Margaret Fuller and Transcendentalism 1810-1850
Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1845) Who is Margaret Fuller? • a journalist, critic, and women’s rights activist • Her book is considered to be the first major feminist work in the United States. • one of the prominent figures of American transcendentalist movement. What is Transcendentalism? A Reaction to Enlightenment: Asserting the existence of a spiritual reality that transcends the empirical and scientific and is knowable through intuition Transcendentalism and Universal Soul Transcendentalists seek “divinity within themselves” and believe that to know one’s soul is to know God.
Ralph Waldo Emerson writes: “It is one soul which animates all men.” For Fuller, universal soul transcends racial and gender differences:
“If the Negro be a soul, if the woman be a soul, appareled in flesh, to one Master only are they accountable” (Woman 20). She shares Transcendentalist distrust of religious institutions: “[I] accept nothing till it is affirmed in the due order of mine own nature. I belong nowhere. God and the soul and nature are all my creed, subdivisions are unimportant. -As to your church, I do not deny the Church…. I have my church where I take these simpler modes, if the world prefers more complex, let it. I act for myself, but prescribe for none other.” Fuller asks women to be self-reliant and self-dependent: She encourages women to live “first for God’s sake,” learn to be self-reliant, and expand their own spheres. (103)
“True knowledge comes from the intuitive and personal knowledge of self-discovery.” Women can be “sea-captains,” join the army, fight for the liberty of their countries, or stay in the domestic sphere if they want to. “We are pleased that women should write and speak, if they feel the need of it, from having something to tell; but silence for ages would be no misfortune if that silence be from divine command, and not from man’s tradition” (Woman 47). Woman, for Fuller, will remain “an overgrown child,” if she cannot learn to be self- dependent, trust herself, and free herself from the precepts of men. “The great radical dualism” of male and female: Nineteenth-century endorsed the hierarchical binary of masculinity and femininity. Men are supposed to be active, brave, and courageous whereas women are passive, emotional, and delicate. Women were perceived to be inferior to men in physical strength and in intellect and therefore could not participate in the social sphere. Fuller questions the “rude classification” of sexes into domestic and social spheres The growth of man is two-fold, masculine and feminine. As far as these two methods can be distinguished they are so as Energy and Harmony. Power and Beauty. Intellect and Love. Or by some such rude classification, for we have not language primitive and pure enough to express such ideas with precision. These two sides are supposed to be expressed in man and woman, that is, as the more and less, for the faculties have not been given pure to either, but only in preponderance. There are also exceptions in great number, such as men of far more beauty than power, and the reverse. But as a general rule, it seems to have been the intention to give a preponderance on the one side, that is called masculine, and on the other, one that is called feminine. (Woman 99) Fuller blames women no less than men for their inferiority. “Far less has woman to complain that she has not had her share of power. . . . woman has always power enough, if she choose to exert it…”
She notes how many women writers become the agents of patriarchy by assigning passivity, domesticity, and inferiority to women in their conduct books. For Fuller, men too are trapped in the “ideological theatre.” Men may not want to be heroes and suffer as they conform to their socially constructed gender roles: “man does not have his ‘fair play’ either; his energies are repressed and distorted by the interposition of artificial obstacles” (27). “Male and female represent the two sides of the great radical dualism. But, in fact, they are perpetually passing into one another. Fluid hardens to solid, solid rushes to fluid. There is no wholly masculine man, no purely feminine woman” (Woman 68). Many 19th century writers disapproved her call for gender equality. Orestes Brownson writes: “She [Fuller] says man is not the head of the woman. We, on the authority of the Holy Ghost, say he is. […] God commands husbands to love and cherish their wives, commands wives to love and obey their husbands; […], St. Paul’s authority is, to say the least, equal to that of Miss Fuller.
“Their appropriate spheres are allotted to man and woman by their Creator, and all they have to do is to submit as quietly, and with as good a grace as they can.” Ironically, Fuller too supports gender stereotypes. Her work is a product of the philosophy and the spirit of its age. Adam should have been the “guardian,” “teacher,” and “spiritual sire” of Eve” (Woman 100). Fuller Advocates feminine virtue
Her concept of “pure love” does not involve sexual desire. She presents strong, intelligent, and virtuous women in mythology, literature, and history as role models.
She praises the self-sufficient and virgin Roman goddesses Diana and Minerva. Transcendental ideal of self-reliance then does not give women sexual freedom. She supports the Enlightenment idea that human beings should be guided by reason, regularity, and proportion rather than imagination and pleasure. Transcendentalist poet Walt Whitman’s “Song of Myself” in Leaves of Grass (1855) implies his homosexuality
There is that in me—I do not know what it is—but I know it is in me. Wrench’d and sweaty—calm and cool then my body becomes, I sleep—I sleep long. I do not know it—it is without name—it is a word unsaid, It is not in any dictionary, utterance, symbol. […]
** “It is without a name-a word unsaid” because the term “homosexual” was first used in the late nineteenth century.