BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

AN ANALYSIS OF THE CAUSES OF POOR PERFORMANCE IN ATHLETICS BY GIRLS IN DZIVARASEKWA CLUSTER PRIMARY SCHOOLS

BY JANUARY EDFREE (B1232527)

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE BACHELOR OF SCIENCE HONOURS IN SPORTS ADMINISTRATION

FACULTY OF SCIENCES BINDURA, ZIMBABWE JUNE 2015 DECLARATION

I, the undersigned, hereby declare that the work contained in this thesis is my own original work and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it at any university for a degree.

Signature ______

Date: (30 June 2015).

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BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

RELEASE FORM

Name of Author: January Edfree (B1232527)

Title of Project: An analysis of the causes of poor performance in Athletics by girls in Dzivarasekwa Cluster Primary Schools

Programme: Bachelor of Science Honours in Sports Administration

Year Granted: 2015

Permission is hereby granted to Bindura University of Science Education Library to produce single copies and to lend or sell such copies for private, scholarly or scientific research purpose only. The author does not reserve other publication rights and either the project nor may extensive extracts from it be printed or reproduced without the author’s permission.

Signed by ……………………………………………………………..

Permanent Address: 2 Presidential Guard Battalion, Block 61G, P.O. Box 140, Dzivarasekwa, Harare, Zimbabwe

Date: 30/06/15

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BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

APPROVAL FORM

The undersigned certify that they have read and recommend to the Bindura University of Science Education for acceptance, a project entitled An analysis of the causes of poor performance in Athletics by girls in Dzivarasekwa Cluster Primary Schools submitted by January Edfree (B1232527) in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Bachelor of Science Honours Degree.

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Suprevisor(s)

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Chairperson

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Examiner

Date

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DEDICATION

It is my darling wishes to express my great thanks to my wife Loice and my children; Kevin, Irvin and Kirstin for affording to shoulder a drastic change in the way of interaction we used to have while I was deeply dedicated to this Research Project. Their motivation towards the project proved to be very appreciative and this has to be complemented by unpaved thanks.

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ABSTRACT

The purpose of the study was to investigate the causes of poor performance in Athletics by girls in Dzivarasekwa Cluster Primary Schools.

The descriptive survey method which involved the use of questionnaires and interviews as data capturing instruments was employed. A one hundred percent (100%) return on all research instruments distributed was attained. The target population was nine (9) Headmasters, forty five (45) coaches and four thousand eight hundred and seventy six (4876) girl athletes. The sample constituted five (5) schools, five (5) Headmasters, five (5) Head Coaches in athletics and fifty (50) athletes. The researcher used the random sampling probability method to select the five (5) schools and the stratified random sampling method to select ten (10) girl athletes from each of the sampled schools.

Data was collected through interviews and questionnaires and was presented in form of tables, bar graphs, histograms, lines and pie charts. The study revealed that girls have a negative attitude towards field events. It was also noted that insufficient budget is channeled towards athletics. The study also revealed that most schools have inadequate athletics facilities and equipment and most track markings were missing from the tracks. On competition day, athletes compete without taking food in the morning and they do not consume food in between events. Most athletes do not train during the weekend and school holidays. The research again established that athletes do not train throughout the year because of the curriculum which states that athletics is done during the first quarter of the year.

The following recommendations were made; schools should budget enough money towards athletics so as to be in a position to purchase adequate equipment. Schools are encouraged to upgrade dilapidated athletics facilities as well as constructing new facilities. Schools should get in partnership with athletics academies so that athletes would train throughout the year. Coaches are encouraged to attend refresher courses for athletics coaching and umpiring. The Government through the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education need to revisit the Curriculum so that athletes can train throughout the year.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my gratitude to Mr Mukanhairi, my tutor, for guiding me throughout my research. He worked tirelessly to make it a success.

I would also like to thank the following Headmasters from Dzivarasekwa Cluster of Primary Schools for allowing me to do a study in schools under their administration; Mr Ngoro- Dzivarasekwa 4, Mrs Ntini- Dzivarasekwa 5, Mrs Madzokere- Gillingham, Mr Wafawanaka- Gombo and Mr Gapare- Yamurai. I also thank the head coaches in Athletics and the athletes for patiently taking their time to respond to the interview guides and questionnaires. To friends and relatives, i say thank you for your support and encouragements. May God bless you all.

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ABBREVIATIONS

AAAZ Amateur Association of Athletics in Zimbabwe

AGM Annual General Meeting

AAA Asian Athletics Association

ANOCA Association of National Olympic Committees of Africa

CAA Confederation of African Athletics

CONSUDATLE Confederation Sudamericana de Atletismo

COSSASA Council of Southern Africa Schools Athletics Sports Association

EAA European Athletic Association

HAB Harare Athletics Board

IAAF International Amateur Athletic Federation

IOC International Olympic Committee

MOSAC Ministry of Sports, Arts and Culture

NAAZ National Athletic Association of Zimbabwe

NAPH National Association of Primary Heads

NASH National Association of Secondary Heads

NACACAA North America, Central American and Caribbean Athletic Association

OAA Ocenia Athletics Association

PNF Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation

SRC Sports and Recreation Commission

SCSA Supreme Council for Sports in Africa

ZOC Zimbabwe Olympic Committee

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LIST OF TABLES Table 2:1 Presidents for IAAF …………………………………………………………….. 8 Table 2:2 Continental Associations for IAAF …………………………………………….. 9 Table 4:1 Age of Respondents …………………………………………………..……..…. 30 Table 4:2 Consumption of Food in Between Events ………………………………..….. 54 Table 4:3 Water Consumed Per Day at Home ……………………………………….…. 56 Table 4:4 Athletes Who Carry Bottled Water to School ……………………………….. 56 Table 4:5 Girl Athletes Who Warm Up Before Training ………………………….....… 58 Table 4:6 Cool Down After Training ………………………………………………....….. 59 Table 4:7 Duration of a Training Session in Athletics ……………………….……...….. 61 Table 4:8 Athletes Who Train during The Weekend ………………………………..….. 61 Table 4:9 Laid Down training Programme ……………………………………..…..…… 64 Table 4:10 Duration of Holiday Training Programme(s) ………………………………. 65 Table 4:11 Availability of a Gymnasium at Schools ……………………………...…….. 69

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 4:1 Grade Level …………………………………………………………..……….. 31 Figure 4:2 Number of Children in Family …………………………………...………….. 31 Figure 4:3 Position of Children in Family ……………………………………….……… 32 Figure 4:4 Parent or Guardian ……………………………………………………...…… 33 Figure 4:5 Interest in Athletics ……………………………………………………….….. 33 Figure 4:6 Punctuality for Training in Athletics ……………………………………..…. 34 Figure 4:7 Favorite Athletics Event …………………………………………….….….…. 35 Figure 4:8 Timetabling of Athletics at Schools……………………………………..……. 36 Figure 4:9 Timetable for Athletics ………………………………………………..……… 36 Figure 4:10 Awarding Outstanding Athletes …………………………………………… 37 Figure 4:11 Funding of Sporting Disciplines ……………………………………...…….. 37 Figure 4:12 Parents or Guardians Who Allow Girls to Take Part in Athletics ….…… 38 Figure 4:13 Family Members Who Watch Athletes Training or Competing ………… 39 Figure 4:14 Relatives Who Watch Athletes Participating ……………………..…..…… 39 Figure 4:15 Frequency of Watching Athletics ……………………………………..……. 40 Figure 4:16 Sporting Assistance from Guardians ……………………………..……...… 41 Figure 4:17 Staff Members Who Watch Athletes Training ……………………..….….. 42 Figure 4:18 Availability of Athletics Tracks …………………………………..………… 43 Figure 4:19 Number of Athletics Track(s) …………………………………………....…. 43 Figure 4:20 Track Markings …………………………………………………….……….. 44 Figure 4:21 Availability of Standard Athletics Track ………………………….………. 45 Figure 4:22 Athletics Facilities at Schools ……………………………..…………...……. 45 Figure 4:23 Athletics Equipment at Schools …………………………………………….. 46 Figure 4:24 Improvisation of Sporting Equipment …………………………………..…. 47 Figure 4:25 Athletes Who experienced Sporting Injuries in Athletics …………...……. 48 Figure 4:26 Breakfast Consumed by Athletes ……………………………………...…… 49 Figure 4:27 Athletes’ Lunch ……………………………………………………………… 50

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Figure 4:28 Supper for Athletes …………………………………………………………. 51 Figure 4:29 Food Eaten Three Days Before Competitions ……………………….…….. 52 Figure 4:30 Breakfast for Competition Day ……………………………………..……… 53 Figure 4:31 Food Consumed in Between Events …………………………………..……. 54 Figure 4:32 Post Competition Food ……………………………………………………… 55 Figure 4:33 Provision of Water During Training Sessions ………………..…..….……. 57 Figure 4:34 Guide For Warm Up Activity …………………………………..……..……. 58 Figure 4:35 Guide for Cool Down ………………………………………………….…….. 59 Figure 4:36 Frequency for Weekly Training in Athletics …………………………...…. 60 Figure 4:37 Frequency of Weekend Athletics Training ………………….…….…...….. 62 Figure 4:38 Athletes Who Train During The Holiday …………………………….……. 63 Figure 4:39Frequency of Holiday Training Session Per Week …...………………...….. 63 Figure 4:40 Availability of Holiday Training Programme …………………………..…. 65 Figure 4:41 Punctuality for Training By Coaches ……………………………….…...… 66 Figure 4:42 Attendance to Athletics Competitions ………………………………….….. 67 Figure 4:43 Level of Competition ……………………………………………..…….…… 67 Figure 4:44 Athletes Who Train Throughout The Year ………………………..……… 68

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page Declaration …………………………………………………………………………..……… i Release Form ………………………………………………………………...…….……….. ii Approval Form ……………………………………………………………………..……… iii Dedication ………………………………………………………………….…..….….……. iv Abstract …………….…………………………...……………………………….………….. v Acknowledgements ……..………………………………………………………………….. vi Abbreviations ……..…………………………………………………………….………… vii List of Tables ……………………………………………………………………..………. viii List of Figures ………………………………………………………………………...... …. ix Table of Contents …...………………………………………………………….………….. xi

CHAPTER 1 ……….……………………………………………………………………….. 1 1.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………..…… 1 1.1 Background to The Study ……………………………………………………..……….. 1 1.2 Statement of The Problem …………………………………………………….……….. 2 1.3 Significance of the Study ……………………………………………………………….. 2 1.4 Research Questions ……………………………………………………….……………. 3 1.5 Objectives of the Study ………..……………………………………………………….. 3 1.6 Delimitations ……………………………………………………………………………. 3 1.7 Limitations ……………………………………………………………………………… 4 1.8 Assumptions ………………………………………………………..…………………… 4 1.9 Definition of Terms ………………………………………………..………………..….. 4 1.10 Summary ……………………………………………………………………………. 5

CHAPTER 2 ……...…………………...……………………………………………………. 6 LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………………………………………...….. 6

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2.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………..…… 6 2.1 Theoretical Framework …………………………………………………...…………… 6 2.1.1 History of Athletics ……………………………………………………….………….. 6 2.1.2 Governance of Athletics ………………………………………….………………….. 8 2.1.3 The Nature of Athletics …………………………………………..…………………. 10 2.1.3.1 …………………………………………………………………… 11 2.1.3.2 ……………………………………………………………….…….. 11 2.1.3.3 ……………………………………………………….….. 12 2.1.3.4 Race Walking ………………………………………………..…………………….. 12 2.2 Factors Affecting Performance of Girls in Athletics ………………………...……… 12 2.2.1 Effects of Equipment and Facilities on Performance …………………………..…. 12 2.2.1.1 Effects of Poor Facilities on Performance ……………………….………...…….. 13 2.2.1.2 Effects of Bad and Default Equipment on Performance ……………………….. 13 2.2.2 Effects of Diet on Performance ……………………………….……...…………….. 14 2.2.2.1 Balanced Diet ………………………………………………...………..………….. 14 2.2.2.2 Effects of Nutrition Before, During and After Competition ………………...…. 16 2.2.3 Effects of Training on Performance …………………………………………….…. 17 2.2.3.1 Warm-Up…………………………………………………………….………….…. 19 2.2.3.2 Cool Down …………………………………………………………………….…… 20 2.2.4 Effects of Attitude on Performance …………………………………...…………… 20 2.2.4.1 Effects of Athletes’ Attitude on Performance ……………………………..…….. 20 2.2.4.2 Effects of Parents’ Attitude on Performance …………………...……………….. 21 2.2.4.3 Effects of Institution’s Attitude on Performance ………………...………..……. 21 2.2.4.4 Lack of Motivation of Girls ……………………………………….....…………… 22 2.2.5 Lack of Good Financial Management …………………………………....……...… 23 2.3 Summary ……………………………………………..………………...……………… 23

CHAPTER 3 ……………………………...……………………………………………….. 24 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY …………………………………………..….……...….. 24

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3.0 Introduction …………………………………………………………………….…..…. 24 3.1 The Research Design …………………………………………………………..……… 24 3.2 The Population ………………….………………………………………………..….… 25 3.3 The Sample …………………….…………………………………………….…..…….. 25 3.4 Sampling Procedures ………………………..……………………………...………… 25 3.5 Research Instruments ……………………………………………..…………….……. 26 3.5.1 Questionnaire ………………………………………………………….……..……… 26 3.5.1.1 Advantages of Using Questionnaires …………………………………….………. 27 3.5.1.2 Disadvantages of Using Questionnaires ………………………………….……… 27 3.5.1.3 Reliability and Validity of Questionnaires ………………………………..…….. 27 3.5.1.4 Pilot Study …………………………………………………………………….…… 28 3.5.2 The Interview …………………………………………………………….….…….… 28 3.5.2.1.1 Advantages of Interview Guide …………………………………….………..…. 28 3.5.2.2 Disadvantages of Interview Guide …………………….………..……………..…. 28 3.6 Data Collection Procedure ………………………………...………………………….. 29 3.6.1 Data Analysis Procedure …………………….……………………………..…….… 29 3.7 Summary ………………………………………………………………………….…… 29

CHAPTER 4 ……….…………………...…………………………………………………. 30 DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ………… 30 4.0 Introduction ……………………………...……………………………………..…….. 30 4.1 Biographical Information of Respondents ………………………………….…….…. 30 4.1.1 Age of Respondents …………………………………………………………………. 30 4.1.2 Grade Level ………………………………………………………………………….. 31 4.1.3 Number of Children in Family ………………………………………...…………… 31 4.1.4 Position of Children in Family ………………………………………..….………… 32 4.1.5 Parent or Guardian ………………………………………………………….……… 33 4.2 Attitude of Girls Towards Athletics …………………………………………………. 33 4.2.1 Interest in Athletics …………………………………………………………….…… 33

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4.2.2 Punctuality for Training in Athletics ……………………………………………… 34 4.2.3 Favorite Athletics Event ………………………………………………….…..…….. 35 4.3 Attitude of Parents and Schools Towards Athletics ……………………..……..…… 36 4.3.1 Timetabling of Athletics at Schools …………………………………………..……. 36 4.3.1.1 Timetable for Athletics ……………………………………………………..….…. 36 4.3.2 Awarding Outstanding Athletes …………………………………………..….……. 37 4.3.3 Support for Sporting Disciplines …………………………………………..………. 37 4.3.4 Parents or Guardians Who Allow Girls to Take Part in Athletics …………...….. 38 4.3.5 Family Members Who Watch Athletes Train or Compete ……………..….…….. 39 4.3.5.1 Relatives Who Watch Athletes Participating ……………………………...……. 39 4.3.5.2 Frequency of Watching Athletes Training or Competing ……………………… 40 4.3.6 Nature of Sporting Assistance From Parents or Guardians …………..……...….. 41 4.3.7 Staff Members Who Watch Athletes Training ……………………………….…… 42 4.4 Effects of Equipment and Facilities on Performance of Girls in Athletics ……...… 43 4.4.1 Availability of Athletics Track at School ………………………………………….. 43 4.4.1.1 Number of Athletics Track(s) ……………………………………………..…..….. 43 4.4.1.2 Track Markings …………………………………………………………………… 44 4.4.1.3 Availability of a Standard Athletics Track ………………………..…………..… 45 4.4.2 Facilities at Schools ……………………………………………………….………… 45 4.4.3 Athletics Equipment at Schools …………………………………….……………… 46 4.4.4 Improvisation of Sporting Equipment ……………………………….……………. 47 4.4.5 Athletes Who Experienced Sporting Injuries in Athletics …….…………….…… 48 4.5 Effects of Diet on Performance of Girls in Athletics ………………………...……… 49 4.5.1 Breakfast Consumed by Athletes ………………………………………….……….. 49 4.5.2 Athletes’ Lunch ……………………………………………………………..………. 50 4.5.3 Supper for Athletes …………………………………………………………...…….. 51 4.5.4 Food Eaten Three Days Before Competition ………………………………..…….. 52 4.5.5 Breakfast for Competition Day …………………………………………………….. 53 4.5.6 Consumption of Food in Between Events …………………………………..…..…. 54

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4.5.6.1 Food Consumed in Between Events ……………………………………….…..…. 54 4.5.7 Post Competition Food …………………………………………………………..….. 55 4.5.8 Water Consumed Per Day at Home ……………………………………………….. 56 4.5.9 Athletes Who Carry Bottled Water to School …………………..……………...…. 56 4.5.10 Provision of Water During Training Sessions ……………………………...……. 57 4.6 Influence of Training on Performance of Girls in Athletics …………………..……. 58 4.6.1 Girl Athletes Who Warm Up Before Training ………………………………….… 58 4.6.1.1 Guide For Warm Up Activity ………………………………………………....…. 58 4.6.2 Cool Down After Training ……………………………………………………..…… 59 4.6.2.1 Guide For Cool Down …………………………………………………………….. 59 4.6.3 The Frequency For Weekly Training in Athletics ……………………..…………. 60 4.6.4 Duration of a Training Session in Athletics ……………………………....……….. 61 4.6.5 Athletes Who Train During The Weekend ……………………………...……..….. 61 4.6.5.1 Frequency of Weekend Athletics Training …………………………..…..……… 62 4.6.6 Athletes Who Train During The School Holiday …………………………………. 63 4.6.6.1 Frequency of Holiday Training Session ………………………………….……… 63 4.6.7 Laid Down Training Programme …………………………………………..…..….. 64 4.6.8 Holiday and Weekend Training Programme(s) …………………………...……… 65 4.6.8.1 Duration of Holiday Training Programme(s) ………………………….…...…… 65 4.6.9 Punctuality for Training By Coaches in Athletics ………………………..………. 66 4.6.10 Attendance to Athletics Competitions ……………………………………….…… 67 4.6.10.1 Level of Competition …………………………………………………………….. 67 4.6.11 Athletes Who Train Throughout The Year ………………………….………...… 68 4.6.12 Availability of a Gymnasium at Schools ……………………….………………… 69 4.7 Summary …………………………………………………………………………....…. 69

CHAPTER 5 ……...……………………..………………………………………………… 70 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ………………………... 70 5.0 Introduction …………………………………………………………………..……….. 70

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5.1 Summary …………………………………………………………………………...….. 70 5.2 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………..………. 74 5.3 Recommendations ……………………………………………………….………...….. 75 5.4 Suggestions for Further Study ………………………………….……………...…….. 76 5.5 Summary ……………………………………………………………………....………. 76

References ……………………………………………………………………………....…. 77 APPENDICES …………………………………………..……………………….……..…. 79 APPENDIX 1 ……………………………….………………………………………..……. 79 Questionnaire for Athletes ………………………………………………………….…..… 79 APPENDIX 2 …………………………………….…………………………………..……. 86 Interview Guide for Head Coaches and Headmasters ………………………………..… 86 APPENDIX 3 …………………………………………………………………..………..… 88 Permission to Carry Out Research ……………………………………………...…..…… 88

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

This chapter seeks to outline the following sub-headings; background to the study, statement of the problem, significance of the study, research questions, objectives of the study, delimitations, limitations, assumptions, definition of terms and the summary.

1.1 Background To The Study

Athletics in Primary Schools is run by National Association of Primary Heads (NAPH). It is an organization headed by school Headmasters. NAPH has committees from National to Provincial, District and Zonal or Cluster level. Committees at each level include the following members; Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson, Secretary, Vice-Secretary, Treasurer and two (2) Committee members. At school level, the Sports Director plans the budget for athletics and reports to the Deputy Head and or the School Head. Generally, athletics is seasonally done in Zimbabwe; that is it is done during the first term of the calendar year from mid January to the first week of April. Most schools practice athletics for two (2) to four (4) days per week and between 1400hours and 1600hours.

Athletics competitions start at school level with the Inter-house competitions whereby different houses compete to determine the champions. After the Inter-house competitions, athletics coaches choose athletes with the potential to represent the school at Cluster level. The team card for the school includes fifty five (55) athletes (twenty eight (28) boys and twenty seven (27) girls). Fifty five (55) athletes who excel at Cluster level represent the Cluster at District competitions. The best fifty five (55) athletes at District level represent the District at Provincial Level and the same applies to National level. Successful athletes at National level then represent the country for the Council of Southern Africa Schools Athletics Sports Association (COSSASA) competitions.

The following events are competed for at Primary school level in Zimbabwe; 100m, 200m, 400m, 4x100m, 4x200m, 80m Hurdles, javelin, , and triple jump for under 12, under 13 and under 14 boys and girls. 800m is for under 13 and under 14 boys and girls only and 1500m for under 13 boys, under 14 boys and girls. is for under 14 boys and girls only. At Inter-house competitions, vetting is done by the Sports Director,

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Teacher in Charge and Senior Teacher. In most cases, photocopies of birth certificates are not produced. At Cluster level, all Deputy Headmasters conduct the vetting process. Each athlete is to produce a certified copy of birth certificate, passport size photograph and a vetting form completed by the parent or guardian, class teacher, coach and the Headmaster of every athlete. Any athlete who fails to provide the necessary information fails the vetting process. At District level, the Deputy Headmasters carry out the vetting process and the Headmasters conduct the process at Provincial and National level.

Despite this clear organization of athletics at various levels in the NAPH programming, over and above the fact that Dzivarasekwa Cluster is in town, there is inconsistence in performance by the respective Zone in District competitions. Only one (1) athlete represented the Cluster in the 2013 NAPH National athletics competitions.

1.2 Statement of the Problem.

Warren Park/Mabelreign District consists of five (5) Educational Clusters with Dzivarasekwa Cluster as one of them. From 2009, the performance of girls in Dzivarasekwa Cluster at the National Association of Primary School Heads (NAPH) Athletics competitions has been inconsistent.

According to unpublished source, the performance by girls from 2009 to 2014 has been as follows; fifth, fourth, second, fifth, second and third respectively. Since then, only one girl managed to represent the Cluster at NAPH National finals in 2013. What worries most is the fact that the Cluster boosts of the state of the art athletics track at the National Sports Stadium which they use for Cluster competitions and the same venue is also used for the District and Provincial Competitions.

The above information indicates that girls in Dzivarasekwa Cluster are struggling to compete up to the expected or climax stage, whilst there is a huge support base for the right ammunition in terms of sports facilities and personnel. The research seeks to analyse the causes of poor performance in Athletics by girls in Dzivarasekwa Cluster Primary Schools.

1.3 Significance of the Study

The findings of the study would help a number of people, among them the girl athletes themselves. They should have an in-depth knowledge on the factors which contribute to their poor performance in athletics. Technical officials (coaches and managers) would also have an

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in-depth knowledge on the factors influencing the poor performance of athletes in athletics. The study will also provide stakeholders in athletics such as Harare Athletics Board (HAB), National Athletics Association of Zimbabwe (NAAZ), Zimbabwe Olympic Committee (ZOC), Sports and Recreation Commission (SRC) and Ministry of Sports, Arts and Culture (MOSAC) with information which can be used to improve performances in athletics. The study would also help the National Association of Primary Heads and Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education in the crafting of policies regarding sport. The Parliamentary Portfolio Committee also benefit from the study as it will advise the Government on sporting programmes. The study therefore focuses on an analysis of the causes of poor performance in Athletics by girls in Dzivarasekwa Cluster Primary Schools.

1.4 Research Questions

i. What causes poor performance by girls in athletics?

ii. What is the attitude of girls towards athletics?

1.5 Objectives of the Study

To

i. Investigate the causes of poor performance by girls in athletics.

ii. Assess the attitude of girls towards athletics.

1.6 Delimitations

Dzivarasekwa Cluster Primary Schools is located in Warren Park- Mabelreign District in Harare Province. The Cluster covers the Western and South Western parts of Harare. It consists of nine (9) schools; namely Dzivarasekwa 4, Dzivarasekwa 5, Dzivarasekwa 6, Dzivarasekwa Barracks, Fundo, Gillingham, Gombo, Nhamburiko and Yamurai Primary Schools. There are two (2) Council schools, six (6) Government Schools and one (1) Army School in the Cluster. The school enrolment ranges from five hundred (500) to one thousand four hundred (1400) pupils per school. The Cluster’s enrolment is approximately nine thousand two hundred (9200) pupils. Girls constitute fifty three percent (53%) of the total enrolment, with the remaining forty seven percent (47%) being boys.

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1.7 Limitations

i. The researcher as a full time teacher, struggled to have sufficient time to carry out the research. The researcher had to utilize weekends and public holidays to cover the necessary work.

ii. One other challenge was financial constraint as the researcher had to travel frequently to consult the supervisor. A lot of money was also used for printing, typing and photocopying of the project for marking.

iii. Sometimes the attitude of the respondents posed some limitations as they did not co- operate with the researcher by delaying to avail themselves for the interviews.

iv. The research findings cannot be generalized to other Clusters in Zimbabwe.

1.8 Assumptions

In carrying out the study, the researcher had the following assumptions.

i. All schools have qualified athletics coaches.

ii. All schools have budgets for athletics.

iii. All schools have adequate athletics facilities and equipment.

iv. All schools have athletics timetables.

v. Parents or guardians watch their children practice or compete in athletics.

1.9 Definition of Terms

The following terms are going to be used in the research:

1.9.1 Skills

Is the learned ability to carry out a task with pre-determined results often within a given amount of time, energy, or both.

1.9.2 Athletics

Refers to track and field events (100m, 200m, 400m, 800m, 1500m, 4 x 100m, 4 x 200m, Javelin, Short put, Long Jump, Triple Jump, Discus and High Jump).

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1.9.3 Athletes

These are girls who take part in sporting activities especially athletics. These activities include running, jumping and throwing.

1.9.4 Girls

Female children aged between eleven (11) and thirteen (13) years of age.

1.9.5 Cluster

Is a group or a number of schools close together or in proximity to each other.

1.10 Summary

This chapter highlighted the problem under research. The research problem has been stated with the objectives of the study being given. This chapter highlighted the assumptions taken by the researcher in the study and the significance of the study. Delimitations and limitations were also highlighted in this chapter. Key terms which would be used were defined and the way the research is going to unfold was given.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

The literature for this research will focus on the theoretical framework of athletics and factors affecting performance of girls in athletics. Under theoretical framework, the sub headings are history of athletics, governance of athletics and the nature of athletics. On factors affecting performance in athletics, the sub headings are effects of attitude on performance, effects of equipment and facilities on performance, diet and performance and training and performance.

2.1 Theoretical Framework

2.1.1 History of Athletics

Athletics, according to Siedentop (1991) is often used synonymously with any sporting activity, but in most cases, athletics refers to track and field events that involves running, jumping or throwing. The history of athletics dates back to the . The first Olympics in ancient Greece date back at least as far as the eighth or ninth century B.C. Events under athletics included running, jumping, discus and javelin. Running events included stades (sprints from one end of the stadium to the other, a distance of about 190 meters), two stade races, longer distances races of between seven and 24 stades and a two or four stade race in which the competitors wore armor.

According to Currie (2000), during the Modern Olympics, running and other athletic events have long been a part of many cultures, but in the 19 th century, such activities were becoming more popular, particularly in Europe and the United States. School curricular included athletics and in 1896, the first Modern Olympics were held in Athens, Greece. Events included the 100 meters, 400 meters, 800 meters, 1500 meters, 110 meter hurdles, , discus, shot put, javelin, long jump, triple jump and high jump. Fourteen nations were represented.

After the 1896 Olympics, the popularity of athletics, or rather, a revival of athletic competition, took place around the world (Carr 1991). National Athletics Federations from 17 countries got together to form an International governing body in 1912, the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF). For many years, the pinnacle of athletics competition ~ 6 ~

was the Summer Olympics. But in the 1970s, more World Championships in various events began to take place, helping to maintain interest in track and field every year.

By 2011, nearly 50 outdoor and 25 indoor events fell under the IAAF’s authority and rules. Some events, such as the 50 meter sprint, are no longer part of major athletic competitions, but remain part of school programs. Some events have been modified through the years and races of many varying distances are contested every year. In addition to the 42km of the , there is a 21km . There are men’s and women’s competitions in almost every event. Men, however, can compete in the 10 event decathlon, while women have the seven event heptathlon.

Modern Olympics founder Pierre de Coubertin conceived the Pan African Games as early as 1920 (Carr 1991) The colonial powers who ruled Africa at the time were wary of the idea, suspecting the unifying aspect of sport among African people would cause them to assert their independence.

Attempts were made to host the games in Algiers, Algeria in 1925 and Alexandria, Egypt in 1928, but despite considerable preparations taken by coordinators, the efforts failed. The International Olympic Committee’s (IOC) first member, Greek-born Egyptian sprinter Angelo Bolanaki, donated funds to erect a stadium, but still the games were set back for another three decades.

In July 1965, the first games were held in Brazzaville, Congo. From 30 countries, around 2500 athletes competed. Egypt topped the medal count for the first Games. In 1966, the Supreme Council for Sports in Africa (SCSA) was organized in Bamako. SCSA managed the All Africa Games. All 53 members affiliated to the Association of National Olympic Committees of Africa (ANOCA) were eligible to take part in the games

In Zimbabwe, the history of athletics dates back to the colonial era. Athletics started as an amateur sport. Most of the athletics activities were sponsored and done by the Mines. The Zimbabwe Chamber of Mines Track and Field Championships became the major athletics events. The games started in 1959 and events were held every year. There was the Amateur Association of Athletics in Zimbabwe (AAAZ which was segregatory along racial lines. At Independence in 1980, athletics was still an Amateur sport and there were two splinter groups, one led by Joseph Mungwari and the other one by Robert Mutsauki. There were squabbles of controlling the sport in the country as things did not go on well with the

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Mutsauki camp. Sports and Recreation Commission intervened and the country was banned by IAAF for political interference in sport. The Association was also deregistered by IAAF. According to unpublished source, there was an interim committee that comprised members from Robert Mutsauki camp and Joseph Mungwari camp. This led to elections with the birth of National Athletic Association of Zimbabwe (NAAZ) in 1995.

2.1.2 Governance of Athletics

The International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) is the International governing body for the . It was founded on 17 July 1912 at its first congress in Stockholm, Sweden by representatives from 17 National Athletics Federations as the International Amateur Athletics Federation. Since October 1993, it has been headquartered in Monaco, France. Beginning in 1982, the IAAF passed several amendments to its rules allowing athletes to receive compensation for participation in international athletics competitions.

Since the establishment of the IAAF, it has had five presidents as tabulated below:

Table 2:1 Presidents for IAAF

Name Country Presidency Sigfrid Edstrom Sweeden 1912-1946 Lord Burghley United Kingdom 1946-1976 Adriaan Paulen Netherlands 1976-1981 Primo Nebiolo Italy 1981-1999 Lamine Diack Senegal 1999 to date

The IAAF has a total of 212 member federations divided into 6 area associations as shown overleaf;

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Table 2:2 Continental Associations for IAAF

Association Abbreviation Continent Asian Athletics Association AAA Asia Confederation of African Athletics CAA Africa Confederacion Sudamericana de Atletismo CONSUDATLE South America European Athletic Association EAA Europe North American, Central American and Caribbean NACACAA North America Athletic Association Ocenia Athletics Association OAA Australia and Ocenia

The Confederation of African Athletics (CAA) is the continental Association for the sport of athletics in Africa. It is headquartered in Senegal. It organizes the African Championships in athletics and other continental competitions. CAA is divided into five regions or zones which are Northern, Western, Eastern, Central and Southern. Zimbabwe falls under the Southern Region.

In Zimbabwe, the National Athletic Association of Zimbabwe (NAAZ) is the governing body for the sport of Athletics. NAAZ is a member of IAAF, the world governing body for the sport. NAAZ is not affiliated to SRC, but it is just registered with the Sports Commission. NAAZ has 10 Administrative Provinces which are Bulawayo, Harare, Mashonaland Central, Mashonaland East, Mashonaland West, Masvingo, Manicaland, Midlands, Matabeleland North and Matabeleland South Provinces. NAAZ follows the Olympic Cycle and elections are held at the end of every four years. NAAZ’s structure consists of the President, two Vice Presidents, (the first Vice President is in charge of Development and the second Vice President is in charge of organizing events), the Treasurer (looks at the implementation of the financial policy), the Secretary General (who looks at all communication of the Association and appointees of the Association), Competitions Director (who is in charge of all competitions), Director of Coaching and Coach Education and Director (in charge of all the Coaches). Under the Director of Coaches, there is also Director for Kids athletics, Director in charge of the Youth and Director in charge of the seniors. There is an Administrator who works in the office and helps the Secretary General. The Chairperson,

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Vice-Chairperson, Secretary, Vice-Secretary, Treasurer and the ten Provincial Board Chairpersons makes up the Executive.

Each of the ten Provincial Boards must have a Chairperson, Vice Chairperson, Treasurer, Secretary and Vice Secretary. The Provincial Committee also consists of the Coaches coordinator, Officials coordinator and committee members. The number of committee members depends on the constitution of the Provincial Committee. The National Board has its own Constitution which is registered with the SRC.

Provincial Boards are voted into office by affiliated Clubs from various districts. Affiliation happens after paying an agreed fee at an Annual General Meeting (AGM). Each Provincial Board has a District Structure made up of the Chairperson, Vice Chairperson, Treasurer, Secretary, Vice Secretary and Committee members. Clubs have a Club Chairman or Director in the event of an Academy, Secretary, Administrator and Committee members. Each athlete is registered and affiliate with the Provincial Association.

The National Association of Primary School Heads (NAPH) and the National Association of Secondary School Heads (NASH) administers the smooth running of athletics at Primary and Secondary School levels respectively, in partnership with NAAZ. Each of the Primary and Secondary Schools is affiliated to the Association upon payment of an agreed subscription according to the school’s enrolment. At National level, there is the Chairperson, Vice Chairperson, Treasurer, Secretary, Vice Secretary and Five Committee members. NAPH and NASH heads in charge of athletics are committees at various levels in NAAZ. The Provincial and District structure follows the same structure of the National Committee. At Cluster level, each School Head is a member of the Committee.

2.1.3 The Nature of Athletics

Carr (1991) is of the opinion that athletics is an exclusive collection of sporting events that involve competitive running, jumping, throwing and walking. The most common types of athletics competitions are track and field, road running cross country running and race walk. The simplicity of the competitions, and the lack of need for expensive equipment, makes athletics one of the most commonly competed sports in the world. Guttman (1996) notes that athletics is mostly an , with the exception of relay races and competitions which combine athletes’ performances for a team score, such as cross country.

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2.1.3.1 Track and Field

Track and field competitions emerged in the late 19th century and were typically contested between athletes who were representing rival educational institutions, military organizations and sports clubs (Carr 1991). Dick (2007) propounds that participating athletes may compete in one or more events, according to their specialties. Men and women compete separately. Track and field comes in both indoor and outdoor formats, with most indoor competitions occurring in winter, while outdoor events are mostly held in summer. The sport is defined by the venue in which the competitions are held; that is the track and field stadium.

Siedentop (1991) narrates that a variety of running events are held on the track which fall into three broad distance categories which are sprints, middle distance and long distance track events. Relay races feature teams comprising four runners each, who must pass a baton to their team-mate after a specified distance with the aim of being the first team to finish. Hurdling events and the are a variation upon the flat running theme in that athletes must clear obstacles on the track during the race. The field events come in two types; jumping and throwing competitions. In throwing events, athletes are measured by how far they hurl an implement, with the common events being the shot put, discus, javelin, and . There are four common jumping events: the long jump and triple jump are contests measuring the horizontal distance an athlete can jump, while the high jump and pole vault are decided on the height achieved. Combined events, which include the decathlon (typically competed by men) and heptathlon (typically competed by women), are competitions where athletes compete in a number of different track and field events, with each performance going towards a final points tally.

2.1.3.2 Road Running

Currie (2000) is of the opinion that road running competitions are running events (predominantly long distance) which are mainly conducted on courses of paved or tarmac roads, although major events often finish on the track of a main stadium. In addition to being a common recreational sport, the elite level of the sport, particularly marathon races, are one of the most popular aspects of athletics. Weinberg and Gould (2007) say that road racing events can be of virtually any distance, but the most common and well known are the marathon, half marathon, 10km and 5km. The marathon is the only road event featured at the IAAF World Championships in Athletics and the Summer Olympics, although there is also an annual IAAF World Half Marathon Championships. The marathon is also the only road ~ 11 ~

running event featured at the IPC Athletics World Championships and the Summer Paralympics. The World Marathon Majors series includes five most prestigious marathon competitions at the elite level; the , Boston, , and New York City .

2.1.3.3. Cross Country Running

Cross country running according to Currie (2000) is the most naturalistic of the sports in athletics as competitions take place on open-air courses over surfaces such as grass, woodland trails and earth. Bizley (2009) aver that it is both an individual and team sport, as runners are judged on an individual basis and a points scoring method is used for teams. Competitions are typically long distance races of 4km or more which are usually held in autumn and winter. Cross country’s most successful athletes often compete in long distance track and road events as well.

2.1.3.4 Race Walking

Race walking is a form of competitive walking that usually takes place on open-air roads, although running tracks are also occasionally used (Guttmann1996). Race walking is the only sport in athletics in which judges monitor athletes on their technique. Carr (1991) propounds that race walkers must always have a foot in contact with the ground and their advancing leg must be straightened, not bent at the knee; failure to follow these rules results in disqualification from the race.

The highest level race walking competitions occur at the IAAF World Championships in Athletics and at the Summer Olympics, although the sport also has its own separate major competition; the IAAF World Race Walking Cup which has been established since 1961. The IAAF World Race Walking Challenge forms the primary seasonal competition. Athletes earn points for their performances at ten selected race walking competitions and the highest scoring walkers are entered into that year’s IAAF Race Walking Challenge Final.

2.2 Factors Affecting Performance of Girls in Athletics

2.2.1 Effects of Equipment and Facilities on Performance

Equipment for athletics can be classified according to the event of athletics (Honeybourne 2005). Without these facilities athletes won’t be able to perform to the best of their ability.

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2.2.1.1 Effects of Poor Facilities on Performance

Facilities are absolutely vital to sustaining the current level of activity that many of our affiliated clubs across the land enjoy (Dick 2007). This applies not only to specific athletics track and field facilities but also to the social amenities, changing rooms and car parking which a club of any discipline requires to sustain, thrive and grow. Siedentop (1991) is of the opinion that facilities provide the environment where success can be shared and enjoyed by existing participants, supporters and spectators alike.

To grow and sustain participation in any sport, there are several factors that come into play – for athletics, access to a healthy stock of safe and suitable facilities is one of the most crucial. Carr (1991) says that there is need to have a strategy document in part to inform its own work and future investment into local athletics facilities, but also to inform and guide local stakeholders in this vitally important facet of the sport. The strategy looks at not only track and field facilities but also at facilities that meet need for recreational and road runner. The facility strategy ties together the technical specification of certificated facilities with the development need based on the current growth in participation, as result of the ongoing commitment provided by coaches across the country through clubs and networks. The standard athletics track according to Fountain and Goodwin (2002) is built to IAAF standard, with a 10-lane 100m straight, comprehensive field event facilities including a hammer and discus cage, and necessary attachments for disability field events. There should be the state of the art gym where athletes exercise on daily basis.

Throwing cages are also needed for discus, shot put and hammer throw, Absence of proper sporting facilities hinder the performance of athletics (Guttmann 1996). Facilities include the track and field. A standard track should have tartan surface. Rosser (1995) advises that a pitch which is not watered can twist the ankle of athletes when doing high jump on the fosbury flop technique. A pitch with tall grass affects an athlete’s performance when running. Friction between the athlete and grass reduces speed of an athlete, thereby taking longer to complete a given distance. Hard pitch also affects the ability of a javelin stick to sink onto the ground. This results in athletes producing no throws. The pitch or field should have a well maintained lawn. Poor facilities results in athletes being injured.

2.2.1.2 Effects of Bad and Default Equipment on Performance

Beashel, Sibson and Taylor (2001) propound that track equipment include starting blocks,

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starting gun, whistle, hurdles and track equipment, spikes and track accessories and button sticks. Field equipment; for hammer throw includes field equipment racks, hammer, hammer handles, hammer wire, hammer glove, hammer conversion circle, hammer rack, hammer cage door pad and hammer repair kit. Discus equipment include discus, accessories and bags and throwing circle weather cover. Shot put equipment include shot putt, shot circle, shot carrier and shot putt stop board. Javelin has javelin stick, javelin rack and javelin accessories.

Beashel and Taylor (1996) note that high jump consists of high jump landing area, elastic bag, high jump stands, high jump wheel away covers, crossbars and multi-bar rest attachment. Vaulting equipment includes vaulting poles, carbon pole bag, pole vault uprights, front pads, sliding vault box, magnesium carbonate dry grip and stickum grip enhancing. Equipment for long and triple jump includes blanking boards and lifting keys, compact windgauge, distance boards, galvanizes watering can, lifting hooks, sand pit covers, no jump indicators, pit edge padding, pit kerbing, plasticine for no jump indicator, plasticine roller, polanik take off markers and wooden sandpit rake. Throwing cages are also needed for discus, shot put and hammer throw. When using bad or default equipment, it becomes difficult for an athlete to execute a skill.

Bad equipment can demotivate athletes (Fountain and Goodwin 2002). Putting on torn footwear reduces the morale of an athlete. This affects his or her psychological preparation as he or she focuses his or her mind on the state of attire, thereby failing to produce good results. Guttmann (1996) is of the opinion that bad and default equipment can also cause sports injuries like sprains, strains, twisted ankles, dislocations and fractures. A javelin stick without proper grip can injure an athlete’s hands. A torn or worn out discus can also injure an athlete when throwing it, thereby affecting the distance of a throw. The high jump landing area should provide proper comfort. Default landing area can cause back or spinal injuries to athletes when landing.

2.2.2 Effects of Diet on Performance

2.2.2.1 Balanced Diet

Fountain and Goodwin (2002) narrate that a balanced diet is a diet that matches one’s energy needs and give the right mixture of nutrients and fibre. Beashel and Taylor (1996) concur that a balanced diet is one that gives your body the nutrition it needs to function properly. A balanced diet is important because the athlete’s body organs and tissues need proper nutrition

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to work effectively. Without good nutrition, the body is more prone to disease, infection, fatigue and poor performance. A balanced diet consists of the following nutrients; carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, fibre and water (Dick 2007). Kenney, Wilmore and Costill (2012) say that athletes place considerable demands on their bodies every day they train and compete.

Damon et al (2007) narrates that carbohydrates are any of a large group of organic compounds occurring in foods and living tissues and including sugars, starch and cellulose. Rao (2006) advises that Carbohydrates are used for energy. Kenney et al (2012) say that men who ate a carbohydrate-rich diet for three days stored nearly twice their normal amounts of muscle glycogen. The roles of carbohydrate in the body includes providing energy to working muscles, providing fuel for the central nervous system, enabling fat metabolism and preventing protein from being used as energy. Kenney et al (2012) advocate that insufficient intake of carbohydrate during periods of intense training can lead to depletion of glycogen stores.

The energy obtained from fat plays an important role for both high intensity and endurance sports. Fats are important to athletes in the sense that they provides energy (Honeybourne 2005). Fat serves as the primary fuel for intensity and long duration activities such as marathons, triathlons and cross country skiing. In high intensity activity, where carbohydrate is the primary fuel, fat is necessary to fully release the available energy in carbohydrate. Fat can either be bound (like stored fat in adipose tissue) or free (circulating in the blood). However, steak is probably the worst food an athlete could eat before competing as it contains a relatively high percentage of fat, which requires several hours for full digestion (Kenny et al 2012).

Proteins are important to an athlete. A high protein intake will make muscles bigger and help an athlete to recover after training (Pangirazi and Dauer 1995). The body uses protein to build and repair tissues. It also uses protein to make enzymes, hormones, and other body chemicals. Protein is an important building block of bones, muscles, cartilage, skin and blood. Along with fat and carbohydrates, protein is a macronutrients, meaning that the body needs relatively large amounts of it. Rao (2006) is of the opinion that vitamins are any group of organic compounds which are essential for normal growth and nutrition and are required in small quantities in the diet because they cannot be synthesised by the body. Dusenbery (1996) is of the opinion that vitamins are organic substance; they contain carbon atoms that

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cannot be synthesised by the body. They are required for the breaking down of macronutrients.

Water according to Dusenbery (2009) serves various functions to our bodies. Water in the blood helps to control body temperature by absorbing heat produced during exercise. Loss of water can lead to dehydration and heatstroke. Joints are also lubricated and cushioned by water. Water serves as a shock absorber inside the eyes, spinal cord and in the amniotic sac surrounding the foetus in pregnancy. Kenny et al (2012) advocate that for optimal performance, the body’s water and electrolyte contents should remain relatively constant. Hydration is arguably the most critical factor not only for good health, but also in the development of athletic pursuits. Drinking water is particularly important for athletes because the nature of their activities lend to using up stores more quickly.

2.2.2.2 Effects of Nutrition Before, During and After Competition

A pre competition meal should aim to top up muscle and liver glycogen stores. Therefore, it should be rich in carbohydrate and low in fat and fibre and should contain a moderate amount of protein. Larger meals take longer to digest and that nervousness can result in delayed digestion. Guttmann (1996) advises that a competition day is not a time to experiment with new food. Honeybourne (2005) added that the pre- event meal should be made of familiar foods and provide adequate fluids. Kenney et al (2012) are of the opinion that two hours before exercise, the athlete should consume 400 to 600ml of fluid to provide hydration and allow time for excretion of excess ingested water. Athletes in events lasting longer than ninety minutes should be advised, where possible, to reduce training in the nutrient diet leading up to the event, include a rest day and consume more carbohydrate and fluid than normal. Dick (2007) also explained that, during training and competition, fluid loss is a major consideration. Guttmann (1996) narrates that, “during exercise, the athlete should drink enough fluid to keep fluid loses to less than 2% of body weight”. During intense training or competition, isotonic sports drinks, that is those drinks that can assist athletes in rehydrating while balancing electrolytes may be consumed (Rosser 1995). This may be beneficial especially if training or competition last longer than sixty minutes. On post-competition nutrition, athletes under high intensity exercises can use up 200 to 250 grams of carbohydrates during a game (Rao 2006). Kenney et al (2012) propound that after exercise, the athlete should consume adequate fluids to fully replace sweat losses that occurred during exercise. Ideally, a large, high-carbohydrate meal should be eaten within two hours of the

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finish and it can and should consist of high Glycogen index foods. Bananas and dried fruits are good immediately following a match, as the sandwiches and high carbohydrate drinks like Gatorade Exceed and Lucozade.

2.2.3 Effects of Training on Performance

According Kenney et al (2012), High Performance Training for Sports presents today’s best athlete conditioning protocols and programs in the world. Just like any other sporting discipline, athletics need proper training in order for the athletes to perform to their best Fountain and Goodwin 2002). The coach needs to have a better understanding of athletics in order to be able to help his or her athletes. Currie (2000) pointed out that a coach who lacks coaching philosophy lacks direction and readily succumb to external pressure. Some types of training that the coach may use in training athletes include interval, continuous, fartlek, and flexibility training.

Interval training is one of the best techniques for runners to improve their speed. Bizley (2009) states that interval training is a training which consists of periods of work followed by periods of rest. Dick (2007) acknowledges that an interval training workout involves alternating periods of high-intensity effort with periods of low-intensity effort, which is called recovery. This type of training can be used for both aerobic and anaerobic training. Continuous training is another method of training that can be used by the coach. Kenney et al (2012) say that, in continuous training, the core objective is to develop the aerobic system. The training concentrates on distance rather than speed. It is used to improve general endurance. This training is suitable for long distance runners. Rosser (1995) are of the opinion that fartlek training comes from the Swedish for ‘speed play’. It involves many changes of speed. As for the Fartlek training method, athletes varies the pace and also the terrain. They should run over which should include uphill and downhill terrain (Beashel et al 2001). The exercise include both aerobic and an aerobic system. Fartlek allows the athlete to run at varying intensity levels over distances of their choice. This type of training stresses both the aerobic and anaerobic energy pathways . Flexibility training refers to developing a wide range of movement in a joint or series of joints that is attainable in a momentary effort with the help of a partner or a piece of equipment (Honeybourne 2005). An athlete can use a variety of stretching exercises involving static, passive, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) and active stretching.

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Beashel and Taylor (1996) narrate that Periodization is the method of organising the training year into phases where each phase has its specific aims for the development of the athlete. Fountain and Goodwin (2002) concur that periodization is the attempt to categorise universal history or divide time into named blocks. The result is descriptive abstractions that provide convenient terms for periods of time with relatively stable characteristics. However, determining the precise beginning and ending to any period is often arbitrary. Periodization is most widely used in resistance programme design to avoid over training and to systematically alternate high loads of training with decreased loading phases to improve components of muscular fitness like strength, speed-strength and strength-endurance. A most important aspect of periodization training is the planning of the recovery (Dick 2007). The use of repetition zones are most useful in this design as the different loads may challenge different muscle fibre types. The key aspects of periodization include creativity, strategic planning and exploitation of recovery.

The principles of training provide guidance for the development of an effective training program (Beashel and Taylor 1996). The following are some of the principles; specificity, overload, progression, diminishing returns, variation, reversibility, individual difference and moderation principle. Honeybourne (2005) notes that the specificity principle asserts that the best way to develop physical fitness for your sport is to train the energy systems and muscles as closely as possible to the way they are used in your sport. Thus, the best way to train for running is to run, for swimming is to swim and for weight lifting is to lift. To improve their fitness levels, athletes must do more than what their bodies are used to doing (Pangirazi and Dauer 1995). When more is demanded, with reason, the body adapts to the increased demand. One can apply overload in duration, intensity or both.

Kenney et al (2012) propound that when unfit athletes begin a training regime, their fitness levels improve rapidly, but as they become fitter, diminishing returns principle becomes law. That is, as athletes become fitter, the amount of improvement is less as they approach their genetic limits. A corollary to this principle is that as fitness levels increase, more work or training is needed to make the same gains (Bizley 2009). When designing a training programme, it should be noted that fitness levels will not continue to improve at the same rate as athletes become fitter.

After athletes have trained for several days, they should train lightly to give their bodies a chance to recover in the gym (Dick 2007). Over the course of the year, training cycles

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(periodization) can be used to vary the intensity and volume of training to help athletes to achieve peak levels of fitness for competition. Weinberg and Gould (2007) say that when athletes stop training, their hard-won fitness gains disappear, usually faster than they were gained. Honeybourne (2005) concur that the actual rate of decline depends on the length of the training period before detraining and the specific muscle group. Training benefits are lost if training is either discontinued or reduced abruptly (Kenney et al 2012). Every athlete is different and responds differently to the same training activities. Honeybourne et al (1996) narrate that the value of training depends in part on the athlete’s maturation. Kenney et al (2012) says that before puberty, training is less effective than after puberty. Other factors that affect how athletes respond to training include their pretraining condition; genetic predisposition; gender and race; diet and sleep; environmental factors such as heat, cold and humidity; and of course motivation. It is essential to individualize training as much as possible.

Bizley (2009) says that training programs in athletics can be put in cycles depending on the objectives of training. They are what are called microcycles, mesocycles and macrocycles. A microcycle is typically a week because of the difficulty in developing a training plan that does not align itself with the weekly calendar. Each microcycle is planned based on where it is in the overall macrocycle. According to Carr (1991), a micro cycle is a weekly training plan and could last up to four weeks. As for mesocycles, they last for approximately two to six weeks. Kenney et al (2012) are of the opinion that a mesocycle represents a phase of training with a duration of between two to six weeks or microcycles, but this can depend on the sporting discipline. A macrocycle refers to an annual plan that works towards peaking for the goal competition of the year. They contribute an entire training year, but may also be a period of many months up to few years. Dick (2007) emphasizes that when planning for a macrocycle, the following factors like the structure of load for macrocycles, the number of training available in the macrocycle, and the athlete’s evaluation of the effects of the training unit should be considered.

2.2.3.1 Warm-Up

Warming-up is performed before a performance or practice. A warm up generally consists of a gradual increase in intensity in physical activity, joint mobility exercise and stretching, followed by the activity (Bizley 2009). Currie (2000) is of the opinion that a warm-up period should be the first part of every training session or preparation for competition as it raises

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body temperature, increases metabolic rate and prepares the muscles and nervous system for exercise. Before running or playing an intense sport, the athlete might slowly jog to warm muscles and increase heart rate. Warm ups should be specific to the activity so that the muscles to be used are activated.

2.2.3.2 Cool-Down

The practice of cooling down after exercise means slowing down the level of activity gradually. Kenney et al (2012) propound that the cool down gradually reduces the body temperature and heart rate and speeds the recovery process before the next training session or competitive experience. Cooling down helps avoid fainting or dizziness, which can result from blood pooling in the large muscles of the legs when vigorous activity is stopped suddenly. It also helps the heart rate and breathing to return towards resting levels gradually. Bizley (2009) says that the best time to stretch is during cool-down as this time muscles would be still warm and most likely to respond favorably and there is a low risk of injury. Stretching helps to relax muscles and restore them to their resting length and improve flexibility of joints. Kenney et al (2012) narrate that athletes should be monitored closely during stretching exercises to make sure they are doing them properly on cool down.

2.2.4 Effects of Attitude on Performance

Ackinpelu (1995) notes that an attitude is an expression of favor or disfavor towards a person, place, thing or event. Attitude can be formed from a person’s past and present. An attitude can be positive or negative evaluation of people, objects, events, activities and ideas. It could be concrete, abstract or just about anything in one’s environment.

2.2.4.1 Effects of Athletes’ Attitude on Performance

The athletes should have mental imagery. Currie (2000) advocates that mental imagery involves the athlete imagining themselves in an environment performing a specific activity using all of their senses like sight, hear, feel and smell. The images should have the athlete performing successfully and feeling satisfied with their performance. Mental imagery can be used to familiarize the athlete with a competition site, a race course, a complex play pattern or routine. It can also be used to motivate the athlete by recalling images of their goals for that session, or of success in a past competition or beating a competitor in competition. Another reason can be reducing negative thoughts by focusing on positive outcomes.

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Athletes should however not under estimate the demands of the task. It is important to perform well and condition positive emotions, but it is also important not to create a false scenario that under represents how difficult the task will be. The greater the clarity of the imaginary and the extent to which this accurately replicates the demands of peak performance, the greater its performance benefits will be. Once these images have been developed, the athlete should incorporate imaginary into his or her training programme and not just save it for use in competition. The more often the athlete performs imaginary, the greater the stimulated exposure to the stresses of competition.

According to Weinberg and Gould (2007), adolescents experience a high level of mental disorders, yet tend not to seek help. Athletes may have less positive attitudes towards seeking help from a coach or sport psychologist. There are four major types of negative thinking. These are filtering, personalizing, catastrophising and polarizing. Filtering refers to psychologically screening out the encouraging aspects of complex scenarios. Personalizing means automatically blaming yourself every time something bad happens. Catastrophising is expecting the worst possible outcome in any situation, and polarizing is a type of black and white thinking that defines failure as any result short of perfection.

2.2.4.2 Effects of Parents’ Attitude on Performance

Fountain and Goodwin (2002) narrate that the influence of parents or guardians in their children’s participation in sport and physical activity can be significant. Sporting parents; those who support their child’s sport participation, can potentially offer encouragement and support, that is financially, practical and psychological, that helps to initiate and then sustain a child’s participation.

However, gender segregation continues to exist in many activity and occupational domains (Currie 2000). The girl child is expected to do all domestic duties like washing clothes, plates, cleaning the house and cooking, just to mention a few. The girl child is also expected to be home before sunset. Parents also view girls who participate in sports as prostitutes. This reduces the number of female athletes who take part in sports.

2.2.4.3 Effects of Institution’s Attitude on Performance

Beashel and Taylor (1996) say that institutions provide athletes with competitive opportunities to develop their athletic skills at a very high level. Schools offer assistance to athletes through provision of tangible and intangible services. Tangible services are those ~ 21 ~

services which can be seen. They include training grounds (track and field), equipment (hammer, vaulting poles, high jump poles, crossing bar, javelin sticks and discuss accessories, just to mention a few), kit (spikes, track suits, socks, tackies, bags and vests), food and transport. Intangible services include coaching knowledge, provision of psychologists and nutritionists. These enable athletes to train at ease because of full support. The Institution therefore provides athletes with competitive opportunities to develop their athletic skills. Institutions are developmental platforms for amateur international competition and professional sports leagues. Schools can also provide athletic scholarships to student- athletes with an opportunity to pursue post secondary education that they may not have had otherwise.

Pangirazi and Dauer (1995) are of the opinion that Physical Education and athletic programs strive to achieve a higher level of excellence. Schools however, have different policies regarding sporting activities and specifically, students are academically admitted to schools. This suffices to say that education is the focal point of many schools. Negative attitude by institutions hinder the performance. Currie (2000) says that negative perspective towards sport includes failing to adhere to time table with regard to Physical Education lessons, sacrificing study at the expense of co curricular activities so as to improve the academic percentage pass rate, just to mention a few.

2.2.4.4 Lack of Motivation of Girl Athletes

Motivation is that which causes people to act. Ackinpelu (1995) propounds that motivation is the force that determines how much effort an individual puts into his or her learning. It may be external, as when people are forced by someone to act in a particular way. Haralambos and Holborn (1995) says that motivation can be internal, as when we want to do something out of a sense of need or enjoyment. Ackinpelu (1995) is of the opinion that there must be sufficient motivation in the form of attractiveness incentives to captivate athletes’ interest to participate in sports or games. The engines of human motivation are interest and desire. When these are working at full power in an individual, remarkable feats of learning can be achieved. Haralambos and Holborn (1995) advocate that motivation is constantly reported as being the key element to sporting success and as the key element of the persistence of the person performing the exercise within the very area of exercise itself. It is therefore the parents or school’s interest to take the trouble to see that the athlete’s interest and appropriate desires are aroused before trying to coach them.

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2.2.5 Lack of Good Financial Management

Another area to be looked at is financial management. Camy and Robinson (2007) viewed financial management as the monitoring and communicating of an organization’s cash flow prudently and in accordance with the law. In financial management, the organization needs to understand its source of income so that they can come up with a proper budget. They also need to understand the distribution of resources and the area of focus.

Budgeting is another aspect that needs to be done properly. Honeybourne et al (1996) pointed out that budgeting is the process by which the organization agrees upon the cost distribution of its programs. There are different types of budgets namely; annual, project and capital budgets. Annual budget is composed of several project budget plus the overheard of running the organization. It includes income, expenditure and the net sum calculated from the two. Project budget allows a given amount of financial resources towards the achievement of a stated organizational objective. These budgets are broken into two sections, income and expenditure which each comprise a variety of budget size corresponding to cost items. Capital budget is when one needs to spend more substantial funds, a capital budget for a certain period of time such as 4year period to annual review, can be used. Organizations such as school need to have a proper budget so that they plan in accordance to their cash follow.

2.3 Summary

The literature review gave a deeper understanding of athletics. A brief history of athletics was given. Also, factors affecting performance in athletics were well defined and explained. Some of them are attitude on performance, training and performance, diet and performance and equipment and facilities.

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CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter is going to identify and highlight research methods the researcher used in carrying out the research. This chapter will discuss on research design, target population, sample, sampling procedures, research instruments to be used, data collection procedures and data analysis procedures.

3.1 The Research Design

Mpofu (1995) narrates that research design is a detailed outline of how an investigation will take place. Jacqueline (1999) propound that a research design includes how data is to be collected, what instruments will be employed and how they will be used and the intended means for analysing data collected. The design of a study defines the study type and sub-type, if applicable, data collection methods and a statistical analysis plan (Ackinpelu 1995). In carrying out this study, the researcher used the descriptive survey method of collecting data and information. Best and Kahn (1993) say that the descriptive survey method is a method of research which describes what we see. The word survey means “to see over and beyond”. The descriptive survey is based on the belief that people learn by observing and describing what they have seen and learnt .The method believes that observations are not merely seeing with naked eyes, but these involve hearing, seeing, recoding and discussing. Ackinpelu (1995) argues that a survey gathers data at a particular point in tune with the intention of describing the nature of the existing conditions. To ensure validity of results in a descriptive survey, the sample must be representative enough. Representativeness is as the population from which it is selected.

The descriptive survey is probably the best method which is available to use in collecting original data. Surveys are also excellent vehicles for measurement of attitudes and orientation prevalent in large population and observation. Standardized questionnaires and interviews provide the means of observing prevailing attitudes among a large population. The purpose of this study was focused on sampled athletes, heads and coaches to bring out the causes of poor performance in Athletics by girls in Dzivarasekwa Cluster Primary Schools. The descriptive survey sounds like the most suitable research methodology because it was easy to use as compared to methods such as the experimental. Moreover, it was very cheap to ~ 24 ~

administer when working with any size of respondents. Also data collected using this method of study was very easy to present, analyze and interpret.

3.2 The Population

Best and Kahn (1993) view population as any group of individuals that have one or more characteristics in common that are of interest to the researcher. Haralambos and Holborn (1995) say that a population is any complete group with at least one characteristic in common. In this study, the population comprised of headmasters, coaches and athletes from Dzivarasekwa Cluster of Primary Schools.

3.3 The Sample

When collecting and analysing data, it was not possible to use the whole population, hence the use of samples. Akinpelu (1995) is of the opinion that a sample is a subset of a population that is used to represent the entire group as a whole. According to Mpofu (1995), a sample is part or representation of the population under study. This representation is selected so that inference about the population can be made and can be drawn from it. The sample represented a subset of manageable size. Samples were collected and statistics were calculated from the samples so that one can make inferences or extrapolations from the sample to the population. The sample in this study included five (5) school heads, five coaches and fifty girl athletes from five Primary Schools which represented 55.6% of Primary Schools in Dzivarasekwa Cluster. Ackinpelu (1995) propounds that the sample size used in a study is determined based on the expense of data collection, and the need to have sufficient statistical power. Best and Kahn (1993) advise that the minimum sample size is thirty (30. The researcher opted to use sixty (60) respondents because the researcher wanted to have every school in the cluster to be fully represented and the number of the respondents was manageable. The Lottery method was used to select the ten (10) girl athletes, one (1) Head coach and five (5) School Heads from the nine (9) Primary Schools in the Cluster. Best and Kahn (1993) narrate that the lottery method is whereby each member or item of the population at hand is assigned a unique number.

3.4 Sampling Procedures

Several methods can be used to select samples which are satisfactorily representative. Best and Kahn (1993) explains sampling as a way of selecting a small proportion of the population for observation and analysis. The researcher used the probability sampling method to select ~ 25 ~

the five schools. Ackinpelu (1995) advises that probability methods include random sampling, systematic sampling and stratified sampling. Nine (9) schools had their names written on cards and their names put in a box container with the first five (5) picked schools automatically qualifying. From the sampled schools, all Heads of Schools were interviewed as part of the sample. From the forty five (45) athletics coaches in the Cluster, five (5) Head coaches from the sampled schools were interviewed. The stratified random sampling was used to obtain the sample on athletes from four thousand eight hundred and seventy six (4876) girls in the Cluster. Twenty seven (27) girl athletes who represented their schools at Cluster competitions between eleven (11) and thirteen (13) years of age from the five (5) sampled Primary Schools in Dzivarasekwa Cluster had an equal chance of being selected using the stratified random sampling method. In order to be successful in this sampling for athletes, the researcher made twenty seven (27) cards, equal in amount with the size of the population. Ten of them were written ‘YES’ for every School and seventeen (17) were written ‘NO’. Athletes then picked cards at random from the box. Those with cards written ‘YES’ qualified for the research. The exercise was carried out at each of the five schools that constituted the sample to get ten girl athletes from each of the five schools.

3.5 Research Instruments

The researcher used two types of research tools namely questionnaires and interview guide. The questionnaire was used for girl athletes and the interview guide for athletics coaches and heads of schools. By definition, a research instrument is a device used to obtain data that helps the researcher to provide answers to the research questions (Best and Kahn 1993).

3.5.1 Questionnaire

Ackinpelu (1995) says that a questionnaire is a set of printed or written questions with a choice of answers, devised for the purposes of a survey or statistical study. Best and Kahn (1993) define a questionnaire as a means of eliciting the feelings, beliefs, experiences, perceptions or attitudes of some sample of individuals. As a data collecting instrument, it contains structured and unstructured items. The researcher prepared simple questions that matched the ages of the respondents and that most of the questionnaire items were called. The questionnaire had forty nine (49) questions and ten (10) follow up questions. Of these, fifty six (56) were open ended and three (3) were closed questions. The questionnaire had five (5) sections as follows; section A- biographical information of athletes, section B – effects of

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attitude on performance, section C – effects of facilities and equipment on performance, section D – effects of diet on performance and section E – effects of training on performance.

3.5.1.1 Advantages of Using Questionnaires

Best and Kahn (1993) state that questionnaires are easy to design and administer .The researcher saw questionnaires as very versatile instruments in that they were applicable to any social topic which could be covered in a single session. Large amount of information was collected from a large number of people in a short period of time. The results of the questionnaires was quickly and easily quantified by the researcher. Another advantage is that all sub questions were catered for in the questionnaire. The questionnaire proved to be economic in terms of money and time. In dealing with literate people like pupils, the questionnaire did not require any verbal interaction. This facilitated obtaining honest responses.

3.5.1.2 Disadvantages of Using Questionnaires

The use of a questionnaire has fair share of disadvantages despite the fact that they are good fact finding instruments. Ackinpelu (1995) narrates that quantitative research is simply an artificial creation by the researcher, as it is asking only a limited amount of information without explanation. There is no way of telling how truthful a respondent is being, or how much thought a respondent has put in. Haralambos and Holborn (1995) say that people may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on their own interpretation of the question. The researcher noted that the questionnaires lacked depth and could not probe further meaning from statements. Questionnaires did not give room for further probing (seeking clarity and expansion). Some respondents hurriedly answered the questions as a way of getting rid of the questionnaires. However the use of interviews covered up where the questionnaires fall short.

3.5.1.3 Reliability and Validity of Questionnaires

Development of a valid and reliable questionnaire involves several steps taking considerable time. Reliability of research instruments according to Robbins (1995) refers to the sustainability and accuracy of the prepared questions. What this entails is that the same questionnaires can be used with any subject and still get the results. In this research, the questionnaires were consistent with the level of the respondents. The questionnaires were

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free of errors and the language used was suitable to the level of the respondents. The questionnaires for athletes were simple and guided.

3.5.1.4 Pilot Study

The questionnaire was pilot tested with schools outside Dzivarasekwa Cluster. Ackinpelu (1995) says that a pilot study is a small preliminary study conducted in order to evaluate feasibility, time cost, adverse events and effect size (statistical variability) in an attempt to predict an appropriate sample size and improve upon the study design prior to performance of a full scale research project. The purpose of the pilot study was to assess the friendliness of the questionnaire to the athletes in correcting ambiguous questions. The questionnaire was refined after pilot testing to address issues of ambiguity. Thereafter, the questionnaire was then taken for implementation in Dzivarasekwa Cluster of Primary Schools.

3.5.2 The Interview

The researcher used the interview method on the research to compliment the questionnaires. The interview was used to verify the information from questionnaires distributed to girl athletes. Mpofu (1995) clearly stated that questionnaires and interviews techniques are closely knit. The questions on questionnaires were used in interviews. The Semi-structured interview technique was used and where responses were not clear, the researcher probed the interviewee to obtain more information.

3.5.2.1 Advantages of Interview Guide

An important advantage of research interviews is their adaptability. Mpofu (1995) narrates that a skilled interviewer can (to varying degrees, depending on the type and purpose of an interview) follow up the thoughts, feelings and ideas behind the responses given, in a way that questionnaire completion cannot capture. Having got access to a person to interview, the researcher was guaranteed some sort of response. Responses to interview question was clarified and expanded on the spot. Jacqueline (1999) notes that less structured and in-depth interviews allow for more exploration and understanding of responses. More open and honest answers were forthcoming during interviews. (Akinpelu 1995). Interviews were generally easier to analyse than in-depth and unstructured interviews.

3.5.2.2 Disadvantages of Interview Guide

As with the advantages of conducting research interviews, disadvantages vary with the type ~ 28 ~

of interview (Best and Kahn 1993). Interviews proved to be time consuming in getting the responses as well as recording of facts. Data obtained may not be reliable as there was no time to refer to documentation in the event of other questions which required responses from texts. Some respondents as classroom practitioners were disturbed for their lessons. Other respondents took their time from classrooms to be interviewed. At some schools, information was received from the Deputy Heads as School Heads were committed with other duties.

3.6 Data Collection Procedures

The research data was collected through questionnaires and interviews in the month of March 2015. The researcher visited all the schools to distribute the questionnaires and conduct interviews with Head Coaches in athletics and Heads of Schools. The whole exercise of interviews took five (5) days. The questionnaires responses were distributed and collected on the same day and the researcher guided respondents in answering any perceived ambiguous questions.

3.6.1 Data Analysis Procedure

The data was presented quantitatively and qualitatively in tables, pie chart and graphs. Qualitative descriptions have advantages of clearly describing the data and information which is very important in research. The researcher used tables to summarize the data and gave the reader statistical picture of the research findings. The tables provided the reader with a statistical picture of opinions collected by the researcher from respondents. These were interpreted and analyzed to see the causes of poor performance in athletics by girls in Dzivarasekwa Cluster Primary Schools.

3.7 Summary

This chapter looked at research methodology. The chapter discussed the research design and justified the use of the design .The population sampled was also discussed, including its size and representation. The chapter went on to look at the study sample and the sampling procedure. The research looked at the research instruments to be used namely the questionnaire and the interview. The advantages and disadvantages of each method were highlighted. The data presentation plan and presentation procedure were also discussed.

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CHAPTER 4

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

4.0 Introduction

Data was gathered through the use of questionnaires and interviews. The study focused on the following research problems:

 The attitude of girls towards athletics.

 The attitude of parents and schools towards athletics.

 The effects of equipment and facilities on performance of girls in athletics.

 The effects of diet on performance of girls in athletics.

 The influence of training on performance of girls in athletics.

The findings will be presented in the form of tables, bar graphs, lines, histograms and pie charts.

4.1 Biographical Information of Respondents

4.1.1 Age

Table 4:1 Age of Respondents

(N= 50)

Age Range Number Percentage (%) 10 10 20 11 06 12 12 20 40 13 14 28 Total 50 100

The results in table 1 show that most of the respondents (40%) were aged 12 years.

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4.1.2 Grade Level

(N= 50)

Figure 4:1 - Grade level

The results in figure1 indicate that most of the respondents (44%) are doing Grade 6 and the least respondents (6%) are doing Grade 5. Other respondents are Grade 4 (12%) and Grade 7 (38%).

4.1.3 Number of Children in Family

(N= 50)

Figure 4:2 – Number of children in family ~ 31 ~

Figure 2 above shows that most of the respondents (34%) are three (3) in their family with the least respondents (4%) being seven (7) in their family. Other respondents are five (5) family members (8%), six (6) family members (8%), one (1) family member (12%), two (2) family members (16%) and four (4) family members (18%).

4.1.4 Position of Children in Family

(N= 50)

Figure 4:3 – Position of children in family

Figure 3 above shows that most of the respondents (46%) are the eldest children in their families with the least respondents (2%) being sixth and seventh respectively in their families. There were no respondents who are fifth placed in their families and others are fourth (6%), second (20%) and third (24%).

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4.1.5 Parent or Guardian for Athletes

(N= 50)

Figure 4:4 – Parent or guardian for athletes

Figure 4 shows that most of the respondents (70%) live with both parents. The least respondents (14%) live with other guardians (brother, aunt, grandfather and grandmother) and 16% live with one parent.

4.2 Attitude of Girls Towards Athletics

4.2.1 Interest in Athletics

(N= 50)

Key

Figure 4:5 – Interest in athletics

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Figure 5 above indicates that most respondents (96%) enjoy athletics and the least respondents (4%) do not enjoy taking part in athletics. This was supported by five Head Coaches who said that their athletes have the passion for athletics.

4.2.2 Punctuality for Training in Athletics

(N=50)

Figure 4:6 – Punctuality for training in athletics

Figure 6 shows that most respondents (90%) come early for training and the remainder (10%) sometimes report late for training. None of the respondents come late for training. One head coach concurred that, “Generally, most of our athletes come early for athletics training sessions”. Three other head coaches for athletics averred that their athletes are punctual for training. However, this differed with one head coach who said that athletes struggle to come early for athletics especially the Grade seven athletes because of academic studies. This could have been the contributing factor for poor performance in athletics.

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4.2.3 Favorite Athletics Event

(N= 50)

Figure 4:7 – Favorite athletics event

Figure 7 above sought to analyze favorite athletics events for respondents. Most respondents (29%) have interest in 100m event and the least respondents (2%) prefer 1500m event. The other respondents are as follows; 200m (19%), 4x100m (13%), 400m (12%), 4x200m (11%), field events (shot put, discus, javelin, high jump and long jump 8%) and 800m (6%), All the Head Coaches interviewed said that athletes favor short sprints than field and long events. This could be a contributing factor to poor performance because long events and field events have more points than short sprints.

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4.3 Attitude of Parents and Schools Towards Athletics

4.3.1 Timetabling of Athletics at School

(N= 50)

Figure 4:8 – Timetabling of athletics at schools

Figure 8 above sought to analyze schools which have time table for athletics. Most respondents (84%) said that their schools have athletics time table with the least respondents (16%) saying that their schools do not have athletics timetable. This then contradict with all the Head Coaches of Athletics and Headmasters who said that they support athletics programmes by sticking to the afternoon athletics training sessions.

4.3.1.1 Time Table for Athletics

Key

Figure 4:9 – Timetable for athletics

Of the 84% who said athletics is timetabled at their Schools, most of the respondents (52%) train for athletics between 1400hrs and 1600hrs. The least respondents (3%) practice between 1300hrs and 1500hrs with the remainder being as follows, 1230hrs-1400hrs (19%), 1300hrs1400hrs (14%) and 1400hrs-1500hrs (12%). All the Head Coaches and Headmasters interviewed said that their athletes train between 1400hrs and 1600hrs.

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4.3.2 Awarding Outstanding Athletes

(N= 50)

Figure 4:10 – Awarding outstanding athletes

This research question sought to analyze if outstanding athletes were being awarded prizes. The findings on figure 10 above indicate that most respondents (62%) were being awarded prizes for outstanding performances in athletics while the remaining 32% were not being awarded for excelling in competitions. Most of the Head Coaches and Headmaster (80%) agreed that they incentivize excelling athletes through provision of tracksuits, shorts, t-shirts and payment of one term school fees. The other 20% said that they do not incentivize outstanding athletes. Ackinpelu (1995) notes that, “There must be sufficient motivation in the form of attractive incentives to captivate athletes’ interest to participate in sports or games”. If athletes are not motivated, they could struggle to perform up to the maximum level, thereby contributing to poor performance.

4.3.3 Support for Sporting Disciplines

(N= 50)

Figure 4:11 – Funding of sporting disciplines

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The question sought to identify sporting disciplines which get funding from the School. Figure 11 reflects that athletics (25%) is the most funded sporting discipline and Cricket (4%) is the least funded sport code. Others are as follows, Handball (6%), Volleyball (10%), Girls Soccer (17%), Boys Soccer (18%) and Netball (20%). Of the interviewed Headmasters and Head Coaches 90% of them averred that athletics is well funded financially. One Head Coach differed with others by saying that, “There is no budget for athletics, we just get assistance when we want to go for competitions”.

4.3.4 Parents or Guardians Who Allow Girls to Take Part in Athletics

(N=50)

Figure 4:12 – Parents or guardians who allow girls to take part in athletics

The question sought to identify parents or guardians who allow girls to take part in athletics. Figure 12 above shows that most respondents (96%) are allowed to take part in athletics with the other 4% being denied access to participation in athletics by their parents or guardians. One Head Coach said that, “Grade Seven (7) pupils are denied access to participation in sports by their parents for academic reasons so as to achieve better pass rate by the end of the year”. This therefore could have an effect on poor performance by girls in Dzivarasekwa Cluster Primary Schools.

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4.3.5 Family Members Who Watch Athletes Train or Compete

(N= 50)

Figure 4;13 – Family members who watch athletes training or competing

This question sought to identify family members who watch girl athletes train or compete. As indicated on figure 13 above, most respondents (56%) had their family members watching them when practicing or competing with the remaining 44% not getting support from parents or guardians. Fountain and Goodwin (2002) say that, “The influence of parents or guardians in their children’s participation in sport and physical activity can be significant”. However, one Headmaster interviewed said that, “Parents do not come to watch athletes during training sessions, they only watch them when competing and not all of them come because of various circumstances beyond their own control”. Athletes could be motivated through their relatives’ presence during training or competitions.

4.3.5.1 Relatives Who Watch Athletes Participating

~ 39 ~

Figure 4:14 – Relatives who watch athletes participating

For those who had their relatives watching them training or competing (56%), most respondents (35%) said that their mothers watch them training or competing and the least respondents (3%) said that their cousins watch them practicing or competing. Other responses are sister (28%), father (16%), grandmother (6%), grandfather (6%) and brother (6%). Motivation is constantly reported as being the key element to sporting success and as the key element of the persistence of the person performing the exercise within the very area of exercise itself (Ackinpelu 1995). Failing to watch kids training or participating could be a sign of lack of motivation by guardians which can go on to contribute to poor performance.

4.3.5.2 Frequency of Watching Athletes Training or Competing

Key

Figure 4:15 – Frequency of watching athletics

Figure 15 above reflected the frequency of parents or guardians who watch athletes train or compete in athletics with most respondents (75%) having their relatives watching them at competitions only. The least respondents (4%) said that relatives watch them five times per week and other respondents are four times (7%) and once a week (14%). 50% of the Head Coaches and Headmasters concurred that parents and guardians watch athletes participating at competitions. The other 50% said that guardians do not attend or watch athletes participating. Athletes’ poor performance could be as a result of lack of support by guardians.

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4.3.6 Nature Of Sporting Assistance From Parents or Guardians

(N= 50)

Figure 4:16 – Sporting assistance from guardians

This question sought to identify the sporting assistance which respondents get from their guardians. Most respondents (35%) got running shorts and shirts from their parents or guardians, the least respondents (6%) received running spikes and socks with other respondents being sport tackies and tracksuit (7%), t-shirts and gym skirts (13%), money (25%) and 14% do not get any sporting assistance from relatives. Most Headmasters and Head Coaches (70%) interviewed said that guardians struggle to give sporting assistance to athletes and the least respondents (30%) concurred that athletes are being supported financially by their parents or guardians. Lack of sporting assistance could therefore lead to poor performance.

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4.3.7 Staff Members Who Watch Athletes Training

(N= 50)

Figure 4:17 – Staff members who watch athletes training

The question sought to establish staff members who watch athletes training. Most respondents (37%) indicated that the Deputy Heads watch athletes training with the least respondents (1%) indicating that the Bursars watch them training. Other respondents are Senior Teachers (6%), Sports Directors (9%), Teachers In Charge (16%) and Headmasters/ Headmistresses (31%). Two Headmasters said that the nature of their duties restricted them from watching athletes train. Failing to attend to athletics sessions results in administrators having no knowledge about the situation at the ground which may be a contributing factor to poor performance because of inadequate preparations and support.

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4.4 Effects of Equipment and Facilities on Performance of Girls in Athletics

4.4.1 Availability of Athletics Track at School

(N= 50)

Key

Figure 4:18 – Availability of athletics track(s)

Figure 18 above sought to identify the availability of athletics track(s) at schools. Most respondents (54%) indicated that there are no athletics track(s) at their schools and 46% acknowledged that there are athletics track at their Schools. Kenney et al (2012) supported the fact that lack of facilities and standard equipment affects the proper teaching of physical education and performance. However, 90% of the Headmasters and Head Coaches interviewed acknowledged that they have at least one athletics track at their schools. Athletes’ demands differ. Some are for middle distance with others participating for short sprints, relays and field events respectively. Insufficient facilities could result in poor performance as athletes would need to give one another a chance to train for a specific event.

4.4.1.1 Number of Athletics Track(s)

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Figure 4:19 – Number of athletics track(s)

Of the 46% who said that they have athletics track at their schools illustrated on figure 19 above, 65% of them said that they have 1 athletics track with the least respondents (4%) indicating that they have 3 athletics tracks. Others were 2 tracks (9%) and 4 tracks (22%). Dick (2007) narrates that, “Facilities are absolutely vital to sustaining the current level of activity”. Insufficient athletics track(s) results in athletes failing to get enough time to practice as there are many track and field events for three (3) different age groups which need to be catered for during every training session.

4.4.1.2 Track Markings

Figure 4:20 – Track markings

Figure 20 above establish athletics track markings at schools. Most responses from the 46% above who said that they have athletics track at their Schools, (38%) acknowledged that the track has 100m starting point and the least respondents (2%) reflected that there are lane dimensions and relay change over zones on athletics tracks. Other respondents include lane demarcations (3%), finishing point (12%), 400m starting point (21%) and 200m starting point (22%). Fountain and Goodwin (2002) advocate that, “The standard athletics track is built to International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF) standard, with a 10-lane 100 m straight, comprehensive field event facilities including a hammer and discus cage, and necessary attachments for disability field events”. Siedentop (1991) says that, “Facilities provide the environment where success can be shared and enjoyed by existing participants, supporters and spectators alike”. Lack of track markings result in athletes being disqualified

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during competitions as they are not used to follow their lanes especially on curves, thereby blowing away precious points leading to poor performance.

4.4.1.3 Availability of Standard Athletics Track

Key

Figure 4:21 – Availability of standard athletics track

Of the 46% who said they have athletics track at their schools, the majority of them (83%) said that the track is standard with 17% saying that the track is not up to the required standard. This differs with the Head Coaches as one of them said that, “We have standard athletics track at our school”. However, training on substandard athletics tracks results in athletes being tired before they complete their events on competitions as a result of being conditioned to substandard tracks.

4.4.2 Facilities at Schools

(N= 50 )

~ 45 ~

Figure 4:22 – Athletics facilities at schools

The above question investigated athletics facilities at schools. Most respondents (36%) indicated that their schools have high jump mats with other responses being long jump pit and runways (30%), shot put circles (11%), javelin runways and sectors (11%), triple jump pit and runways (3%) and change rooms (1%). All Headmasters and Head Coaches interviewed agreed that they have high jump mats. However, 70% of them said that they do not have other facilities like long jump pit, long jump runways, triple jump pit, triple jump runways, javelin runways, shot put circles and javelin sectors. Fountain and Goodwin (2002) are of the opinion that, “…. comprehensive field event facilities include a hammer and discus cage, and necessary attachments for disability field events”. Siedentop (1991) advises that, “Facilities provide the environment where success can be shared and enjoyed by excisting participants….”. If facilities for field events are insufficient or inadequate, athletes would not get proper training, leading to poor performance when competing as field events constitute more points than sprints.

4.4.3 Athletics Equipment at Schools

(N= 50)

~ 46 ~

Figure 4:23 – Athletics equipment at schools

Figure 23 above narrate athletics equipment found at schools. Most respondents (19%) indicated that they have high jump bars and the least respondents (1%) have running spikes. Other responses were starting blocks (2%), starter gun (6%), discus (12%), running jerseys (14%), shot put and javelin stick (15%) respectively and running shorts (16%). One head coach interviewed has this to say, “Our school has running jerseys, running shorts and shot put”. Siedentop (1991) narrates that, “Players must make necessary relationship with equipment and all activities associated with training to increasing the player’s creative thinking in athletics”. However, according to Guttman (1996), “Bad and default equipment can cause sports injuries like sprains, strains, twisted ankles, dislocations and fractures”. Athletes only use equipment like discus, javelin stick and starter gun on competition day, making it difficult for them to perform well as they would not be used to new equipment. This reduces the chances of maximum participation by athletes.

4.4.4 Improvisation of Sporting Equipment

(N= 50)

~ 47 ~

Key

Figure 4:24 – Improvisation of sporting equipment

The research question sought to analyze how athletes train without recommended sporting equipment in athletics. Figure 24 above show that most respondents (44%) practice with bare foot and the least respondents (4%) show that coaches use a whistle instead of a starter gun. Other responses were as follows, 14% do not practice events like discus, javelin and shot put because of absence of equipment, 18% use t-shirts instead of running jerseys and 20% use boxer shorts instead of running shorts. Guttmann (1996) propound that, “Absence of proper sporting facilities and equipment hinder the performance of athletics”. All the interviewed Headmasters and Head Coaches said that their athletes train bare footed. This could result in athletes being injured while competing, thereby contributing to poor performance.

4.4.5 Athletes Who Experienced Sporting Injuries in Athletics

(N= 50)

Key

~ 48 ~

Figure 4:25 – Athletes who experienced sporting injuries in athletics

This question sought to identify girl athletes who experienced sporting injuries in athletics. Figure 25 above shows that most respondents (86%) have never been injured while participating in athletics and the least respondents (14%) have been injured while participating in athletics. Rao (2006) acknowledges that, “A pitch which is not watered can twist the ankle of athletes when doing high jump on the fosbury flop technique”. Of the 14% who were injured in athletics, all of them dislocated their legs. Most respondents (85%) from the dislocated athletes said the cause for injuries were poor athletics track and the remaining 15% aired running with bare foot as a major cause of sporting injuries. Guttmann (1996) narrates that, “Bad and default equipment can also cause sports injuries like sprains, strains, twisted ankles, dislocations and fractures”. Ill-maintained or damaged equipment could pose a risk of severe injury to athletes during training or competition and influence to poor performance.

4.5 Effects of Diet on Performance of Girls in Athletics

4.5.1 Breakfast Consumed By Athletes

(N= 50)

~ 49 ~

Figure 4:26 – Breakfast consumed by athletes

This question sought to identify breakfast consumed by athletes before going to school. Most responses (40%) showed that they take tea, bread, groundnuts and fresh chips before they go to school and the least responses came from sadza and vegetables (7%). Other responses include sadza and meat (15%) and porridge/cereals (38%). Kenney et al (2012) advocate that, “A person’s diet should contain a relative balance of carbohydrate, fat and protein”. Although all foods can be broken down to carbohydrate, fat or protein, these nutrients are not all that the body needs in terms of the health related fitness of an athlete.

4.5.2 Athletes’ Lunch

Figure 4:27

(N= 50)

~ 50 ~

Figure 4:27 – Athletes’ lunch

Figure 27 above addressed food usually eaten by athletes during lunch time at school. Most respondents (43%) indicated that they eat rice beef, pork and chicken. The least respondents (25%) take sadza, beef, pork, chicken and fish with the remaining 32% opting Bread, biscuits, drink, tea and mahewu. Fountain and Goodwin (2002) narrate that a balanced diet matches one’s energy needs and give the right mixture of nutrients and fibre. Carbohydrates gives energy to athletes, proteins makes muscles bigger and help an athlete to recover after training.

4.5.3 Supper for Athletes

(N= 50)

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Figure 4:28 – Supper for athletes

Figure 28 above sought to reflect food normally consumed in the evening by athletes at home. Most respondents (19%) eat sadza and vegetables and the least respondents (5%) take sadza and pork and rice and beef. Other responses are rice and beans (7%), rice and chicken (8%), sadza and beef (13%), sadza and fish (13%), sadza and beans (13%), sadza and chicken (17%) and there are no responses for rice and pork. Kenney et al (2012) are of the opinion that, “Glycogen loading by consumption of a diet rich in carbohydrate offers major benefits to performance”. This is as a result of the manipulation of exercise and diet to optimize the body’s glycogen storage.

4.5.4 Food Eaten Three Days Before Competition

~ 52 ~

(N=50)

Food

Figure 4:29 – Food eaten three days before competition

This question sought to investigate food normally taken by athletes three days before competition. Most respondents (15%) take sadza and beef and sadza and chicken respectively and the least respondents (3%) go for sadza and pork. Other responses include rice and beef (4%), sadza and fish (9%), porridge (9%), rice and chicken (9%), sadza and vegetables (10%), tea and bread (13%) and sadza and beans (13%). There were no responses for rice and pork. Kenney et al (2012) narrate that, “Men who ate a carbohydrate-rich diet for three days stored nearly twice their normal amounts of muscle glycogen”. This therefore could help athletes to perform to their maximum capacity during competitions.

4.5.5 Breakfast for Competition Day

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(N= 50)

Figure 4:30 – Breakfast for competition day

Figure 30 above sought to establish food consumed by athletes on the morning of competition day. Most respondents (31%) said that they take porridge, pie and fresh chips with the least respondents (6%) competing without taking food for breakfast. Other responses are tea, drink, biscuits and bread (28%), sadza, rice, beef, fish and chicken (21%) and sadza and vegetables (14%). Kenney et al (2012) are of the opinion that, “Two hours before exercise, the athlete should consume 400 to 600ml of fluid to provide hydration and allow time for excretion of excess ingested water”. All the interviewed Head Coaches and Headmasters said that they give their athletes cascade drink and beef pie in the morning of competition day. This could contribute to poor performance as proteins or meat takes time to be broken down for energy use.

4.5.6 Consumption of Food in Between Events ~ 54 ~

Table 4:2

(N= 50)

Response Number Percentage (%) Yes 11 22 No 39 78 Total 50 100

The question sought to establish consumption of food in between events by respondents. Table 2 above reflects that most respondents (78%) do not take food in between events when competing in athletics and the least respondents (22%) do take food in between events when competing. Rosser (1995) advocates that, “During intense training or competition, isotonic sports drinks, that is those drinks that can assist athletes in rehydrating while balancing electrolytes may be consumed”. Guttmann (1996) narrates that, “During exercise, the athlete should drink enough fluid to keep fluid loses to less than 2% of body weight”. Failing to take water leads to heatstroke and dehydration, thereby contributing to poor performance.

4.5.6.1 Food Consumed in Between Events

Figure 4:31 – Food consumed in between events

Of the 22% who take food in between events, most respondents (47%) take biscuits, cheese, oranges and mazoe crush. The least respondents (18%) go for sadza, rice, chicken, beef and fish with the remaining (35%) going for pie, chips and chicken. This is illustrated on Figure

~ 55 ~

31 above. Guttmann (1996) narrates that, “During exercise, the athlete should drink enough fluid to keep fluid loses to less than 2% of body weight”. All the Headmasters and Head Coaches interviewed said that they give their athletes pies in between events. Pies could take a lot of time to be digested and broken down for use by the body, thereby contributing to poor performance by athletes.

4.5.7 Post Competition Food

(N= 50)

Figure 4:32 – Post competition food

Figure 32 above addressed food eaten by athletes immediately after competing in athletics. Most respondents (81%) indicated that they take pie, chips and chicken after competing and the least respondents (6%) take sadza, rice, chicken and beef. Other responses (13%) consume biscuits, oranges and mazoe crush. Kenney et al (2012) propound that, “After exercise, the athlete should consume adequate fluids to fully replace sweat losses that occurred during exercise”. Rao (2006) advises that, “On post-competition nutrition, athletes under high intensity exercises can use up 200 to 250 grams of carbohydrates during a game”. The above statements were supported by all the Head Coaches and Headmasters interviewed who said that they give their athletes cascade drinks, mineral water and chips and chicken.

4.5.8 Water Consumed Per Day at Home

Table 4:3

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(N= 50)

Response Number Percentage (%) 500ml 11 22 1 ltr 20 40 1,5 ltrs 01 02 2 ltrs 18 36 Total 50 100

As indicated on table 3 above, most respondents (40%) take 1 litre of water per day at home and the least respondents (2%) drink 1,5 litres of water per day at home. Other respondents are 500 millilitres of water per day (22%) and 2 litres of water per day (36%). Kenny et al (2012) say that, “Water provides transportation between and delivery to the body’s various tissues, regulates body temperature, and maintains blood pressure for proper cardiovascular function”. The amount of water taken at home could be relatively low as athletes would have been at rest.

4.5.9 Athletes Who Carry Bottled Water to School

Table 4:4

(N= 50)

Response Number Percentage (%) Yes 27 54 No 23 46 Total 50 100

As indicated on table 4 above, most respondents (54%) carry bottled water to school and the least respondents (46%) do not carry bottled water to school. Kenny et al (2012) advocate that, “Human skin is permeable to water as water diffuses to the skin’ surface, where it evaporates into the environment”. Of the interviewed headmasters and Head Coaches, 50% of them said that they provide athletes with water and the other 50% said that athletes bring their own water to school. Of the 54% who carry bottled water to School, most respondents (45%) carry 500ml and the least respondents (7%) take 3000ml of water to school. Other responses

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are 1litre (11%) and 2 litres (37%). Kenney et al (2012) propound that, “For optimal performance, the body’s water and electrolyte contents should remain relatively constant”. This then means that the intake of water should be equal to the output of water.

4.5.10 Provision of Water During Training Sessions

(N= 50)

Figure 4:33 – Provision of water during training sessions

The question sought to establish schools which provide girl athletes with water during training sessions. As indicated on figure 33 above, most respondents (54%) are provided with water during training sessions with 46% training without water. Of the 54% who are provided with water during training sessions, all of them (100%) are given 500ml of water. Dick (2007) narrates that, “For individuals participating in sports, careful monitoring of water intake to insure they are getting adequate amounts to stay hydrated is imperative”. As the body temperature increases, sweating increases in an effort to prevent overheating which could hinder maximum participation by athletes. If athletes are not given adequate water, it leads to dehydration or heat stroke, thereby contributing to poor performance.

4.6 Influence of Training on Performance of Girls in Athletics

4.6.1 Girl Athletes Who Warm Up Before Training

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Table 4:5

(N= 50)

Response Number Percentage (%) Yes 44 88 No 06 12 Total 50 100

The response question establish respondents who warm up before training in athletics. Most respondents (88%) do warm up activities before training and the remaining 12% train without warming up. This is shown on table 5 above. Currie (2000) advise that, “A warm-up period should be the first part of every training session or preparation for competition as it raises body temperature, increases metabolic rate and prepares the muscles and nervous system for exercise”. Injuries can be caused by practicing without warming up, forcing athletes to participate while limping.

4.6.1.1 Guide for Warm-Up Activity

Figure 4:34 – Guide for warm up activity

Of the 88% who do warm up activities before training in athletics, most respondents (55%) are led by the coach, team captain (38%) and the least responses (7%) by the sports director. The statement contradict with what was said by the Head Coaches as all of them said that they guide their athletes for warm-up activities. Warm-up therefore prepares the tendons, ligaments and the cardiovascular system for upcoming stretches and exercises.

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4.6.2 Cool Down After Training

Table 4:6

(N= 50)

Response Number Percentage (%) Yes 25 50 No 25 50 Total 50 100

As shown on table 6 above, 50% of the respondents do cool down activities after training in athletics with the remaining 50% completing their training session without cooling down. Kenney et al (2012) are of the opinion that, “The cool down gradually reduces the body temperature and heart rate and speeds the recovery process before the next training session or competitive experience”. The causes of poor performance could be caused by lack of adequate cool down activities, resulting in athletes competing with cramps or soreness of the body.

4.6.2.1 Guide for Cool Down

Key

Figure 4:35 - Guide for cool down

Of the 50% who do cool down after training in athletics, most respondents (48%) said they are led by their team captain and others include the coach (44%) and sports directors (8%). Kenney et al (2012) advise that, “Athletes should be monitored closely during stretching exercises to make sure they are doing them properly on cool down”. This then Suffise to say

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that instructions should be demonstrated by the coach, otherwise it could be a contributing factor for poor performance.

4.6.3 The Frequency for Weekly Training in Athletics

(N= 50)

Key

Figure 4:36 – Frequency for weekly training in athletics

As reflected on figure 36 above, most respondents (51%) train for 5 days per week and the least respondents (2%) train for 3 days per week. Other respondents are 2 days per week (26%), 7 days (12%) and 4 days (8%). No respondents train for 6 days per week. This contradict with most Head Coaches (60%) who said that they train their athletes twice per week and the other 20% said three times per week with the other 20% of Head coaches saying four times per week. Bizley (2009) says that, “When one performs regular exercise over a period of weeks, the body adapts physiologically and those physiological adaptations that occur when proper training principles are followed improve both exercise capacity and sport performance”. Frequent exercising helps to keep the athletes fit or to be in good shape for competitions, hence training athletes twice per week reduces maximum performance when competing.

4.6.4 Duration of a Training Session in Athletics

Table 4:7

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(N= 50)

Response Number Percentage (%) Less than 1hr 10 20 1-2hrs 19 38 2-3hrs 09 18 1hr- 3hrs 02 04 2hrs- 4hrs 01 02 3hrs- 4hrs 09 18 Total 50 100

As indicated on table 7 above, most respondents (38%) train between 1 and 2 hours per session and the least respondents (2%) train between 2 and 4 hours. Other respondents are less than 1 hour (20%), 3 to 4 hours (18%), 2 to 3 hours(18%) and 1 to 3 hours (4%). One Head Coach interviewed said that, “We train our athletes for 2 hours, from 1400hrs to 1600hrs”. Kenney et al (2012) say that, “With overly intense training, athletes may experience an unexplained decline in performance and physiological function that extends over weeks, months or years”. Overtraining of athletes could be a contributing factor towards poor performance by athletes because of fatigue.

4.6.5 Athletes Who Train During The Weekend

Table 4:8

(N= 50)

Response Number Percentage (%) Yes 13 26 No 37 74 Total 50 100

The question sought to address girl athletes who train during the weekend. Most respondents (74%) indicated that they do not train during the weekend and the remaining 26% train during the weekend. Pangirazi and Dauer (1995) note that, “To improve the fitness levels, athletes must do more than what their bodies are used to doing”. Kenney et al (2012) say that,

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“According to the principle of progressive overload, systematically increasing the demands on the body is necessary for further improvement”. Athletes therefore need to be in good shape through continuous exercising so as not to lose fitness levels.

4.6.5.1 Frequency of Weekend Athletics Training

Key

Figure 4:37 – Frequency of weekend athletics training

Of the 26% who train during the weekend, 62% of them train once per weekend and 38% train twice per weekend. This is reflected on figure 37 above. According to the principle of variation or periodization, one or more aspects of the training programme should be altered over time to maximize effectiveness of training (Kenney et al 2012). This means that the systematic variation of volume and intensity is most effective for long-term progression on athletes.

4.6.6 Athletes Who Train During the School Holiday

(N= 50)

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Figure 4:38 – Athletes who train during the holiday

Figure 38 above reflect respondents who train during the school holidays. Most respondents (76%) do not train during the school holidays and only 24% of the respondents train during the holidays. Fountain and Goodwin (2002) propound that, “To steadily improve the fitness levels of athletes, one must continually increase the physical demands to overload their systems and if the training demand is increased too quickly, the athlete will be unable to adapt and may break down”. Kenney et al (2012) propound that, “If training is decreased or stopped (detraining), the physiological adaptations that caused those improvements in performance will be reversed”. Detraining could also be a contributing factor to the causes of poor performance in athletics as athletes rest for a long period of time without training.

4.6.6.1 Frequency of Holiday Training Session

Key

Figure 4:39 – Frequency of holiday training session per week

Of the 24% who train during the school holidays, most respondents (59%) train for four days per week and the least respondents (8%) train for one and two days per week and 25% train

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for three days per week. This contradicts with all Head Coaches and Headmasters who said that their athletes do not train during the school holidays as schools will be closed. Weinberg and Gould (2007) narrate that, “When athletes stop training, their hard-won fitness gains disappear, usually faster than they were gained”. This means that any gains achieved with training would be eventually lost and this might lead to poor performance.

4.6.7 Laid Down Training Programme

Table 4:9

(N= 50)

Response Number Percentage (%) Yes 29 58 No 09 18 Sometimes 12 24 Total 50 100

This question sought to establish schools with coaches who follow written training programmes. Most respondents (58%) said that their coaches follow a daily training programme in athletics with the least respondents (18%) said that their coaches do not have a daily training programme and 24% of the respondents said that sometimes their coaches produce a training programme in athletics”. This contradicts with all Head Coaches interviewed who said that they have a daily training programme for athletics. Bizley (2009) says that, “Training programmes in athletics can be put in cycles depending on the objectives of training to cater for athletes’ demands and needs and these training programmes should include a maintenance plan”. Laid down training programmes guide coaches in their day to day execution of daily tasks in terms of the level of fitness and performance of athletes.

4.6.8 Holiday and Weekend Training Programme(s)

(N= 50) ~ 65 ~

Key

Figure 4:40 – Availability of holiday training programme

Figure 40 above illustrate the respondents who get a written training programme from coaches on holidays and weekends in athletics. Most respondents (90%) acknowledged that they do not get a written training programme from the coaches for holidays and weekends. 10% of the respondents do get a training programme from the coaches. Weinberg and Gould (2007) say that, “When athletes stop training, their hard-won fitness gains disappear, usually faster than they were gained”. This suggests that the non availability of training programmes to guide athletes during holidays and weekends accounts for decline in fitness levels and the poor performance in athletics.

4.6.8.1 Duration of Holiday Training Programme(s)

Table 4:10

Duration Number Percentage (%) Less than 1hr 03 60 1hr- 2hrs 02 40 Total 05 100

Table 10 above indicates the duration of school holidays athletics training programme. Of the 10% who get training programme for holidays or weekends, most respondents (60%) said that the duration for their holiday training programme is less than 1 hour and the other 40% said that they train for 1 to 2 hours. This contradicts with one Head Coach who said that, “There is no holiday training sessions because schools will be closed, hence there is no need of coming up with a holiday training programme”. Guttmann (1996) says that, “The challenge of a sports conditioning coach is to design a training programme that progresses

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optimally for the fitness of athletes”. Kenney et al (2012) suggest that, “Too much training can reduce the athlete’s optimal potential for improvement and in some cases can cause a breakdown in the adaptation process, eventually reducing performance”.

4.6.9 Punctuality for Training by Coaches in Athletics

(N= 50)

Figure 4:41 – Punctuality for training by coaches

This question sought to establish the punctuality of coaches at the training grounds. Figure 44 shows that most respondents (90%) said that their coaches are punctual for training, the least respondents (4%) said that coaches are always late for training and 6% of the respondents said that sometimes coaches are punctual for training. One Head Coach interviewed said that, “Academic remedial lessons are a cause for being late for training sessions”. Being late for training could results in athletes missing some training concepts like proper warm up, resulting in shoddy performance.

4.6.10 Attendance to Athletics Competitions

(N= 50)

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Key

Figure 4:42 – Attendance to athletics competitions

This question sought to analyze the respondents who have attended athletics competitions before. As shown on figure 42 above, all the respondents (100%) have competed in athletics competitions before. This concurred with the Headmasters and Head Coaches’ sentiments who said that all their athletes have competed in athletics competitions before.

4.6.10.1 Level of Competition

Figure 4:43 – Level of competition

Of the respondents who have attended athletics competitions before, most of them (35%) have competed for Cluster competitions with the least (6%) competing for the Provincial Finals. Other responses are National (10%), District (15%) and Inter-House competitions 34%. However, this shows that there is an element of cheating in schools athletics as more athletes competed for the National finals as compared to the Provincial finals. The reason behind having more athletes competing at Cluster level than Inter-house could be that some

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field events are not done at Inter-house level and athletes start competing for them at Cluster level, thereby increasing chances of performing poorly.

4.6.11 Athletes who Train Throughout the Year

(N= 50)

Figure 4:44 – Athletes who train throughout the year

The question established respondents who train throughout the year. Figure 44 above shows that most respondents (68%) do not train throughout the year with 32% of the respondents training throughout the year. Weinberg and Gould (2007) say that, “When athletes stop training, their hard-won fitness gains disappear, usually faster than they were gained”. According to the principle of reversibility, training benefits are lost if training is either discontinued or reduced abruptly (Kenney et al 2012). One Headmaster also said that, “We do not train athletics throughout the year because of the curriculum calendar which says that athletics is done during the first term of the year. This could be a contributing factor to causes of poor performance as the hard-won fitness can be lost immediately because of rest.

4.6.12 Availability of a Gymnasium at Schools

Table 4:11 ~ 69 ~

(N= 50)

Response Number Percentage (%) Yes 06 12 No 44 88 Total 50 100

Table 11 above establish the availability of gymnasium at schools. Most respondents (88%) said that their schools do not have gymnasiums and the remaining 12% said that their schools have gymnasiums. This contradicts with all Head Coaches and Headmasters who said that they do not have a gymnasium at their respective schools.

4.7 Summary

Presented and analyzed data was collected from fifty respondents in form of questionnaires. Five Head Coaches in athletics and five Headmasters were also interviewed by the researcher. The following subtopics were investigated; attitude of girls towards athletics, attitude of parents and schools towards athletics, effects of equipment and facilities on performance of girls in athletics, effects of diet on performance of girls in athletics and influence of training on performance of girls in athletics.

CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ~ 70 ~

5.0 Introduction

The aim of the research was to analyze the causes of poor performance in Athletics by girls in Dzivarasekwa Cluster Primary Schools. The researcher will give the summary of the findings followed by conclusions and recommendations.

5.1 Summary

On attitude of girls towards athletics, the following information was collected. Most of the respondents indicated that they enjoyed taking part in athletics with a few having no interest at all in athletics. The majority of respondents also come early for training in athletics and none of the respondents come late for training. Most respondents also indicated that they have interest in 100m event with a few respondents having interest in shot put and javelin. None of the respondents have interest in discus.

On attitude of parents and schools towards athletics, the majority of respondents indicated that their schools have athletics timetable and very few said that their schools do not have timetable for athletics. Most respondents (Head Coaches) interviewed also said that athletics is done between 1400hrs and 1600hrs and very few practice between 1300hrs and 1500hrs. On awarding of outstanding athletes, the majority of respondents showed that athletes were being awarded for outstanding performances and very few showed that they do not get awards for good performance in athletics. It was also noted that athletics is the most funded sporting discipline followed by netball and some few respondents indicated that cricket is the most funded sport code. The research carried out also indicated that most respondents are allowed to take part in athletics by their parents or guardians with very few being denied access to participation in athletics. Most respondents said that their family members watch them when practicing or competing in athletics and the minority said that their parents or guardians do not watch them training or competing. For those who had their relatives watching them training or competing, most respondents said that their mothers watch them training or competing and the least respondents said that their cousins watch them practicing or competing. Most interviewed athletes said that their relatives watch them at competitions only and very few said that their relatives watch them practicing at least five times per week. Most respondents also said that they get support from guardians in the form of finance and the least respondents said that they get gym skirts. The majority of Headmasters and Head coaches interviewed said that guardians struggle to give sporting assistance to athletes. Most respondents again indicated that Deputy Heads watch them while practicing athletics and a ~ 71 ~

few respondents said that bursars watch them training. Some Headmasters said that the nature of their duties restrict them from watching athletes training.

On effects of equipment and facilities on performance of girls in athletics, most respondents indicated that their schools do not have athletics tracks with the least respondents saying that there are athletics tracks at schools. Of those respondents who said that they have athletics tracks at their schools, the majority said that the tracks are insufficient. From those who said that they have athletics tracks at their schools, most of them said that the tracks have 100m starting point and the least respondents said that the tracks have lane dimensions and relay changeover zones. Other responses are 200m starting point, 400m starting point and finishing point. Most respondents also narrated that the track is standard and very few said that the track is substandard. On athletics facilities, the majority of interviewed athletes said that their schools have high jump mats with a few saying that they have change rooms. Other athletics facilities found at schools include long jump pit, triple jump pit, long jump runways, javelin runways, javelin sectors, shot put circles and discus cage. None of the respondents indicated that they have triple jump runways. Most respondents indicated that they have high jump bars as equipment at their schools and the least respondents said that they have running spikes. Some responses came from running jerseys, short put, javelin sticks, discus, starter gun and starting blocks. As far as improvisation of sporting equipment is concerned, most respondents said that they train bare footed instead of having running spikes. A few respondents indicated that coaches use whistles instead of starter guns. All the interviewed Headmasters and head coaches said that their athletes train bare footed. The research also said that most respondents have never been injured in athletics. Very few athletes were injured in athletics and the injuries were dislocation as a result of poor athletics tracks and running with bare foot.

On effects of diet on performance of girls in athletics, most respondents showed that they eat porridge before they go to school and the least respondents said that they take tea and round nuts for breakfast. During lunch time at school, the majority said that they consume rice and chicken and the least respondents consume mahewu, tea and bread. At home for supper, most respondents eat sadza and vegetables and a few respondents eat sadza and pork, sadza and beef, sadza and fish, sadza and chicken, rice and chicken, rice and beef, sadza and beans and rice and beans. No responses were received on rice and pork. The majority of respondents indicated that they consume sadza and beef and sadza and chicken respectively three (3) days before competitions and the least respondents consume sadza and pork. No respondents were received on rice and pork. On breakfast for competition day, most ~ 72 ~

respondents said that they eat porridge and tea and bread respectively with the least responses coming from sadza and beef, rice and beef, and fresh chips respectively. Other responses came from sadza and fish, rice and chicken, drink and biscuits, sadza and chicken, pie and sadza and vegetables. Some respondents indicated that they do not take food in the morning of competition day and no responses were received on tea and rice. All the interviewed Head coaches and Headmasters said that they give their athletes cascade drink and a pie in the morning of competition day. In between events during competition, most respondents indicated that they do not take food and the least respondents said that they consume food in between events. Of those who consume food in between events, the majority of them take fresh chips and the least take sadza and beef, sadza and chicken, sadza and fish, pie and chicken and chips respectively. After competition, most respondents showed that they eat fresh chips and very few showed that they eat orange, rice and beef and sadza and chicken respectively.

The researcher also investigated the amount of water consumed per day at home by athletes. Most respondents narrated that they drink one (1) litre of water at home and the least respondents said that they drink 1,5 litres of water at home. Further investigations were done on the amount of water carried by athletes to school. Most respondents said that they carry bottled water to school and the least said that they do not carry water to school. Of those who carry bottled water to school, the majority of them take 500ml of water and very few carry 3000ml of water. On the provision of water to athletes by schools during training sessions, most respondents indicated that they are provided with water during training sessions. All respondents who are provided with water during training said that they are given 500ml a day.

On the influence of training on performance of girls in athletics, most respondents indicated that they do warm up activities before training and a few respondents train without warming up. The majority of those who warm up said that the activity is guided by the coach and the least respondents said that the warm up is guided by the sports director. On cool down, half of the respondents do cool down activities and the other half complete the training session without cooling down. The majority of those who cool down after training said that they are led by their team captain and the least respondents said that they are led by sports directors. Most respondents indicated that they train for five (5) days per week and the least respondents indicated that they train for three (3) days per week. The duration of a training session according to most respondents is between 1hour and 2 hours while the least said that ~ 73 ~

the session lasts between 2 hours and 4 hours. The researcher also analysed results of athletes who train during the weekend with most of them saying they do not train during the weekend while the least said that they train during the weekend. The majority of those who train during the weekend said that they train once per weekend and the least respondents said that they train twice per weekend. On holiday training, most respondents showed that they do not train during the school holidays and the least respondents showed that they train during the holiday. The majority of those who train during the holiday indicated that they train for four (4) days per week and the least respondents indicated that they train for one (1) and two (2) days per week respectively.

Another survey was carried out to assess the availability of a laid down training programme. Most respondents said that their coaches follow written training programme and the least respondents said that their coaches do not have daily training programme in athletics. However, all Head coaches interviewed indicated that they have a daily training programme for athletics. Most respondents indicated that they do not get a written training programme from coaches for the holiday and the least respondents said that they are provided with a holiday training programme. The majority of respondents who get holiday training programme said that the duration of a training session was less than 1 hour and the least respondents said that the training session lasted between 1hour and 2 hours. However, this contradicted with Head coaches interviewed who said that athletes are not provided with holiday training programmes. The researcher further analysed punctuality of coaches for training in athletics and many respondents indicated that their coaches are punctual for training and the least respondents said that their coaches are always late for training. On attendance to athletics competitions, all the respondents showed that they have competed in athletics competitions before with the majority of them having competed at Cluster level and a few respondents at provincial level. Other levels of competition participated by athletes are inter-house, District and National finals. On athletes who train throughout the year, most respondents indicated that they do not train throughout the year and the least showed that they do train throughout the year. One headmaster interviewed noted that athletes do not train throughout the year because of the curriculum which states that athletics should be done during term one of the year. Most respondents also indicated that their schools do not have a Gymnasium and the least respondents narrated that their schools have a Gymnasium.

5.2 Conclusion

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From the findings gathered from the research on attitude of girls towards athletics, it was noted that girls have no interest in field events. Schools do not channel enough monetary budget towards athletics, instead a lot of money is channeled towards academic. In conclusion, girls in Dzivarasekwa Cluster have a negative attitude towards field events. Parents in Dzivarasekwa Cluster Primary Schools support athletes financially on competitions only.

Concerning the effects of equipment and facilities on performance of girls in athletics, most schools do not have athletics tracks. Most schools have one (1) athletics track and the tracks do not have all the necessary track markings. Insufficient facilities like long jump pit, long jump runways, shot put circles, javelin sectors, triple jump pit, triple jump runways and discus cage were also noted on field events. Athletes also train and compete without running spikes, starter gun, running jerseys and running shorts. Some schools do not train field events like discus, shot put, and triple jump. This shows that the Cluster has insufficient athletics facilities and equipment. Parents also struggle to provide sporting equipment for their athletes.

On the effects of diet on performance of girls in athletics, athletes eat porridge in the morning before they go to school. Athletes also consume sadza and beef three (3) days before competitions. In the morning of competition day, they eat porridge, tea and bread. Some of them do not take food in the morning of competition day. Girl athletes in Dzivarasekwa Cluster do not take food in between events. After competition, athletes are fed with fresh chips. In conclusion, athletes’ diet lack a relative balance of fat, protein and carbohydrate. This therefore means that athletes compete without taking food in the morning and those who take food do not consume a lot of carbohydrates which gives energy. There is lack of monitoring of water intake to insure that athletes are getting adequate amounts to stay hydrated.

With regard to the influence of training on performance of girls in athletics, athletes do warm up activities before training and they are guided by their coaches. Cool down is also done under the guidance of the team captain and others complete the training without cooling down. Girl athletes in Dzivarasekwa Cluster do not train during the school holidays. On another note, coaches follow a written athletics timetable. All athletes have competed for athletics competitions before from Cluster level. Athletes do not train throughout the year because of the Curriculum which states that athletics is done during the first term of the year.

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It was also noted that schools do not have gymnasiums in Dzivarasekwa Cluster Primary Schools. This concludes that athletes’ poor performance in athletics is because of the long break from one competition season to another, leading to detraining and reducing the body to its state of lower level of fitness as all the gains achieved during training are lost during school holidays.

5.3 Recommendations

The researcher came up with the following recommendations;

5.3.1 Concerning the attitude of girls towards athletics, it was noted that girls do not have interest in field events. Schools may therefore purchase enough equipment so that athletes have an appreciation of the equipments so as to develop positive attitude towards field events. Schools need to revisit their financial resources and channel adequate monetary support towards purchasing of athletics equipment, constructing enough athletics facilities and maintaining those already in bad state. The Community Sports Development Programme needs to be spread within Dzivarasekwa Cluster so that parents appreciate the value of athletics to the society. There is need for the formation of athletics clubs in Dzivarasekwa Cluster whereby schools will be exchanging their membership to parents. Schools are encouraged to print newsletters on sport and recreation covering topics like importance of sport to the girl child.

5.3.2 With regard to the effects of equipment and facilities on performance of girls in athletics, Dzivarasekwa Cluster has few athletics facilities and equipment. Athletes are also provided with inadequate sporting equipment for training by their guardians. School Heads are encouraged to budget enough funds for the purchase of enough athletics equipment. The Government through the Ministry of Sports, Arts and Culture may provide funds to improve athletics facilities in Dzivarasekwa Cluster. NAAZ may also use grants from the International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF) to develop grassroots facilities in Primary schools.

5.3.3 On the effects of diet on performance of girls in athletics, girl athletes compete without consuming food in the morning or do not take a lot of carbohydrates which gives energy. Uptake of water is also insufficient to athletes which can lead to dehydration. Athletics teams need to have nutritionists who guide athletes on the rightful nutrition and water levels. The Government through Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education should ensure that every

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Primary School in Dzivarasekwa has a qualified sports teacher who has knowledge with regard to the diet for athletes. NAAZ may also spearhead basic coach education covering topics like nutrition in sport. Tertiary institutions should also cover nutrition under Social Studies in Professional Studies Syllabus ‘B’. Nutritionists from the Government can also be invited to schools.

5.3.4 As far as the influence of training on performance of girls in athletics is concerned, athletes do not receive normal cool down activities and they do not train throughout the year. NAAZ should also cover topics like factors affecting athletics training. Basic staff development at schools can be conducted by those who specialised in Physical Education on topics like components of a training session. NAAZ and HAB may also second qualified coaches to schools in Dzivarasekwa Cluster. The Government through the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education need to revisit its Curriculum so that athletes can train throughout the year.

5.4 Suggestions for Further Study

The researcher suggests the following for further study; a survey on the extent to which Physical Education is being taught in Primary schools. There is also need for home grown athletics competitions or meets throughout the year by NAAZ and HAB. There is need for the establishment of clubs that are well equipped from grassroots level. This research study should be further carried out at District, Provincial and National levels. Similar studies should be done in other sport codes where girl athletes’ participation is very low. Headmasters should send their athletics coaches for coaching and umpiring courses.

5.5 Summary

This chapter focused on four aspects which are summary, conclusion, recommendations and suggestions for further study. The major findings of the research were looked at. The conclusions of the research and recommendations for the areas of improvement were given.

REFERENCES

1. Ackinpelu, J.A. (1995) An Introduction to Philosophy of Education , MacMillan Publishers, London.

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2. Beashel P, Sibson A and Taylor J. (2001) The World of Sport Examined 2 nd Edition , Nelson Thornes Ltd, Cheltenham. 3. Beashel, P. and Taylor, J (1996) Advanced Studies in Physical Education and Sport , Thompson Publishing Company, Melbourne. 4. Best, J.W and Kahn, J.V. (1993) Research in Education , Needham Heights: Ally and Bacon. 5. Bizley, K (2009) Physical Education , Nelson Thornes Ltd, Cheltenham. 6. Camy, J and Robinson, L (2007) Managing Olympic Sport Organisations , Human Kinetics, Stanningley. 7. Carr, G.A .(1991) Foundations of Track and Field , Leisure Press, USA. 8. Currie, J. (2000) Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sports , Mac Milan, Melbourne. 9. Damon, A. McGonagall, R. Tosto, P and Ward, W. (2007) Standard Level Biology , Pearson education limited, Oxford.

10. Dick, F.W. (2007) Sports Training Principles : 5 th edition , A and C Black (Publishers) Ltd, London. 11. Dusenbery, D.B. (1996) Life at Small Scale , Scientific America Library, New York. 12. Dusenbery, D.B. (2009) Living at Micro-Scale , Harvard University Press, Cambridge.

13. Fountain, S. and Goodwin, L. (2002) PE to 16 2 nd Edition , Oxford University Press, Oxford. 14. Guttman, A. (1996) Games and Empires: Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism , University Press, Columbia. 15. Haralambos, M. and Holborn, M. (1995) Sociology Themes and Perspectives: Fourth Edition, Collins Educational, 16. Honeybourne, J. (2005) BTEC First Sport , Nelson Thornes Ltd, Cheltenham. 17. Honeybourne. J, Hill. M, and Moors. H, (1996) Advanced Physical Education and Sport , Stanley TRhornes Publishers Ltd, Chaltenham. 18. Jacqueline, D.E.D (1999) Human and Social Sciences in the Classroom , Francolin Publishers, Cape Town. 19. Jenkins, M. (2001) Biology Lives , Hodder and Stoughton, London. 20. Kenney W.L, Wilmore J.H and Costill D.L (2012) Physiology Of Sport And Exercise: Fifth Edition , Human Kinetics, Stanningley. 21. Mpofu, E. (1995) Testing for Teaching , Longman, Harare. ~ 78 ~

22. Pangirazi R.B and Dauer V.P (1995) Dynamic Physical Education for Elementary School Children: eleventh edition , Allyn and Bacon Publishing Company, Boston. 23. Rao, V.K. (2006) Sports Education , A.P.H. Publishing Corporation, New Delhi. 24. Robbins, S.P. (1995) Management Concepts and Practices , Engel Wood Cliff, Prentice Hall, New Jersey. 25. Rosser, M. (1995) Body Fitness and Exercise : Basic Theory and Practice for Therapists , Hodder and Stoughton, London. 26. Siedentop. D. (1991) Developing Teaching Skills in Physical Education , Mountain View, Mayfield. 27. Weinberg, R.S. and Gould, D (2007) Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology: Fourth Edition , Human kinetics, Leeds.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ATHLETES

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BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

My name is January Edfree. I am a student of Bindura University of Science Education carrying out a research on the Causes of Poor Performance in Athletics by Girls in Dzivarasekwa Cluster Primary Schools. You have been selected as a respondent to this questionnaire and your assistance is greatly appreciated. The information you will provide shall be confidential and used for learning purposes only. No names are required on the questionnaire to ensure anonymity and confidentiality. I hope you will participate in this study and complete the questionnaire as honestly as possible.

Indicate your responses by either ticking or filling in the space provided:

SECTION A - Biographical Information

1. How old are you? [ ] Years 2. What Grade are you in? 4 [ ] 5[ ] 6 [ ] 7 [ ] 3. How many children are in your family? [ ] 4. State your position in your family eg 1 st , 2 nd , 3 rd etc …………………………. 5. Who is your guardian? Father and Mother [ ] Father only [ ] Mother only [ ] Brother [ ] Sister [ ] Grandmother and Grandfather [ ] Grandmother only [ ] Uncle [ ] Grandfather only [ ] Stepmother and Father [ ] Stepfather and Mother [ ] Other(s) Specify………………………………………………………………………..

SECTION B

6. Do you enjoy taking part in athletics? Yes [ ] No [ ] If No, why? ……………………………………………………………………………..

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7. Do you arrive early for training at the ground? Yes [ ] No [ ] Sometimes [ ] If No or Sometimes, why? …………………………………………………………… 8. What is your favorite athletics event(s)? 100m [ ] 200m [ ]

400m [ ] 800m [ ] 4x100m [ ] 4x200m [ ] 4x400m [ ] Shot put [ ] Discus [ ] Javelin [ ] High jump [ ] Long jump [ ]

Other(s) specify…………………………………………………………………………

9. Is Athletics timetabled at your school? Yes [ ] No [ ] If Yes, when do you do athletics? 1400hrs-1500hrs [ ] 1400hrs-1530hrs [ ]

1400hrs-1600hrs [ ]

Other(s) specify …………………………………. …………………………………

10. Are there any athletes who get prizes on prize giving day for doing well in Athletics? Yes [ ] No [ ] 11. In terms of financial assistance, indicate sporting disciplines which get funding from the school. Cricket [ ] Girls Soccer [ ] Boys Soccer [ ] Athletics [ ] Volleyball [ ] Netball [ ] Handball [ ] Other(s) specify …………………………………………………………………….. 12. Do your parents or guardians allow you to take part in athletics? Yes [ ] No [ ] If No, explain ………………………………………………………………………….

13. Is there anyone from your family who comes to watch you when practicing or competing in athletics at school? Yes [ ] No [ ] 14. If Yes, who usually comes? ………………………………………………………………… How often does he or she come? Once per week [ ] Twice per week [ ] Thrice per week [ ] Four times per week [ ] Five times per week [ ]

At competitions only [ ] Other(s) specify ……………………………………………………………………..

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15. What sporting help do you get from Parents, Guardians or other relatives? Running spikes [ ] Running shorts [ ] Running shirts [ ] Socks [ ] T-shirts [ ] Gym skirts [ ] Sports tackies [ ] Money [ ] Tracksuits [ ] Nothing [ ] Other(s) specify ……………………………………………………………………… 16. From your school, who comes to watch your athletics team training or competing in athletics event? Headmaster [ ] Deputy Headmaster [ ] Teacher in Charge [ ] Senior Teacher [ ] Bursar [ ] Other(s) specify ………………………………………………………………………

Section C

17. Are there any athletics tracks at your school? Yes [ ] No [ ] If Yes, how many? 1 [ ] 2 [ ] 3 [ ] 4 [ ] Other(s) specify …………………………………………………………………….. 18. Which of the following markings does your track have? 100m starting point [ ] 200m starting point [ ] 400m starting point [ ] Relay changeover zones [ ] Finishing point [ ] Lane dimensions [ ] Lane demarcations [ ] 19. Does the track measurers 400m? Yes [ ] No [ ] 20. Which of the following facilities are found at your school? High jump mat [ ] Long jump pit [ ] Triple jump pit [ ] Long jump runways [ ] Triple jump runways [ ] Javelin runways [ ] Javelin sectors [ ] Shot put circles [ ] Discus cage [ ] Change rooms [ ] Others specify ………………………………………………………………………..

21. Which of the following equipment do you have at your school? Shot put [ ] Javelin stick [ ] High jump bars [ ]

Discus [ ] Starting blocks [ ] Starter gun [ ] Running spikes [ ] Running jerseys [ ] Running shorts [ ]

Other(s) specify …………………………………………………………………

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22. Explain how you practice without the equipment that has not been ticked in question 16 above? …………………………………………………………………………...... ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………..

23. Have you ever had sporting injuries in athletics? Yes [ ] No [ ] If Yes, state the injury/ injuries ………………………………………………………………………………………….

24. What were the causes of the injury/ injuries? ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………..

Section D

25. What do you usually eat in the morning before going to school? Porridge [ ] Tea and bread [ ] Tea and Fresh chips [ ] Tea only [ ] Sadza and vegetables [ ] Sadza and meat [ ] Cereals [ ] Tea and groundnuts [ ] Tea and roundnuts [ ] Other(s) specify …………………………………………………………………….. 26. What do you usually eat at lunch? Sadza and beef [ ] Sadza and fish [ ] Sadza and chicken [ ] Rice and chicken [ ] Rice and beef [ ] Bread and drink [ ] Sadza and pork [ ] Rice and pork [ ] Drink and biscuits [ ] Nothing [ ] Other(s) specify ……………………………………………………………………… 27. What do you usually eat in the evening? Sadza and beef [ ] Sadza and fish [ ] Sadza and chicken [ ] Sadza and vegetables [ ] Rice and chicken [ ] Rice and beef [ ] Sadza and beans [ ] Rice and beans [ ] Sadza and pork [ ] Rice and pork [ ] Other(s) specify………………….…………………………………………………… 28. Tick the type of food do you usually eat three days before competition? Sadza and beef [ ] Sadza and fish [ ] Sadza and chicken [ ] ~ 83 ~

Rice and chicken [ ] Rice and beef [ ] Porridge [ ] Tea and bread [ ] Sadza and pork [ ] Rice and pork [ ] sadza and beans [ ] Sadza and vegetables [ ] Other(s) specify………………….…………………………………………………….. 29. What do you eat in the morning of competition day? Sadza and beef [ ] Sadza and fish [ ] Sadza and chicken [ ] Rice and chicken [ ] Rice and beef [ ] Porridge [ ] Tea and bread [ ] Drink and biscuits [ ] Fresh chips [ ] Tea and rice [ ] Sadza and vegetables [ ] Pie [ ] Nothing [ ] Other(s) specify………………………… ………………………..………………….. 30. During competition, do you eat food in between events? Yes [ ] No [ ] 31. If Yes, tick the food which you take in between events. Biscuits [ ] Oranges [ ] Cheese [ ] Mazoe crush [ ] Sadza and beef [ ] Sadza and fish [ ] Sadza and chicken [ ] Rice and chicken [ ] Rice and beef [ ] Porridge [ ] Tea and bread [ ] Pie [ ] Fresh chips [ ] Other(s) specify ……………………………………………………………………………………

32. What food do you consume immediately after a competition? Biscuits [ ] Oranges [ ] Cheese [ ] Mazoe crush [ ] Sadza and beef [ ] Sadza and fish [ ] Sadza and chicken [ ] Rice and chicken [ ] Rice and beef [ ] Porridge [ ] Tea and bread [ ] Pie [ ] Fresh chips [ ] Nothing [ ] Other(s) specify ………………………………………......

33. Approximately how many litres of bottled water do you drink per day at home? 500ml [ ] 1ltr [ ] 2ltr [ ] 3lt [ ] Other(s) specify ………………………………………………………………………... 34. Do you carry bottled water to school? Yes [ ] No [ ] 35. If Yes, how many litres of water do you take every day? 500ml [ ] 1 ltr [ ] 2 ltrs [ ] 3 ltrs [ ] 4 ltrs [ ] 5 ltrs [ ] Other(s) specify ……………………………………………………………………….. 36. Does the school provide water during training sessions? Yes [ ] No [ ] ~ 84 ~

37. If Yes, approximately how many litres of water do you drink during training?

500ml [ ] 1 ltr [ ] 2 ltrs [ ] 3 ltrs [ ] 4 ltrs [ ] 5 ltrs [ ] Other(s) specify ………………………………………………………………………..

Section E

38. Do you warm up before training? Yes [ ] No [ ] Who guides you in the warm up activities? Team captain [ ] Coach [ ]

Other(s) specify ………………………………………………………………………

39. Do you cool down after training? Yes [ ] No [ ] Who guides you in the cool down activities?

Team captain [ ] Coach [ ]

Other(s) specify ………………………………………………………………………

40. How many days do you train per week? 1 [ ] 2 [ ] 3 [ ] 4 [ ] 5[ ] 6 [ ] 7 [ ]

Other(s) specify ………………………………………………………………………...

41. What is the duration of your training session during school days? Less than 1 hour [ ] 1 -2 hours [ ] 2-3 hours [ ] 3-4 hours [ ] Other(s) specify ……………………………………………………………………… 42. Do you train during the weekends? Yes [ ] No [ ] If Yes, how many times do you train? Once [ ] Twice [ ]

Other(s) specify ………………………………………………………………………...

43. Do you train during the school holidays? Yes [ ] No [ ] If Yes, how many times? 1 day per week [ ] 2 days per week [ ] 3 days per week [ ] 4 days per week [ ] 5 days per week [ ] 6 days per week [ ] 7 days per week [ ] Other(s) specify ……………………………………………………………………… ~ 85 ~

44. Does the coach follow a written training programme? Yes [ ] No [ ] Sometimes [ ] 45. Do you get a training programme on holidays and weekends? Yes [ ] No [ ]If Yes, what is the duration of your training programme? Less than 1 hour [ ] 1 -2 hours [ ] 2-3 hours [ ] 3-4 hours [ ] Other(s) specify ………………………………………………………………………

46. Does your coach arrive early for training at the athletics track/school ground? Yes [ ] No [ ] Sometimes [ ] 47. Have you attended athletics competitions? Yes [ ] No [ ] If Yes, what level have you competed for? Inter-house [ ] Cluster [ ] District [ ] Provincial [ ] National [ ] Other(s) specify ……………………………………………………………………… 48. Do you train throughout the year? Yes [ ] No [ ] If No, why? ……………………………………………………….. 49. Is there a gymnasium at your school? Yes [ ] No [ ]

APPENDIX 2

INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR HEAD COACHES AND HEADMASTERS

BINDURA UNIVERSITY 0F SCIENCE EDUCATION

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My name is January Edfree. I am a student of Bindura University of Science Education carrying out a research on the Causes of Poor Performance in Athletics by Girls in Dzivarasekwa Cluster Primary Schools. You have been selected as a respondent to this questionnaire and your assistance is greatly appreciated. The information you will provide shall be treated as confidential and will be used for learning purposes only. No names will be required to ensure anonymity and confidentiality. I hope you will participate in this study and complete the questionnaire as honestly as possible.

1. How old are you? 2. How long have you been in the Education sector and at this school? 3. How long have you been coaching athletics at this school? 4. What qualifications do you hold in athletics? 5. Do your athletes have the passion for athletics? 6. What type of support do your athletes get from their parents or guardians? 7. Does your headmaster/ head coach support athletics programmes? If No, why? If Yes, how? 8. Do you have a budget for athletics at your school? If Yes, approximately how much do you channel towards athletics? 9. Do you have any form of incentives to outstanding athletes? If Yes, in what form? 10. Do you have a strategic plan document for athletics? What are they if Yes? 11. What events do you offer to athletes at your school? 12. Do you have a stock inventory for sports at your school? If No, how do you know the sporting equipment you have at school? 13. What athletics facilities and equipment do you have at your school? 14. What sporting assistance do you give to your athletes in athletics? 15. Have you ever had athletes who got injured on training or when competing in athletics? 16. If Yes, what were and are the major causes of sporting injuries?

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17. Do you provide your athletes with food? 18. What type of food do you usually give to your athletes on competition day? 19. What type of food is usually consumed by athletes during competition (in between events)? 20. What food is usually eaten by athletes after competing? 21. What type of food do your athletes bring to school? 22. How many hours before competition do you give your athletes food? 23. Does your athletes carry bottled water to school? If Yes, approximately how many liters of water do they take every day? 24. Do you have athletes attached to other clubs? 25. Does your athletes train during the weekend? If No, why? 26. Does your athletes train throughout the year? If no, why? 27. Do you have a training programme for athletics? If no, why? 28. How often do you train your athletes per week? 29. What is the duration of your training session?

APPENDIX 3

PERMISSION TO CARRY OUT RESEARCH

BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

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FACULTY OF SCIENCE P. Bag 1020

BINDURA, Zimbabwe

Tel: 263 -0271 6134

Fax: 263 -0271 7552/6007

Department of Sports Science

______

3 February 2015

TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN

RE : PERMISSION TO CARRY OUT A RESEARCH: JANUARY EDFREE

STUDENT NUMBER: B1232527

This note serves to confirm that Mr January Edfree (B1232527) is a final year student at Bindura University in the Department of Sports Science.

He is pursuing Bsc Honors in Sports Administration. As part of his programme, he is required to carry out a research project in any area of interest. His topic is: An analysis of the causes of poor performance in Athletics by girls in Dzivarasekwa Cluster Primary Schools.

May you please assist him in any way you can in his endeavor.

Sincerely

Masocha V. Mr

(Acting Chairperson, Sport Science Department)

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