m2 kg s3) Pressure pascal Pa (kg m1 s2) Solid angle steradian sr Temperature kelvin K Time second s Voltage volt V (m2 kg s3 A1)

Other Units in Common Use in Astronomy

Unit Symbol Equivalent A˚ ngstrom A˚ 1010 m Astronomical unit AU 1.495 978 70 1011 m Atmosphere atm 1.013 25 105 Pa Bar bar 105 Pa Dyne dyn 105 N Electron volt eV 1.6022 1019 J Erg erg 107 J Gauss G 104 T Jansky jy 1026 W m2 Hz1 Light year ly 9.4605 1015 m Micron m, mm106 m Parsec pc 3.0857 1016 m 26 Solar luminosity L 3.8478 10 W 30 Solar mass M 1.9891 10 kg 8 Solar radius R 6.960 10 m Appendix E: The Greek Alphabet

Letter Lower case Upper case Alpha aB Beta b Β Gamma gG Delta dD Epsilon e Ε Zeta z Ζ Eta Z Η Theta yY Iota i I Kappa k K Lambda lL Mu m M Nu n Ν Xi xX Omicron o Ο Pi pP Rho r Ρ Sigma sS Tau t Τ Upsilon u Υ Phi fF Chi w Χ Psi cC Omega oO

C. R. Kitchin, Telescopes and Techniques, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics, 243 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-4891-4, # Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 Index

A Aperture synthesis. See also Interferometer Aberration (optical) e-MERLIN, 30 astigmatism, 12, 19, 48–51 filled aperture, 30, 53 chromatic, 6–8, 12–14, 19, 48, 49 unfilled aperture, 30 coma, 12, 19, 48–50 very large array, 29 distortion, 14, 48–51 Aphelion, 115, 122, 126 field curvature, 19, 48, 49 Apocynthion, 122 spherical, 6–9, 12, 19, 22, 48, 49 Apogee, 117, 122 Aberration (stellar), 6–9, 12–14, 19, 22, 40, 42, Apojove, 122 48–50, 102, 115–116, 181, 197 Apparent magnitude, 167, 168, 210, 212, Absolute magnitude, 169, 212–213, 215, 218 213, 237 Absorption cell, 227 Archives, 192, 196, 208–210 Achromat, 12, 14 Arctic circle, 103 condition for achromatism, 48 Arecibo radio telescope. See Radio telescope, Achromatic doublet. See Lens, achromatic Arecibo Active supports. See Mirror, active supports Artificial guide star. See Atmospheric Adaptive optics. See Atmospheric compensation compensation, adaptive optics Astigmatism. See Aberration (optical) Airy disc, 33 Astrolabe, 104–106 Alidade, 105, 106 Astronomical Almanac, 84, 86, 87, 91, 151, ALMA. See Atacama Large Millimeter 161, 230 Array (ALMA) Astronomical refractor, 5 Almagest, 109 Yerkes, 14 Alt-alt mounting. See Mounting (telescope) Atacama Large Millimeter Array Alt-az mounting. See Mounting (telescope) (ALMA), 26, 29. See also Aperture Altitude, 8, 22, 56, 75–80, 93, 98, 104, 105, synthesis 135, 136, 149, 154, 215, 236 Atmosphere, 15, 22–25, 34, 41, 56, 57, 99, Analemma, 81, 83, 85 102–104, 122, 123, 138, 146, 151, Andromeda Galaxy, 37, 174, 175 154, 158, 159, 167, 175, 199, 204 Angular measure, 23, 78, 79 Atmospheric compensation Antarctic circle, 103 adaptive optics, 25 Anti-blooming CCD, 212 artificial guide star, 25 Anti-reflection coating, 42 correcting mirror, 24, 25 Apastron, 122 guide star, 24, 25

C. R. Kitchin, Telescopes and Techniques, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics, 245 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-4891-4, # Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 246 Index

Atmospheric compensation (cont.) Celestial longitude, 90, 96, 97 Hartmann sensor, 24 Celestial pole, 56, 71, 95, 128 multi-conjugate adaptive optics, 25 Celestial sphere, 71–76, 93, 99, 101, 112 tip-tilt mirror, 25 Centre de Donneés astronomiques de Atmospheric refraction, 99, 103, 138 Strasbourg, 166, 208 Atomic clock, 82 Cˇ erenkov radiation, 144 Autoguider, 138 Chandler wobble, 83 Autumnal equinox, 77, 84 Charge coupled devices (CCDs), 138, Avalanche photodiode, 217 181–189, 191, 211, 212, 215, 218 Averted vision, 38, 173, 179, 181 anti-blooming, 212 Azimuth, 22, 56, 75–80, 93, 98, 100, 126, 135, array, 47, 48, 50, 184, 186, 188, 189 136, 149, 236 charge coupling, 183 detection efficiency, 185 detection mechanism, 182, 192 B electron-hole pair, 182, 186, 192 Background signal subtraction, 190 mosaic, 47, 48, 50, 188, 189 Bacon, F.R., 5 Chaucer, G., 106 Barlow lens, 35, 45 Chromatic aberration. See Aberration Bayer, J., 165 (optical) Bearing, 75, 128, 131 Circle of least confusion, 49 Bell metal, 10 Circular polarisation, 145 Binary star, 170, 171, 213 Circumpolar object, 101–103 visual, 91, 171 declination, 101, 103 Binoculars Citizen science, 196, 208–210 gyro-stabilised, 65 Civil time, 80–85, 87, 88, 100, 134, 152 night vision, 37, 65 Coating, 15, 42, 62, 150, 185 Black body, 214 anti-reflection, 42, 160 Bolometric correction, 215, 216 Coelostat, 135, 163 Bolometric magnitude, 215–217, 219 Collimator, 222 Brown dwarf, 213, 224, 226 Colour index, 215 Colour vision, 169, 172, 180 Coma. See Aberration (optical) C Comparison spectrum, 226, 227 c. See Velocity of light (c) Compass point, 72 Caldwell catalogue, 175 Conjunction Camera inferior, 116 digital, 185, 186 superior, 125, 126 Schmidt (see Schmidt camera) Constellation, 25, 56, 74, 75, 102, 104, 110, SLR, 185 111, 137, 151, 158, 164, 165, 230, Camera obscura, 5 232–234 Cardinal point, 72 Contrast stretching, 190, 196 Cassegrain, L., 11 Copernican model. See Solar system Cassegrain telescope, 11 Copernicus, N., 109 Cassini, G., 8 Correcting lens Catadioptric, 19 Maksutov telescope, 20 Catoptric, 19 prime focus, 16 CCD camera Schmidt camera, 19 astronomical, 139, 186, 211, 212 Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope, 20 astronomical cooling, 186 Correcting mirror. See Atmospheric CCD photometry, 211–212 compensation, correcting mirror CCDs. See Charge coupled Correlation coefficient, 197–201, devices (CCDs) 203–206 Celestial latitude, 90, 96, 97 Cosine rule. See Spherical trigonometry Index 247

Cosmic rays effects, 143, 189, 196 E Coude´ focus, 16, 46 Earth Coude´ system, 16, 17 orbit, 75, 81, 91, 115, 117, 122, 155, 236 Coude´ telescope, 16, 46 perihelion, 103, 115, 122 Cross wire eyepiece, 135, 138 rotation, 16, 28, 54, 56, 71, 76, 77, 82, 83, 89, 99, 102, 107, 112, 117, 127, 128, 131, 133 D Eclipse Dark adaptation, 37, 170, 180 annular solar, 121 Dark noise, 186 limits on occurrence, 122 Dark signal subtraction, 190 lunar, 107, 118, 122, 123, 126 Data analysis, 186, 196, 199–207 partial solar, 121 Data mining, 208–210 solar, 117–121, 126 Data processing, 51, 53, 195–210 total solar, 117, 120 Data reduction, 196–197, 199 Ecliptic, 74, 75, 80, 81, 84, 90, 96, 97, 102, Day-time observing, 175–176 104, 112–115, 117, 126 Dec. See Declination E-ELT. See European Extremely Large Declination, 54, 55, 72, 77–81, 83, 85, 88–90, Telescope (E-ELT) 99–101, 103, 111, 113, 128, 133, Effective focal length, 45–48, 57 134, 136, 137, 149, 151, 152, 165, 166 Electro-magnetic radiation axis, 54, 90, 128, 149 amplitude, 144–146 Deferent, 109 circular polarisation, 145 Degree, 23, 60, 69, 76, 79, 83, 90, 95, 98, 99, electric vector, 144, 145 103, 109, 114, 117, 136, 147, 151, 153, elliptical polarisation, 147 189, 199, 204–206, 218, 237 frequency, 143, 146 Degree of freedom, 204–207, 237 intensity, 144 della Porta, G., 5 interactions with matter, 145 Detector, 19, 26, 27, 31, 36, 40, 46, 50, 56, 115, linear polarisation, 146, 147 135, 138, 143–145, 149, 172, 179–194, phase, 144, 146 211, 215, 217, 221, 222 photon, 144–145 photon counting, 47 polarisation, 145 Dewing-up, 150 refractive index, 143 Diffraction, 19, 23, 24, 33–35, 38, 41, 47, 57, velocity, 143, 144 61, 151, 160, 171, 222, 223 wavelength, 143–146 airy disc, 33 Electron-hole pair, 182, 186, 187 Diffraction limit, 23, 24, 33–35, 38, 41, 47, 57, Electron volt (eV), 144, 145, 240 61, 151, 159, 171 Ellipsoid. See Telescope mirror, Digges, L., 3, 4 secondary-ellipsoidal Digital camera Elliptical polarisation, 147 active focusing, 185 e-MERLIN. See Aperture synthesis, e-MERLIN passive focusing, 185 English mounting. See Mounting (telescope) Dioptric, 19 Epicycle, 109 Direct vision, 223 Epoch, 113, 114 Dispersion, 12, 221–224 Equation of time, 82, 83, 84, 102 Distortion. See Aberration (optical) Equator, 69, 71, 72, 78, 80, 81, 84, 88–90, 97, Diurnal motion, 99–100 102, 104, 112, 136 Dobsonian mounting. See Mounting Equatorial mounting. See Mounting (telescope) (telescope) Equatorial platform, 64, 65, 131 Dollond, J., 12 Equilux, 103 Dome, 11, 14, 34, 154 Equinox, 77, 81, 83, 102, 103 Double star, 41, 120, 158, 169–172, 174, Errors (in data), 138, 157, 197–199, 206, 217 210, 230 ESO. See European Southern Observatory’s Dove prism, 132 (ESO) 248 Index

European Extremely Large Telescope Filled aperture. See Aperture synthesis, (E-ELT), 22, 23, 32, 168, 169, 177 filled aperture European Southern Observatory’s (ESO), 18, Filter 22, 23, 26, 98, 120, 123, 128, 131, comet, 46 173, 189, 208, 223 full aperture, Sun, 45, 161, 162, 164 eV. See Electron volt (eV) H-a,46 Exit pupil, 34, 35 H-a cut-off, 46 Exoplanet, 57, 120, 208, 227, 230 light pollution rejection, 46 Extended source Nebula, 46 image brightness, 31, 36, 168 U, B, V, 215 surface brightness, 36, 37, 172 Finder chart, 152, 153 Eye Finding, 6, 24, 64, 89, 135, 136, 149, colour vision, 169, 179, 180 151–153, 156, 161, 162, 171, cone cells, 31 173, 175, 217, 230 dark adapted (see Dark adaptation) First point of Aries (FPA), 84, 88–90, fovea centralis, 37, 179, 181 102, 112 pupil, 31, 34, 35, 37, 180 Five parts rule. See Spherical trigonometry resolution, 34, 35, 57, 176, 179, 181 Flamsteed, J., 165 retina, 37, 38, 144, 162, 176, 179–181 Flat fielding, 181, 191, 196 rod cells, 31, 180 Focal correction, 175, 176 sensitivity, 6, 37, 172, 179, 180, 181, 215 Focal length, 3, 5, 8, 11, 32, 35, 41, 42, structure, 37, 179, 185, 221 45–48, 56, 57, 175, 176 Eyepiece effective, 45–48, 57 crosswire, 135, 138, 155 Focal plane, 22, 46, 48, 50, 223 Erfle, 42 Focal point, 11 guiding, 41, 137–139 Focal ratio, 8, 14, 32, 162, 163 Huyghenian, 42 Focus, 3, 5, 6, 9–12, 15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, Kellner, 42 26, 38, 46–50, 57, 65, 132, 163, 175, maximum focal length, 41 177, 185 micrometer, 41, 155, 169–171 Focusing, 6, 63, 175, 185, 222 multi-lens, 14 Ford, D., 106 Nagler, 42 Fork mounting. See Mounting (telescope) orthoscopic, 42 Foucault test, 39 parfocal, 42, 44 Four parts rule. See Spherical trigonometry Plo¨ssl, 42 FPA. See First point of Aries (FPA) projection, 45, 163 f-ratio. See Focal ratio Ramsden, 42 Fringe, 52 wide angle, 41, 42 interferometer, 51, 52 Eye relief, 34, 35, 42 Full aperture filter, 162

F G False observations, 176–177 Gaia spacecraft, 110 Feed. See Radio telescope Galactic latitude, 90 Fibre optic, 22, 30, 46, 222 Galactic longitude, 90 Field curvature. See Aberration (optical) Galilean refractor, 3–5 Field of sharp focus, 15, 18, 19. See also Galilean satellites, 116–118, 160 Field of view Galileo, 3, 5, 7 Field of view. See also Field of sharp focus Gamma ray, 166, 214, 215 eyepiece, 35, 36, 127, 152 Gemini telescope, 25 telescope, 35, 36, 47, 138, 151, 152, 180, 188 German mounting. See Mounting (telescope) Field rotation. See Mounting (telescope), Giant Magellan Telescope (GMT), 22, 81, alt-az-ﬁeld rotation 82, 84, 98 Index 249

Glass I crown, 12, 49 Image brightness. See also Light grasp flint, 12, 49 extended source, 31, 36, 37, 47, 51 GMT. See Giant Magellan Telescope; point source, 31–36, 49 Greenwich Mean Time Image compression, 191 Gran Telescopio Canarias (GTC), 22 Image de-rotator, 133 Grating, 222, 223 Image processing Great circle, 72, 76, 77, 93, 95, 111 background signal subtraction, 190 Greatest elongation, 116, 158 contrast stretching, 190 Greek alphabet, 241 cosmic rays effects, 189, 191, 196 Greenwich mean time (GMT), 22, 82, 84, 98 dark signal subtraction, 190 Gregorian telescope, 9, 11 flat fielding, 189 Gregory, J., 9, 10 hot spots, 190 Grossetest, B.R., 5 image compression, 191 GTC. See Gran Telescopio Image scale (IS), 46–47 Canarias (GTC) Infra-red, 18, 22, 25, 28, 57, 145, 146, 159, 162, Guide star, 24, 25, 165 185, 193, 224 artificial (see Atmospheric compensation, Interference fringes, 33 artificial guide star) Interferometer. See also Guiding Aperture synthesis autoguider, 138 base-line, 27, 110 off-axis, 138 fringe, 52, 53 operation, 53 path difference, 27, 52, 53 H resolution, 25, 27, 30, 51–53 HA. See Hour angle (HA) two-element, 52 Hadley, J., 12 very-long base-line, 27, 110 Half-wave dipole. See Radio telescope Intermediate frequency. See Radio telescope Hall, C.M., 12 International Atomic Time Hartmann sensor. See Atmospheric (TAI), 82, 83 compensation Irradiation, 179 Heliocentric model, 109 Heliocentric time, 91 Herschelian telescope, 12, 16, 57 J Herschel, J., 166, 174 James Webb Space Telescope Herschel, W., 12, 14, 57, 166, 174 (JWST), 22–24 1.2-metre reflector, 14 Jansky, K., 26, 240 HET. See Hobby Eberly Telescope (HET) Julian date Hevelius, J., 8 heliocentric, 91 Hipparchus, 112, 166, 167 modified, 91 Hipparchus’ star catalogue, 166 Julian day, 91 Hobby Eberly Telescope (HET), 22 Julian day number, 91 Horizon, 72, 73, 75, 76, 99–101, 103, 104, Jupiter, 5, 25, 116, 117, 120, 122, 158, 160, 123, 175 168, 213, 236, 237 Horseshoe mounting. See Mounting satellites, 5, 116, 160 (telescope) JWST. See James Webb Space Telescope Hot spots, 190 (JWST) Hour angle (HA), 54, 55, 77–80, 84, 88–90, 95, 98, 99128, 133, 134, 137, 151 HST. See Hubble Space Telescope (HST) K Hubble Space Telescope (HST), 11, 25, 38, Keck telescope, 32, 39 39, 62, 165 Kepler, J., 109 Huygens, C., 6, 8 Kepler spacecraft, 48, 120, 124, 218 250 Index

L Meridian Large Binocular Telescope (LBT), 22 Greenwich, 69, 78, 79, 84 Latitude, 69–71, 77, 78, 81, 87, 89, 96–101, right ascension, 136 103–106, 132–134, 149, 163 Messier, C., 174 LBT. See Large Binocular Telescope (LBT) Messier object, 152, 174 Least squares equation, 201 Metius, J., 5 Lens Microwave, 12, 145–146 achromatic, 12, 48 Minute-of-arc, 15, 18, 23, 90, 136 apochromatic, 12, 13 Mirror. See also Telescope mirror converging, 3, 5, 11, 12 active supports, 40, 54 correcting (see Correcting lens) correcting (see Atmospheric compensation, diverging, 3, 5, 12, 45 correcting mirror) relay, 8 figuring, 39, 61 simple, 6, 7, 12, 13, 35 flat, 10, 15, 62, 135 Libration, 108, 155 grinding, 38, 61, 135 Light honeycomb, 40 photon (see Photon) lightweight, 16 wave nature, 32 metal-on-glass, 15 Light gathering power, 22. See also multi (see Multi-mirror telescope) Light grasp off-axis, 12, 22, 39 Light grasp, 31, 32, 36, 47, 64. polishing, 38, 39, 61, 135 See also Light gathering power surface accuracy-1/8 wavelength Linear polarisation, 146, 147, 175 requirement, 38, 61, 160 Linear regression, 197, 200–204 tip-tilt (see Atmospheric compensation, Lippershey, H., 3, 5 tip-tilt mirror) Local sidereal time (LST), 84–90, Mirror coating 98, 133, 134 aluminium, 62 Longest day, 102 silicon dioxide, 62 Longitude, 69, 70, 77–82, 84, 87, 90, silver, 62 96–98, 137 MKK system, 224 LST. See Local sidereal time (LST) Modified English mounting. Luminosity type, 226 See Mounting (telescope) Moon libration, 155 M motion, 107 M31, 37, 90, 174 orbital motion, 107, 116, 155 M104, 172, 173 phase, 107, 116, 118, 154 Magnetic declination, 72 rotation, 107 Magnetic deviation, 72 Moon maps, 153, 154 Magnetic variation, 72, 74 orientation, 153–154 Magnification Moore, P., 175 maximum, 151 Mount Hopkins telescope, 21 minimum, 34–37, 41, 44 Mounting (Camera) Magnitude barn door, 56 bolometric, 212, 215–217 Haig, 56 limiting, 169, 173 Scotch, 56 photographic, 215 Mounting (telescope) photo-visual, 215 alignment, 135–138 visual, 169, 211, 214, 215 alt-alt, 135 Maksutov telescope, 20, 160 alt-az, 16, 18, 54, 56, 59, 64, 75, 89, Martian canals, 176, 179 128–135, 140, 149, 152 Mean sun, 80, 81, 84 alt-az-field rotation, 56, 132, 133, 149 Medicean stars, 5 alt-az-zero field rotation, 56, 133, 134 Index 251

basic requirements, 127 Parsec, 110, 114, 212 DIY construction, 131 Parsons, W., 14, 15 Dobsonian, 64, 65, 132 1.8-metre reflector, 14 English, 128, 129 Peltier cooling, 186 equatorial, 16, 54, 55, 64, 89, 128, 129, Periastron, 122 131, 133, 135, 136, 149 Pericynthion, 122 fixed, 16, 22, 135, 136, 163 Perigee, 122, 157 fork, 128, 129, 131 Perihelion, 103, 115, 122, 126, 166 German, 129, 139 Perijove, 122 horseshoe, 128, 131 Phase, 5, 107, 116, 118, 119, 144, 146, 154 modified English, 128, 129 Photographic, 12, 19, 45, 144, 181, 185, 186, yoke, 129 191–193, 196, 208, 211, 215, 217, 222 Multi-conjugate adaptive optics. Photographic magnitude, 215 See Atmospheric compensation, Photographic photometry, 45, 211, 215, multi-conjugate adaptive optics 217, 222 Multi-mirror telescope, 21 Photography detection mechanism, 182, 192 developing, 193 N electron-hole pairs, 186, 192 Nadir, 72 fixing, 193 Nasmyth focus, 16, 18 latent image, 192, 193 Nasmyth system, 17 negative image, 193 New general catalogue (NGC), 174 print, 193 Newton, I., 10, 38 silver bromide, 192, 193 Newtonian telescope, 10, 19, 32, 61, 62, 64, Photometer, 15, 40, 46, 127, 138, 157, 217–219 160, 176 Photometry Night vision glasses, 65 CCD, 211–212 Noise observing procedure, 218 dark, 186 Photomultiplier, 144, 194, 212 thermal, 186, 190, 217 Photon, 47, 144–145, 173, 182, 183, 186, 192 Photon counting, 47 Photo-visual magnitude, 215 O p-i-n photodiode, 181, 193–194, 211, 212, 217 Objective. See Telescope objective Pixel, 47, 186, 188–190, 194, 211, 212, Observatory, 18, 19, 25, 56–57, 69, 80, 81, 86, 217, 218 87, 90, 101, 150, 163, 165, 180, 186, Planck curve, 145 192, 207–209 Planet Observing site, 24, 56–57, 150, 151, 153, 158, direct motion, 108 164, 169 motion, 102, 106, 108, 109 requirements, 56 retrograde motion, 108 Occultation, 95, 96, 116, 117, 120, 158, 160 Planisphere, 104–106, 134, 151 Old Moon in the new Moon’s arms, 154, 155 Pleiades, 174 Opera glass, 3 Pogson, N., 167 Opposition, 116, 123, 158, 166 Pogson’s equation, 167 Orbital period, 123, 126, 170. See also Point source, 5, 10, 27, 31–36, 48–53, 169, Sidereal period 181, 211 Polar axis, 54, 89, 128, 135–137, 149 Polarimetry, 147 P Polaris, 101, 112, 113, 136, 168, 213, 225, 226 Paraboloid. See Telescope mirror, Polarisation, 145–147, 175, 206 primary-paraboloidal Positions in the sky, 52, 69–97, 113 Parallax, 102, 114–115 Precession, 75, 84, 102, 112–114, 152 Parallax angle, 114 Prime focus telescope, 16, 22, 26, 46, 47 252 Index

Prime meridian, 77–79, 133 Ritchey-Chretień telescope, 15, 18, Prism, 65, 132, 222, 223 38, 64 Prominence spectroscope, 164 Ro´mer, O., 118 Proper motion, 109–111, 113, 114, 208 Ptolemy, 109 Purkinje effect, 180 S Pyrex, 40, 61 Safety, 150–151, 162 SALT. See South African Large Telescope (SALT) Q Saturn Quadrature, 117 Cassini division, 8 rings, 8, 65, 160 satellites, 8, 106, 160 R Schmidt, B., 18 Radial velocity, 226–227 Schmidt camera, 18–20, 38, 47, 49 Radian, 23, 33, 47, 52, 275 Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope, 20, 40, 41, Radio telescope 59–60, 150, 186, 195 Arecibo, 27, 135 Schmidt-Newtonian telescope, 19 dish, 25, 26, 29, 135 Scintillation, 22, 24, 211, 217 feed, 22, 26, 46 Seasons, 102–104 half-wave dipole, 26 Second-of-arc, 23–25, 34, 47, 48, 78, 79, 90, intermediate frequency, 27 113, 114, 128, 155–157 RATAN-600 (see RATAN-600 radio Seeing, 24, 44, 149–151, 158, 159, telescope) 176, 208 receiver, 27, 60, 140, 185 Seidel aberration. See Aberration (optical) resolution, 25–27 Serrurier truss, 53, 54 super-heterodyne, 27 Setting, 90, 99–101, 103, 104, 135–137, 152, Yagi, 26 167, 175, 185, 190, 218 RATAN-600 radio telescope, 27 Setting circle, 90, 128, 135–137, 149, 151, 152, Rayleigh limit, 34 158, 161, 173, 175 Receiver. See Radio telescope Shortest day, 102 Reflection, 8, 9, 24, 44, 63, 185 Short, J., 11 law of, 6 Sidereal clock, 77 Reflector, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18–20, 53, 54, 61, Sidereal day, 54, 76–77, 83, 86, 89, 99, 128 64, 160 Sidereal period, 123–126. See also Refraction, 8, 12, 99, 103, 132 Orbital period atmospheric, 138 Sidereal time Refractive index, 49, 143 approximate, 87, 88 Refractor calculation, 100 astronomical (see Astronomical refractor) definition, 77 Galilean (see Galilean refractor) local, 82, 83, 87–88, 100, 134, 137 Resolution relation with HA and RA, 95 airy disc, 33 Signal-to-noise ratio, 46, 47, 196 diffraction-limited, 23, 171 Significance level, 205, 207 interferometer, 25, 27–30, 50–53 Silver mirror test, 62 Rayleigh limit, 34 Sine rule. See Spherical trigonometry spectral, 221–223 SI units and prefixes, 207, 239–240 Rete, 105, 106 Slit, 147, 164, 222 Rhodopsin, 37, 179, 180 SLR camera, 185 Right ascension (RA), 55, 88–91, 93, 95–97, Solar clock, 77 100, 108, 110–111, 113, 114, 128, 133, Solar day, 77, 86, 91 136–139, 151, 165, 166 mean, 76, 83 Rising, 99–101, 103, 104 Solar diagonal, 44–45 Index 253

Solar system Stellar magnitude, 167, 169, 181, 196, 212. Copernican model, 7 (see also See also Absolute magnitude; Apparent Heliocentric model) magnitude; Magnitude heliocentric model, 109 (see also Stellar nomenclature Copernican model) Bayer system, 165 Solar time, 81–82, 84, 86, 134 catalogue number, 165 mean, 77, 80–82, 84 Flamsteed number, 165 Solstice, 77, 85, 100, 102 pulsars, 166 Sombrero galaxy, 172, 173 variable stars, 165 South African Large Telescope Student’s t test, 200, 203–207 (SALT), 22, 135 Subaru telescope, 47 Space telescope, 11, 20–25, 38, 39, 62, 165 Summer solstice, 77, 85, 100 Spectral resolution, 221–223 Summer triangle, 102 Spectral type, 216, 218, 223–226 Sun, 5, 25, 44, 45, 71, 74–76, 80, 81, 83–85, MKK system, 224 91, 99, 100, 102–104, 106, 107, 109, Spectrograph, 223, 227 115–120, 122–124, 140, 146, 151, 154, Spectrophotometry, 227–228 158, 160–164, 167, 168, 175, 177, 213, Spectroscope 214, 216, 217, 224–226 absorption cell, 227 motion, 75, 81 basic, 222, 223 Sundial, 81, 82 collimator, 222 Superconducting tunnel junction, 27, 194 comparison spectrum, 226–227 Super-heterodyne. See Radio telescope direct vision, 223 Surface brightness, 36, 37, 172 dispersion, 222–224 Synodic period, 123–126 grating, 222, 223 prism, 222, 223 radial velocity, 226–227 T resolution, 221–223 Tear-drop effect, 177, 181 slit, 222 Telecompressor, 45 spectrophotometry, 227–228 Telephoto property, 11, 18 Spectroscopy, 147, 149, 193, 217, Telescope. See also Catadioptric; Catoptric; 221–228 Dioptric; Reflector; Refractor Speculum metal, 10, 14, 15 aerial, 8, 26 Spherical aberration. See Aberration (optical) alignment, 21, 53, 60, 105, 135–137, 140 Spherical polar coordinates, 69–71, 75, 89 alignment-completely automatic, 60, Spherical triangle. See Spherical trigonometry 140, 169 Spherical trigonometry alignment-data base, 60, 171 cosine rule, 93, 94, 96 alignment onto object, 53, 60, 100, 117, five parts rule, 95 122, 135–137, 140 four parts rule, 94, 96 alignment-semi-automatic, 60 sine rule, 92, 94 cassegrain (see Cassegrain telescope) spherical triangle, 94, 95 collimation, 63, 64, 127 Spider, 62, 64 commercial, 105, 135, 139 Spring equinox, 77 Coude´ (see Coude´ telescope) Square kilometer array (SKA) radio DIY construction, 131 telescope, 208 field of view (see Field of view, telescope) Standard deviation, 197, 198, 204, Gregorian (see Gregorian telescope) 206, 207, 208 Herschelian (see Herschelian telescope) Standard error of the mean, 197–199, 204, large, 11, 12, 15, 18, 21, 22, 24, 46, 47, 132, 206, 207, 209 147, 221, 222 Standard star, 167, 211, 218 major, 15, 16, 46–48, 56, 127–128, 131, Star colour, 179 181, 186, 195, 211–212 Star diagonal, 42–44 Maksutov (see Maksutov telescope) 254 Index

Telescope. (cont.) Twilight, 158 mounting (see Mounting (telescope)) astronomical, 102–103 multi-mirror (see Multi-mirror telescope) civil, 103 Newtonian (see Newtonian telescope) nautical, 103 objective, 14, 38–40, 128, 160, 217 Twinkling, 24, 151 objective lens, 32, 65 objective mirror, 9, 32, 38 prime focus (see Prime focus telescope) U radio (see Radio telescope) U, B, V filters, 215 Ritchey-Chretień(see Ritchey-Chretień Ultra low expansion (ULE), 40, 61 telescope) Ultra-violet, 22, 146, 159, 215 Schmidt-Cassegrain (see Schmidt- Uncertainties (in data), 197–199, 201, 218 Cassegrain telescope) Unfilled aperture. See Aperture synthesis Schmidt-Newtonian (see Schmidt- Universal time (UT), 82–83 Newtonian telescope) Ursa Major, 111 second hand, 60, 63 change of shape with time, 111 small, 10, 15, 19, 38, 40, 42–44, 56, 59–65, 127, 128, 132, 157, 158, 172, 174, 179, 195, 221 V space (see Space telescope) Velocity of light (c), 118, 143, 144, 227 terrestrial (see Terrestrial telescope) Venus, 5, 25, 32, 116–119, 158, 160, 168, 176, tube, 9, 53, 62, 127, 128, 150, 160, 161, 163 177, 213 tube-Serrurier truss, 53–54 phase, 5, 116, 119 Telescope mirror Vernal equinox, 77, 81, 84, 102 primary, 9, 11, 12, 15, 16, 19, 21–23, 38, Very large array (VLA). See Aperture synthesis 53, 54, 61–63, 135, 162, 185 Very large survey telescope (VLST), 189 primary-hyperboloidal, 11, 15, 21 Very large telescope (VLT) primary-paraboloidal, 9, 12, 21, 61 Antu, 18, 173 primary-spherical, 9, 10, 12, 19, 22, 48 ISAAC, 10, 18 secondary, 9, 11, 12, 15, 19–21, 46, 53, 62, Melipal, 223 64, 159, 160 Very-long base-line (VLBI). secondary-ellipsoidal, 9 See Interferometer secondary-hyperboloidal, 11, 15, 21 Virtual observatory, 196, 208–209 Telescope objective, 14, 38–40, 160, 217 Vision, 37, 38, 65, 169, 172, 174, 179–181, Telescope tube, 9, 53, 62, 127, 128, 150, 195, 223 160–163 averted, 38, 174, 179, 181 Terrestrial telescope, 8 Visual binary star, 91, 171 Thermal noise, 186, 217 Visual magnitude, 169, 214, 215 Thirty meter telescope (TMT), 22, 25 Visual observing Tide, 107, 117 day-time observing, 175–176 Time, 3, 10–12, 22, 24, 25, 28, 40, 41, 59–62, false observations, 176–177 71, 72, 76–91, 99, 100, 102, 104, 105, finding, 149, 151–153, 156, 161, 162, 172, 107–111, 113, 116–118, 123, 125–128, 174, 176 131, 133–137, 140, 144, 145, 149–155, galaxies, 151, 170, 172–175 157, 158, 162–164, 173, 188, 193, 195, moon, 46, 153–158, 160, 164, 168, 175 198, 208, 209, 217, 218, 224 moon-occultations, 158, 160 heliocentric, 91 moon-TLPs, 157 Time zone, 81, 82, 86–88, 133, 134 nebulae, 46, 152, 172–175 Timocharis, 112, 166 planets, 151, 158–160, 172, 174, 175, 177 Tip-tilt mirror. See Atmospheric compensation problems, 45, 132, 150–152, 154, Tracking, 6, 54, 56, 128, 131, 138, 217 161, 176 Transit, 116–118, 120, 136, 160, 177 safety, 150–151, 162 exoplanet detection, 120, 124, 208, 227 star hopping, 152, 158, 174 Index 255

stars, 45, 151–153, 157–159, 164–172, Wien’s law, 214 173–175 Winter solstice, 77, 85, 102 stars-magnitude estimation, 171 sun, 44, 151, 154, 158, 160–164, 167, 168, 175, 177 X sun-eyepiece projection, X-ray, 144–146, 160 45, 163 sun-full aperture ﬁlter, 45, 162, 164 Y sun-H-a ﬁlter, 164 Yagi. See Radio telescope sun-prominence spectroscope, 164 Yoke mounting. See Mounting (telescope) sun-warnings and precautions, 150, 158, 161, 175, 193 sun-Zurich sunspot number, 163 Z Visual purple, 37, 179 Zenith, 42–43, 62, 72, 75–77, 99, 103, von Fraunhofer, J., 14 131, 135 Zenith distance, 62, 75–76, 103 Zerodur, 40, 61 W Zodiac, 74–75 Wave front, 24, 25 Zodiacal constellations, 74, 75 Weber-Fechner law, 166 Zurich sunspot number, 163