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THE PRACTICES OF COOL JAPAN AS JAPAN’S CULTURAL DIPLOMACY IN RESPONDING TO THE RISE OF THE SOFT POWER OF THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA AND REPUBLIC OF KOREA

(2010 – 2016)

By MARIA FRANGCONNA WENI ID No. 016201300093

A thesis presented to the Faculty of Humanities President University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Bachelor Degree in International Relations Major in Diplomacy Studies

January 2017

ABSTRACT

Maria Frangconna Weni, International Relations 2013, President University

Thesis Title: Responding to the Rise of the Soft Power of Republic of Korea (2010-2016)

Republic of Korea (ROK), there is also an increased focus on their soft power capability. Both states in East Asia are rallying to increase their soft power capability to further achieve their respective national interests. Japan, which also lies in close proximity to the two states and have historical enmity with them has been stagnant in terms of both of its economy and soft power capability. As a result, to increase its soft power capability, Japan has been galvanizing its Cultural Diplomacy policies as part of its Public Diplomacy in order to achieve growth in its Soft Power capability and reach, which will also spur Jap economy.

Keywords: Japan, Cool Japan, Soft Power, Cultural Diplomacy, East Asia

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ABSTRAK

Maria Frangconna Weni, International Relations 2013, President University

Judul Penelitian: in Respon and Republic of Korea (2010-2016)

Dengan adanya pertumbuhan ekonomi yang berkembang cepat oleh Republik Rakyat Cina (RRC) dan Republik Korea (ROK), terjadi pula peningkatan fokus pada kemampuan soft power dari mereka. Kedua negara yang terletak di kawasan Asia Timur tersebut berusaha untuk meningkatkan kemampuan soft power mereka untuk mencapai kepentingan nasional masing-masing. Jepang, yang juga terletak dekat dengan kedua negara tersebut dan pernah memiliki permusuhan historis kedua negara baik RRC maupun ROK, mengalami stagnan baik dari segi ekonomi maupun kemampuan soft power. Akibatnya, untuk meningkatkan kemampuan soft power-nya, Jepang telah menggembleng kebijakan Diplomasi Budaya sebagai bagian dari Diplomasi Publik dalam rangka mencapai pertumbuhan dalam kemampuan soft power dan mencapai, yang juga akan memacu ekonomi Jepang.

Kata kunci: Jepang, Cool Japan, Soft Power, Diplomasi Kebudayaan, Asia Timur

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

After long struggle and tears against all the challenges during my thesis period, finally this journey is coming to an end. This thesis would be really impossible without every support and help for many people that contribute their time to giving limitless support and help.

Foremost, I would like to dedicate my gratitude to Jesus Christ for listening all my prayers and always know what the best for me. All of my life basically a constant struggle but He never leave me and Mother Mary who always right beside me and pray for me, thank you very much.

Second, I would like to give my huge gratitude for my parents for their supports morally and financially, for my dad Ferdinandus Ngayu and my mom Christina Lamiah. Thank you for everything, our struggle finally comes to an end dad and mom! Also for my lovely grandma: Maria Dinah. You are literally the world to me, no one can replace your love and vice versa, I love you nek, forever and always. For my aunt, Maria Menge and also my uncle, Urbanus Bebi. Thank you for all your support morally and financially; thank you for listening all my random thoughts and your constant prayers during this thesis period. For Kevin and Lia, my siblings for asking tons of unimportant questions during phone call that indirectly boost my mood.

Third, for my lovely supervisors: Sir Reza, Miss Isyana and my examiner, Sir Wattimena. Ah, what will I be without all of you? Thank you for your guidance, I really appreciate that.

My uni life will not complete without their existence, my sisters from another parents. This paragraph specially dedicated for my girls: Ria Putri Santoso, Maria Kharisma Bulu Geroda, Maria Anggita, and Angela Merici. Put, thank you for all your help especially during my thesis period. Tears and words never enough to express how grateful I am to have you in my uni life. We share almost everything until our darkest secrets, we go to places together, be weird together, cried and vi

always there for you, whenever you need me. KBG, thank you for being the best roommate ever that always listening to my random thoughts, for our late convo, for our obsession with Korean guys, for always take care of me when I am sick, shoulder to lean on when I am on my weakest situation. Anggici, I do really admire how hardworking you are. You always give your best on everything and

icong, from you I learned that happiness can be found, even in the darkest of times, only if we remembers how to turn on the light. I learned that every obstacle in life is nothing if we know how to chill about it. Thank you for always being neutral in every situation, thank you for always supporting me, thank you for always there for me. Thank you for being you.

Hillary Tanida, Gregorius Hogan, and Angelin Febriana. Thank you Hilly, I that never feels other words of I love you, you know). For Hogan, thank you so much Gan for being a shoulder to lean on, for your words, for your existence. I always grateful I

on why I always laughed and smiled about our oppa, because I feel really happy I found the same level Shawol fangirl like you.

Special thanks also goes to PUCatSo especially 2013: Erwin, James, Becil, Tia, Rana, Jona, Yandhika, Yosa, Alex. PUSU 2015, for Reryana Risa Putri and Fikrya Dzikrillya, also Edelman team especially kak Aldo for his indirectly support, kak Yoyo for constantly sending me tons of meme about skripsi and kak Dit who always remind me about my thesis deadline and calm me down before the thesis defense. Thank you, I love you guys!

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

THESIS ADVISER ...... i

RECOMMENDATION LETTER ...... i

DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY ...... ii

PANEL OF EXAMINERS ...... iii

APPROVAL SHEET ...... iii

ABSTRACT ...... iv

ABSTRAK ...... v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... viii

LIST OF DIAGRAMS ...... xi

LIST OF FIGURES ...... xi

LIST OF GRAPHS ...... xii

CHAPTER I ...... 1

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

I.1. Background of Study ...... 1

I.2. Identification of the Problem ...... 7

I.3. Statement of the Problem ...... 15

I.4. Research Objectives ...... 15 viii

I.5. Significance of the Study ...... 16

I.6. Theoretical Framework ...... 16

I.6.1. Soft Power ...... 16

I.6.2. Public Diplomacy ...... 18

I.6.3. Cultural Diplomacy ...... 19

I.6.4. Threat Perception...... 20

I.6.5. Geopolitics ...... 21

1.6.6. Framework of Analysis ...... 21

I.7. Scope of Limitation of Study ...... 24

I.8. Literature Review ...... 25

I.8.1. New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations ...... 25

I.8.2. Public Diplomacy and Soft Power in East Asia ...... 26

I.9. Research Methodology ...... 27

I.10. Structure of the Thesis ...... 27

I.10.1. Chapter I - INTRODUCTION...... 27

I.10.2. Chapter II - REPUBLIC OF KOREA SOFT POWER ...... 27

I.10.3. Chapter III - ...... 27

I.10.4. Chapter IV ...... 28

I.10.5 Chapter V - CONCLUSION ...... 28

CHAPTER II ...... 29 ix

KOREA SOFT POWER ...... 29

...... 29

...... 30

II.1.2...... 32

II.1.3. Confucius Institute Project ...... 36

...... 38

...... 39

...... 40

CHAPTER III ...... 44

...... 44

-2016) ...... 44

-2013 ...... 47

-2016 ...... 48

CHAPTER IV ...... 55

THROUGH CULTURAL DIPLOMACY: ...... 55

...... 55

Cool Japan Program ...... 64

Cultural Diplomacy ...... 68

IV.4. Global Attitude toward Japan through Cool Japan Program...... 71

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CHAPTER V...... 74

CONCLUSION ...... 74

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 76

LIST OF DIAGRAMS

Diagram 1: Threat Perception ...... 20

Diagram 2: Framework of Analysis ...... 22

Diagram 3: Framework Analysis...... 65

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Map of East Asia ...... 1

Figure 2: World GDP Ranking 2016 (IMF, 2016) ...... 10

Figure 3: Soft Power Index of China on 2014 ...... 12

Figure 4: Soft Power Index of China on 2015 ...... 12

Figure 5: Soft Power Index of South Korea on 2014 ...... 13

Figure 6: Soft Power Index of South Korea on 2015 ...... 13

Figure 7: Soft Power Index of Japan on 2014 ...... 14

Figure 8: Soft Power Index of Japan on 2015 ...... 14

Figure 9: Soft Power Component (The New Persuader III, 2010) ...... 18

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Figure 10: Percentage and Number of Japanese Language Learners by Country/Region (Japan's Diplomatic Bluebook 2016 p.290) ...... 53

Figure 11: Steps of Achieving Cool Japan Mission (Cool Japan Proposal, Cool Japan Movement Promotion Council. 2014) ...... 59

Figure 12: Cool Japan Program of Supporting Overseas Expansion (Cool Japan Initiative, July 2014) ...... 60

Figure 13: Japan's Cool Program Expansion (Cool Japan Initiative, 2014) ...... 62

Figure 14: Japanese Budget Allocation for Cool Japan Program (Cool Japan Initiative, July 2014) ...... 63

LIST OF GRAPHS

Graph 1: Japan GDP Annual Growth Rate ...... 72

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

I.1. Background of Study

Japan is one of the countries in East Asian region, located on the western end of the Pacific Ocean and east of the Sea of Japan. Japan is located near with though Japan, China and ROK are neighbors in the East Asian region, the relationship between China, ROK and Japan are not harmonious.

Figure 1: Map of East Asia

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Started with China, geographically Japan and China are only separated with East China Sea, Yellow Sea and Sea of Japan. Despite of the fact that both of these countries are neighbors, it does not make these countries have a harmonious relationship with one another; quite the contrary, the relations between Japan and China are not in the good terms. Japan and China have historical past that becomes the roots of enmity and competition amongst the two states.

The root of the enmity between Japan and China happened from the war between Japan and China in the end of nineteenth century from 1894 until 1895 or known as First Sino or Japanese War that resulted in the Japanese winning the war and the loss of China. At first, Japan and China are having good relationship among each other but because of the First Sino war,1 the relationship between Japan and China has been deteriorating and even worse following by the war which is the second Sino-Japanese War that started from 1937 until 1945 with the same reason which is Japan wanted to claimed Manchuria, a large geographic region in Northeast China as a result the failure of Japan to take over Manchuria.

Moreover, Nanking Massacre that happened in the Chinese city of Nanking or known as Nanjing in late 19372 when imperial Japanese army forces brutally murdered hundreds of thousands of people that include both civilians and soldiers become a symbol of war from both of parties which are Japan and China. That could also symbolize how brutal Japan toward China was in the past.

After the impact of the wars between both countries that create deeper enmity between Japan and China, finally 1972 become a momentum when Japan and China has done bilateral cooperation as the result of their normalization in bilateral cooperation. However, by the existence of normalization still not create a

1 Yinan He, History, Chinese Nationalism and the Emerging Sino-Japanese Conflict, Taylor & Francis, Vol. I (February, 2007) p. 2 2 Zhigeng Xu, Nanjin Datusha (The Great Nanjing Massacre), Beijing, Jiefangjun Wenyi, 1987 p. 4 2

harmonious relation among them until the dispute of Senkaku Island; a group of uninhabited island located in the East China Sea, roughly due east Mainland China, west of Okinawa Island and northeast of Taiwan. A Chinese fishing trawler collided with two Japanese patrol vessels in Japanese territorial waters off the Senkaku Island that made the Japan and China relationship became tense.

Furthermore, ROK also not have good track relationship in the past with because although both countries are geographically close, impact from Korean Peninsula as the result of Japanese colonization on 1910 until 1945, it remains a painful subject and left the scar on most of Korean people.

However, in 1998 the visit from president of ROK, Kim Dae-Jung to Prime Minister of Japan, Keijo Obushi in order to discuss the intense economic relation.3 Despite of the fact that both of countries has put their effort and the progress are in order to achieve better relationship between Japan and ROK, the painful history from the past do not go away easily.

The impact of the past relationship between Japan and ROK triggered conflicts among these countries. Sentiments among both of the countries that related with their past history that make both of the countries are sensitive.4 For instance, the dispute of 2 small islands that known as Dokdo by Korean people or Japanese people known it as Takeshima, or internationally known as Liancourt Rocks.

The islands in the beginning are claimed by ROK since Japan does not acknowledge the islands as their own. However, after several years Dokdo being a part of ROK, Japan started to claim Dokdo or Takeshima Islands. Japan argued that the islands belong to Japan not ROK. Dokdo or Takeshima Islands are being

3 Sheen, Seungho. Japan-South Korea Relations: Slowly Lifting the Burden of History? Asia- Pasific Center for Security Studies, Vol. III (October, 2003) Pg. 2 4 Togo, Kazuhiko. -2003, The Quest of for Proactive Policy, (Paperback, August 1, 2005) p.161 3

contested because it has oil resource and rich with natural resources that will be very beneficial.5

However, the dispute of Dokdo or Takeshima Islands are more into dissatisfaction of ROK towards Japan acts that does not put more attention into scar that affected as a result of Japanese past history with ROK. However, Japan argued that the issue of their dispute are more into Japanese prestige that as the s towards Dokdo or Takeshima islands.

Moreover, realizing that by only strengthening hard power resource is insufficient, China and ROK nowadays shifting into the new approach to pursue national strategies as the ability to attract neighboring nations into its sphere of influence especially in the East Asia region which is strengthen their soft power.6

Professor Joseph Nye from Harvard University developed the concept of soft power and describes it as the ability of a state to attract and co-opt rather than to use force, to coerce or give money as a means of persuasion.7 As already defined by Nye, soft power basically involves the ability to attract support and the ability of an actor to set agendas on the basic of its values, culture, institutions and policies. In this depth, Nye considers soft power to often be beyond the control of the state and in general it includes non-military tools of national power such as state-led economic program and diplomacy.

t Beijing to lay the groundwork and become a major global power, not only with their industrial . However, China also focusing on strengthening their soft power tools especially through cultural and educational exchange.

5 Dokdo in Korea: A Story of Dokdo Island, a Korean Territory. (2006). Seoul: Dokdo Research and Preservation Association. p. 6 6 Green, H. Steven (2015). The Soft Power of Cool: Economy, Culture, and Foreign Policy in Japan. Vol I. Toyo University Report. p. 2 7 Joseph, Nye. Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power (New York: Basic Books, 1990) and was further developed in Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: Public Affairs, 2004). 4

Joshua Kurlantzick, an expert of Southeast Asia, China and Asian regionalism at the Council of Foreign Relations (CFR). He is observes: security realm, including not only popular culture and public diplomacy but also more coercive economic and diplomatic levers like aid and investment and participation in multilateral organization 8 nal goal: to be a leader in the developing world. In order to support its actions, China has strengthened its attraction through the extension of student-scholar exchanges, cultural centers, state-directed foreign investment, development aid and its influence at multilateral organizations.9 Furthermore, China as a country that rich with its culture and values spreading it through educational and exchange programs such as the Confucius Institute.10

Chinese economic and military influence in East Asia since 1980s has grown at an astoundingly rapid pace, at the same time the influence of Chinese soft power has grown as well. Beijing however, has implemented a diplomatic charm offensive in order to increase its influence in the region.11

On the other hand, China has begun to portray itself as nation seeking positive and progressive ties with other countries as a part of strategy by increasing its diplomatic efforts in East Asia region especially with Japan and ROK along with Vietnam, the Philippine, Indonesia and Thailand. China actions including become an active member in regional organization such as the East

8 Kurlanzick, Joshua. (2007) oft Power Is Transforming the World. New Haven,Yale University Press. p. 6 9 Ibid. p. 130 10 Confucius Institute is a Chinese non-profit public educational organization that collaborated se aim is to promote Chinese language and culture, along with support local Chinese teaching internationally and facilitate cultural exchanges. 11 Kurlanzick, Joshua (2007). World. New Haven, Yale University Press, p. 5 5

Asia Summit and ASEAN, and heavily increased its unconditional foreign aid, which have special appeal to the citizens of developing nations.

-largest economy, according to the World Bank.12

The rise of ROK transformation over the past 50 years is incredible, since the end of the Korean War. ROK has emerged as an economic powerhouse and has matched its economic progress through soft power. ROK has various tools of soft power that become a phenomenon or well known as Hallyu or Korean Wave that consisted of: music or known as Kpop (stands for Korean Pop), movies, television series or drama and Korean cuisines that nowadays have legions of admirers.

Korea strategists recently have begun to see the merits under two commonly shared premises of soft power. However the thing that should be aware is Korean diplomacy is weak compared to its hard power. However in terms of economic standing, ROK is the 11th largest economy in the world.13 Nevertheless, as a middle power ROK do not expect to compete with the surrounding major power of Japan and China in terms of hard power: military and economic power. According to this reality, soft power is increasingly perceived as an alternative source that would help Korea to enlarge their footprint in the East Asia region as well as the world.

Along with these facts that China and ROK are put concern to expand themselves through soft power, it indirectly triggered the insecurities of Japan. Japan,

12 http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/china/overview accessed on January 20, 2017 13 ailable: http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/GDP-ranking-table accessed on January 20, 2017 6

competing economically that continues in key industrial sectors. They want to coerce or induce others in achieving the outcomes through amassed economic resources. Due to the rise of China and ROK soft power, it triggers

Japan has been interested in wielding soft power that it has well recognize soft power importance in the making of national strategies and it attempted to implem strategies, Japan has its own distinctive cultural tradition that can be utilized as soft power assets: Japanese literature, music, art, design, fashion and culinary have long served as soft power potential as J-Pop (Japanese pop), manga (cartoon comic), and animation is extremely popular among the younger generation not only in Asia but also in the world (Marubeni Economic Research Institute, 2010). According to Shiraishi, he claims that Japan is hold as a key player in creating East Asian middle class structure.14

I.2. Identification of the Problem

side China has pursued soft power strategies in several areas. Hence, free trade agreement was a strategically calculated tool for China. Chinese leadership reassured that by signing the free trade agreement with ASEAN countries and making substantial tra 15 that agricultural products in particular including livestock, dairy products, vegetables, fruits, live plants, meat, and fishes and so on. This is was a conscious strategy of earning goodwill from ASEAN neighbors to China.

14 East Asia- (Ithaca: Cornell University Press ,2006) p. 232 15 The Early Harvest Program is a free trade agreement under the framework of China-ASEAN Free Trade and specifically designed the implementation between ASEAN Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement and China. 7

s another major sian nations. Since the late economy has been rapidly growing, average 9 percent in real GDP expanding. Because .16 Chin economic success itself provide soft power and with the fact that many developing countries. It is basically highlighted innovation, self-determination, gradualism, and sustainability and equality.

However, the rise of ROK transformation over the past 50 years is incredible, after the end of the Korean War. Although ROK is consider as a beginner in the competition of soft power.17

ROK has emerged as an economic powerhouse and has matched its economic progress through soft power. ROK has various tools of soft power that become a phenomenon or well known as Hallyu or Korean Wave that consisted of: Korean music or known as Kpop (stands for Korean Pop), movies, TV series or drama and Korean cuisines that nowadays have legions of admirers.

However as mentioned before that the rise of ROK are on their popular culture as a core of its soft power sources. ROK determined its cultural sector as one of the main industry for its economy in the new century in 199818 and it is often to be referred to as an example of successful practices in soft power.

Korean Wave economic status and power in Asia.19 Along with Korean wave that has made ROK to leading exporter of music, television programs and films to Asian

16 the Foreign Policy Centre Vol. I (May, 2004) p. 5 17 So Young Park. (2010). Transnational Adoption, Hallyu, and the Politics of Korean Popular Culture. Biography, Vol. 33 No. 1, p. 156

18 Ibid. 19 Ibid 8

countries by generating a total revenue that reached 500 million US dollar started in 2002 and 1 billion US dollars in 2005.

One of the important resources to enhance its reputation and attractiveness around the world is because ROK economic development was achieved within only a couple of decades. Usually characterized by export-led industrialization is not peculiar in the East Asia region and basically ROK largely indebted to the Japanese one. On the other hand, by adopting this strategy, ROK successfully accumulation, low level of technologies, and high unemployment ratio20 faced by ROK in the early of 1960 that mostly caused from the war devastation.

Nowadays, ROK has grown into 11th largest economy in the world, with China in the 2nd position as the largest economy in the world following by Japan in the 3rd place.

20 Korea, Economic and Political Weekly 34, No. 22 (May 29-Jun 4, 1999); 79 9

Figure 2: World GDP Ranking 2016 (IMF, 2016)

In the terms of soft power of China, they used cultural diplomacy as one of their strategic in expanding soft power relation. One of the samples soft power that led into cultural diplomacy21 is the establishment of the Confucius Institute (CI) by China government.

As mentioned before, China established the CI as Chinese language and culture teaching especially dedicated for overseas Chinese leaner. Around August 2011, China established in total of 353 Confucius Institute and 473 related Confucian classrooms in 104 countries and regions (Chinese Language Council

21 achievement of foreign policy objectives, and international culture relations as the practice of using diplomatic resources to facilitate the achievement of cultural policy objective (Kim & Ni, 2011:p.141) 10

language and culture teaching resources and making (Ministry of Education) services available worldwide, meeting the demands of overseas Chinese learners

(PRC Ministry of Education, 2012). With the effort from China to spread their cultural throughout the world is one of the indicators as effort to the rise of their soft power by using cultural diplomacy as the tool.

For ROK, the rising of their soft power is continuously growing especially

Hallyu in Korean) are including popular music or Korean pop (K-Pop), dance, television dramas, movies, tourism, language (Hangul), video game, dance (B-boys), fashion and culinary. The popularity of the Korean Wave are worldwide not only in East Asia, it throughout the world.22

Furthermore by the rise of Korean Wave around the world, the government of ROK has seen the opportunity and tried to take the advantage of the Korean Wave as a policy tool to improve its cultural and public diplomacy. Under Lee Presidency, the popularity of the Korean Wave as a tool of cultural diplomacy of ROK; seen as the way to promote Korean images in the world by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade and the Presidential Council of ROK.

22 So Young, Park. (2010). Transnational Adoption, Hallyu, and the Politics of Korean Popular Culture. Biography, Vol. 33 No. 1, p. 154

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Figure 3: Soft Power Index of China on 2014

Figure 4: Soft Power Index of China on 2015

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Figure 6: Soft Power Index of South Korea on 2014

Figure 5: Soft Power Index of South Korea on 2015

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Figure 8: Soft Power Index of Japan on 2014

Figure 7: Soft Power Index of Japan on 2015

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Based on the figures above, it describes the soft power index from the year of 2014 until 2015 between China, ROK, and Japan. According to the Elcano Global Presence Index, they measure the rank and the percentage based on the several aspects such as culture, sport, technology, tourism, and so on. In 2014, China achieved 32.1% and reached 31.8% in 2015. ROK reached 34.5% in 2014 and increase their percentage in 2015 up to 34.8%. However Japan reached 50.4% in 2014 but decreased to 48.2% in 2015.

Seeing how China and ROK rise with their own soft power are enough to make Japan in the uneasy position by the development of China and ROK soft power.23 China and ROK in the terms of soft power r time to time, meanwhile that led into the perspective of Japan need to invest power, Japan is need to building up its soft power. There is also the possibilities China and ROK could overlap Japan in the terms of developing its soft power especially through cultural diplomacy if Japan did not take actions to strengthen their soft power.

I.3. Statement of the Problem

It could be measured by the issue that the problem of this thesis would be as follows.

I.4. Research Objectives

The purpose of this research is to find the answer to the questions by power in East Asia Region. A qualitative analysis would be further conveyed to

23 According to the Elcano Global Presence Index, available on: http://explora.globalpresence.realinstitutoelcano.org

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see the implementation comparative and correlational means towards the available data.

I.5. Significance of the Study

encounter the rising of soft power from its neighboring countries, which are China and ROK by implementing their soft power strategies especially through cultural diplomacy. In order to get a clear and better understanding on how Japan position in the East Asia region and its effort to expand its soft power through cultural diplomacy that served in this thesis, hopefully could be useful to understand the soft power application especially through cultural diplomacy.

I.6. Theoretical Framework

The series of significant theories and concepts would be used in this research in order to gain exact perspective on the issue as well as gaining the comprehensive answer towards the problems. With realism and soft power as the base of this research.

I.6.1. Soft Power

According to Joseph Nye, he argued .24 something through attraction rather than coercion or According to Christopher Hill and Sarah Beadle defined soft power, ability to influence the behavior of others and obtain desired outcomes through attraction and co-

As already defined by Nye, soft power basically involves the ability to

24 Nye, J. S. (2008). The Power to Lead: Soft, Hard, and Smart. New York: Oxford University Press p. 4

16

attract support and the ability of an actor to set agendas on the basic of its values, culture, institutions and policies. In this depth, Nye considers soft power to often be beyond the control of the state and in general it includes non-military tools of national power such as state-led economic program and diplomacy.

-opt rather than to coerce with other countries that led to a country may obtain the outcomes it wants in world politics because other countries admiring its values, emulating its example, .25

However, Nye has elaborated the concept of the influence that derives from intangible sources, like culture, basic principles and values, public diplomacy that .26 However, Nye pointed three primary sources of soft power: culture, political values, and foreign policy.27 Furthermore, in the soft et of practices that create meaning for a 28 including high culture such as education literature, art, as well as cinema and television.

political ideals, and policies. However, when the implemented policies are seen as .29 Moreover, the main sources of soft power is culture, political institutions and values expressed in the policies that states follows within its boundaries and in the way it handles itself internationally.

However, Guilio M. Gallarotti, Professor of Government at Wesleyan University, USA highlighted the power in culture. With respect to the cultural aspect, soft power is formed by social cohesion, freedom, and sufficient

25 Nye, J. S. (2004) Soft Power: The Means of Success in World Politics. Barnes & Noble p. 11 26 Nye, Joseph S. 2002. Oxford University Press, Inc. p.p 8-11 27 Nye, J. (2004) Soft Power: The means to success in world politics, New York, Public Affairs. 28 Annals of the American Academy of Political and Science, 616, March, p.96 29 Rotman, Steve B., Revising the soft power concept; what are the means and mechanism of soft power? Journal of Political Power, 4:1, March, 2011 p.50

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opportunities for individuals, tolerance, and the alluring characteristics of a lifestyle that can enhance the image and perceived legitimacy of the state, and that in turn can help further its foreign policy objectives.30

Figure 9: Soft Power Component (The New Persuader III, 2010)

I.6.2. Public Diplomacy

Bruce Gregory define public diplomacy as:

-state and non-state actors to understand cultures, attitudes, and behavior; build and manage relationships; and influence thoughts and mobilize actions to advance their interests and values 31

and defined public diplomacy as: formation and execution of foreign policies. It encompasses dimensions of international relations beyond traditional diplomacy; the cultivation by governments of public opinion in other countries; the interaction of private groups and interests in one country with another; reporting of foreign affairs and

30 Nye, Joseph. S. Jr. 2002. Oxford University Press, Inc. pp. 113-115 31 Gregory, Bruce. (2011). Public Diplomacy: Enduring Characteristics, Elusive Transformation. The Hague Journal of Diplomacy. Vol. 6 p. 353

18

its impact on policy; communication between those whose job is communication, as diplomats and foreign correspondents; and the process of intercultural 32 It is a sense of a metaphor for the democratization of diplomacy following with multiple actors that playing a role in what was once an area to restricted to a few. However, operating in the field and collaborating with those outside government is becoming a necessary condition of success in diplomacy. Moreover, it is important to stress that the comprehensive knowledge network in which is public diplomacy are debated extends well beyond academia.33

.34 Hence, the writer agrees that public diplomacy as one of key instrument of soft power as the point that will be highlight by the writer according with the problems stated in this thesis.

I.6.3. Cultural Diplomacy

art and other aspects of culture among nations and their peoples to foster mutual .35 Moreover, cultural diplomacy is an important element of the wider endeavor of public diplomacy, which is consisted of all; that a nation, does to explain itself to the world (Cummings, 2003). However, public diplomacy is consider to be one of the most effective tools in any form of diplomatic toolbox, since cultural diplomacy is consists of their creative expression of nation sharing form, it is inherently enjoyable.

32 USC Public Diplomacy, p. 23 33 The Hague, Netherlands Institute of

34 The New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations, Palgrave Macmillan, p.4 35 Milton, C. Cummings, Cultural Diplomacy and the United States Government: A Survey (Washington DC: Center for the Arts and Culture, 2003) p.1

19

persuade through conquers or coerces through military might.36

Cultural diplomacy is an important component for the broader endeavor of public diplomacy that argued by Cummings would be a common understanding for this thesis by addressing the focus on the cultural diplomacy of Japan.

I.6.4. Threat Perception

According to Robert O. Tilman, there are five factors that influence threat perception which are: structural dimension, geopolitical dimension, historical dimension, socio-cultural dimension and economic dimension as shown in the diagram below.

Diagram 1: Threat Perception

Structural dimension is refers to the type of political system, regime structure and ideology. Geopolitical system itself is refers to size or geographical location which is in this thesis will be refer to the East Asia region. Moreover, historical

36 The Paradox o fAmerica Power (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp.8-9 and Joseph S. Nye, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: Public Affairs, 2004)

20

dimension is refers to the past experiences of particular non-states, which is for this thesis is addressed to historical enmity between Japan and China as well as Japan and ROK. On the other hand, economic dimension is refers to the economic system that influenced the development of the countries. Meanwhile, social-cultural dimension is refers to the characteristics of the people (pluralistic community or homogeneous).37

I.6.5. Geopolitics

Geopolitics is the art and practice in international relations of using power over given territory. It is a method of study foreign policy to explore, understand and predict international politic behavior through geographical variables.38 However, geopolitical become a prominent aspect in international politic because it is about the struggle for space and power.

1.6.6. Framework of Analysis

Furthermore, it is indeed requires to establish research framework to gain comprehensive and the right flow in order to give comprehensive understanding on the matter. Thus, in this regard the research framework is applied accordingly as shown in the diagram below.

37 Stein, J. G. (2013). Threat Perception in International Relations. Oxford Handbook Online p.25 38 Evans, G & Newnham , J., (1998) Penguin Books, London, UK.

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Diagram 2: Framework of Analysis

As one of a country that located in East Asia region, geographically Japan located near with China and ROK. On the regional level, the geopolitics between these countries are not harmonious with their historical enmity among these countries. Japan and China are having good relationship among each other but because of the First Sino war,39 the relationship between Japan and China has been deteriorating and even worse following by the war which is the second Sino-Japanese War that started from 1937 until 1945 with the same reason which is Japan wanted to claimed Manchuria, a large geographic region in Northeast China as a result the failure of Japan to take over

39 Yinan He, History, Chinese Nationalism and the Emerging Sino-Japanese Conflict, Taylor & Francis, Vol. I (February, 2007) p. 2

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Manchuria.40

However, Japan and ROK involved in the dispute of 2 small islands that known as Dokdo by Korean people or Japanese people known it as Takeshima, or internationally known as Liancourt Rocks. The islands in the beginning are claimed by ROK since Japan does not acknowledge the islands as their own. However, after several years Dokdo being a part of ROK, Japan started to claim Dokdo or Takeshima Islands. Japan argued that the islands belong to Japan not ROK. Dokdo or Takeshima Islands are being contested because it has oil resource and rich with natural resources that will be very beneficial41.

However realizing that strengthening hard power is insufficient, China and ROK are focusing on creating wider influence to the world by strengthening its soft power through Confucius Institute, soft power effort done by China and Korean Wave that done by ROK.42 Because of their geopolitical and historical enmity between Japan and both countries which China and ROK and it reflects on efforts.

According to the soft rank index done by Elcano Global Presence between Japan, China, and ROK,43 stagnant from time to time, meanwhile China and ROK and rising slow but sure. Japan saw the rise of soft power of China and ROK as a threat of Japan in the terms of soft power. According to Yoshizaki Tatsuhiko he said that,

The challenge thrown down by East Asia region especially with fellow East Asian countries: China and South Korea by the rising of its soft power, however, has made Japanese diplomacy realize the necessity to rebuilding its soft

40 Ibid. p. 4 41 Dokdo in Korea: A Story of Dokdo Island, a Korean Territory. (2006). Seoul: Dokdo Research and Preservation Association. p. 6 42 Soft Power in East Asia. The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. (2008). The Brookings Institution, Center For Northeast Asian Policy Studies in collaboration with The Chicago Council on Global Affairs and The East Asia Institute. 43 Elcano Global Index Soft Power Rank. Available on: http://explora.globalpresence.realinsitutoelcano.org

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power. In the post-Cold War world, the opportunity to deploy real military or economic power has decreased, and the roles played by instruments of soft power such as culture and image have grown larger. Many of the confrontations in this era will take place through the interchange of words and ideas. It will be an era when the battles among countries are virtual ones. It is necessary to employ as many different routes as possible to create a broad base of Japan fans.44

Moreover, according to threat perception theory by Robert. O. Tilman, geopolitical system itself is refers to size or geographical location,45 which is in this case refer to the East Asia region. Which means, according to the geographic slowly but sure rising in the soft power, it create the insecurities on Japan and the rise of soft power that done by China and ROK seeing as threa power. Moreover, historical dimension refers to the past experiences of particular non-states, which is for this thesis is addressed to historical enmity between Japan and China as well as Japan and ROK.

Meanwhile that led into the perspective of Japan need to invest seriously in rebuilding its soft power. Moreover, Japan tried to strengthen its soft power with the public diplomacy policies that specified into cultural diplomacy approach, which is through Cool Japan program.46

In response building up its soft power. There is also the possibilities China and ROK could overlap Japan in the terms of developing its soft power especially through cultural diplomacy if Japan did not take actions to strengthen their soft power.

I.7. Scope of Limitation of Study

The study will be limited as follows:

1. diplomacy and its implementation especially in the East Asia region. However

44 Tatsuhiko, Yoshizaki, Gaiko Forum, Vol. 7, No.1, Spring 2007, p.26 45 Stein, J. G (2013). Threat Perception in International Relations. Oxford Handbook Online. p. 25 46 Cool Japan Proposal, Cool Japan Movement Promotion Council. (2014). Cabinet Office, Government of Japan.

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the study will be limited to the regional and the state level. In the terms of public diplomacy, the focus on this thesis will be curtailed to cultural diplomacy.

2. The data and information that being collected on this thesis will be oft power through cultural diplomacy from the year 2010-2016. The reason of the chosen time period is to taking the recent dynamic power that reflected by its cultural diplomacy.

I.8. Literature Review

I.8.1. New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations

In order to understanding the concept of public diplomacy, the book of New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations47 is helpful to understand the whole concept of public diplomacy as a part of soft power. It has public diplomacy.

The first chapter of the book is introduction chapter on the new public diplomacy and its theoretical reflections on how the subject first of all aims at conceptual clarification.

The second part of the book shows some diversity displayed public diplomacy in practice across the world.

The third chapter of the book is focusing on deal with rather exceptional forms of public diplomacy compared to the dominant discourse, which in the other hand appears to regard public diplomacy as an activity of democratic state or state in transition. However, the final part of the book itself stresses on explo

47 Melissen, Jan, 2005 " Palgrave Macmillan

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I.8.2. Public Diplomacy and Soft Power in East Asia

If the previous book is encourage the readers to understand the public diplomacy in general, in this book48 will be specifically discuss the practical of soft power and public diplomacy in the East Asia region. Basically, this book aims to contribute gain understanding of soft power as well as public diplomacy by evaluating these two concepts through the ASEAN prism of experiences; that could be defined as the ten ASEAN (Associated of South-East Asian Nations) countries plus China, Japan and Korea.

In the East Asia region, soft power has even acquired and continues to possess an almost magical attractive quality. Despite of all, this book is recommended to be exploring as it helpful to understand the role of soft power and public diplomacy especially in the East Asia region.

I.8.3. Contesting Soft Power: Japanese Popular Culture in East and Southeast Asia by Nissim Kadosh Otmazgin49

This research paper written by Nissim Kadosh Otmazgin is an excellent through cultural diplomacy. It explains on how the last two decades Japan popular culture industries have m their products that have been widely disseminated and consumed not only in the level of East Asia region but almost around the world.

This research paper is exploring the connection between popular culture and soft power by analyzing the various activities of Japanese popular culture industries as a cultural power to represent Japan image in the global level. This through their cultural products.

48 Public Diplomacy and Soft Power in East Asia Palgrave Macmillan 49 Otmazgin, Nissim Kadosh. (2008) Contesting Soft Power: Japanese Popular Culture in East and Southeast Asia, Vol 8, Issue 1 (Oxford University Press in association with the Japan Association of International Relations)

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I.9. Research Methodology

This research is design as descriptive research, focusing on fact-finding inquiry. However, in order to answer the problem that presented in this research, literature review is conducted that concerning on soft power, public diplomacy especially cultural diplomacy and its implication in East Asia region. The instruments that being used in this research are not limited only with printed version, but also helped with the electronics finding, especially from internet.

I.10. Structure of the Thesis

I.10.1. Chapter I - INTRODUCTION

The first chapter will introduce the issue being examined in this thesis. This chapter will be the fundamental aspects of the thesis that consisted of the essential information regarding to the topic. It is aimed to overview of the thesis as a whole without going too far into the detail. This chapter is aimed to provoke the reader to look further into the thesis.

I.10.2. Chapter II - REPUBLIC OF KOREA SOFT POWER

This chapter will provide the reader the information regarding to the development of soft power done by China and ROK as neighboring countries of Japan as well as part of East Asia region. The second chapter will start on how China and ROK realized that soft power hold a significant role and its implementation towards their countries in terms of economy and their cultural diplomacy and has invested on its soft power capability from 2010-2016.

I.10.3. Chapter III - DIPLOMACY

specific topic, which reader bigger picture on how soft power and public diplomacy developed in the

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scope of cultural diplomacy. Henceforth, Ministry of Foreign Affairs Japan would primarily focus the view of this chapter on the Diplomatic Bluebook and

I.10.4. Chapter IV

This chapter serves as the center or heart of this research where the whole aspects as the re chapter II and chapter III, this chapter will be elaborate further about the soft power itself, how Japan respond to the rise of China and ROK soft power. However, this one will be focus on the efforts of Japan in order to expand its soft power and public diplomacy through cultural diplomacy, which is with Cool Japan program.

I.10.5 Chapter V - CONCLUSION

Thi through cultural diplomacy that may be used for future research regarding to the similar issue.

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CHAPTER II

REPUBLIC OF KOREA SOFT POWER

Since in the early 1993, China put interest in soft power when a current member of the CCP Political Bureau and the concurrent Head of the Central Policy Research Office, Wang Hunin introduced to .50 Moreover, Hu Jintao as the general secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China at the time, said in his speech that soft power is identified as an important component of national policy of China that being included in a political report to the 17th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC) that held in October, 15th 2007.51

Moreover, in the Political Report of the 18th National Congress of the CPC in 2012, soft power was recognized had become an establishment element of China. Thus on this Congress, retiring President Hu Jintao gave some content of idea:

Socialist core values include prosperity (fuqiang), democracy (minzhu), civilization (Wenming), harmony (hexie) as important to nation-building; freedom (ziyou), equality (pingdeng), justice (gongzheng), rule of law (fazhi) as important for the construction of an ideal society; and patriotism (aiguo), respect for work (jingye), faith (chengxin), friendship (youshan) as moral standards for nationa 52

50 Culture as N Journal of Fudan University, Vol. 3 p. 91-96 51 Hu Jiintao speech in Report to the Seventeenth National Congress of the Communist Party of Hold High the Great Banner of Socialism with Chinese Char Full text can be access on: http://www.china.org.cn/english/congress/229611.htm 52 Hu Jiintao speech in Report to the Seventeenth National Congress of the Communist Party of Hold High the Great Banner of Socialism with Chinese

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confrontation and having peace as well as mutual understanding, communicating Chinese opinions and positions establishing a good international image for China, creating a favorable international environment and promoting a harmonious, peaceful, and co-operative world.

China soft power are influenced with the traditional culture based on Confucianism; the tradition of practice and thought associated with a renowned scholar Kong Fuzi. (De Bary, 1999, p.41). Moreover, the government of China holds the important role as the lead in shaping the development of society and these resources. Thus, in its soft-power considerations, the little importance of the nature of its foreign policy is external behavior towards some of its neighbors that detracts from its overall world standing.

culture. One of the influence factors is by Chinese Marxism. China build the image of its version of Marxism version has raised living standards, generated sustained economic growth and becoming the second-largest economy in the world, playing important role during the 2008 financial crisis by mitigating the impact of the financial crisis itself, delivering a successful Olympic Games in 2008 and could putting on the Shanghai Exposition in 2010.

Nevertheless, China pledged $50 billion to the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, meanwhile $40 billion to the Silk Road Economic Belt, $25 billion to the Maritime Silk Road, $41 billion to the New Development Bank. Moreover, Beijing also invest $1.25 worldwide.53 Based on this investment,

full text can be access on: http://www.china.org.cn/english/congress/229611.htm 53 Available:http://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-diplomacy-idUSKBN0IS0BQ20141108 (retrieved January, 2017)

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China is generally regards anything orders than military power as a soft-power resource, economic assistance and foreign aid that become important elements as

has pursued soft power strategies in several areas. Hence, free trade agreement was a strategically calculated tool for China. Chinese leadership reassured that by signing the free trade agreement with ASEAN countries and making substantial

54 agricultural products in particular including livestock, dairy products, vegetables, fruits, live plants, meat, and fishes and so on. This is was a conscious strategy of earning goodwill from ASEAN neighbors to China.

economy has been rapidly growing, average 9 percent in real GDP expanding. B 55

that many developing countries have been attracted to its model of development.

56 democratic packages of developmental prescription and market- oriented. It is basically highlighted innovation, self-determination, gradualism, and sustainability and equality. Moreover, the economy of China continued to

54 The Early Harvest Program is a free trade agreement under the framework of China-ASEAN Free Trade and specifically designed the implementation between China and ASEAN Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement. 55 Joshua Cooper Ramo, a senior advisor to Goldman Sachs and adjunct professor at Tsinghua University, in a research report entitled Beijing Consensus that published in May 2004 at the he term of - profile foreign media reports (London: The Foreign Policy Centre, 2004). 56 The Washington Consensus is based on institutions such as World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the US Treasury Department. Basically, The Washington Consensus is reform package promoted for crisis-wracked developing countries by Washington, D.C

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grow apace and the country began to play a significant role in the world economy.

According to exchange of ideas, values, information, traditions, beliefs, systems, and other 57 Cultural exchange basically involved various sector including music, literature, sport, art, economy and science. To achieve long term-benefits for example building relationship, promoting trade and foreign investment, enhancing socio- cultural understanding and promoting national interest are the aims of cultural diplomacy itself.

For China, soft power is important for various reasons. It is seen as an alternative approach in order to maintain sustainable development, to balance onment that -win cooperation, equality and mutual trust.

According to Hu Jintao in his speech during report to the seventeenth national congress of the Communist Party of China on October 15, 2007 he said, source of national cohesion and creativity and a factor of growing significance in the competition in overall national strength, and the Chinese people have an increasingly ardent desire for a richer cultural life. We must keep to the orientation of advanced socialist culture, bring about a new upsurge in socialist cultural development, stimulate to the cultural creativity of the whole nation, and enhance culture as part of the soft power of our country to the better guarantee

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57 Milton, C. Cummings, Cultural Diplomacy and the United States Government: A Survey (Washington DC: Center for the Arts and Culture, 2003) 58 Hu Jiintao speech in Report to the Seventeenth National Congress of the Communist Party of Hold High the Great Banner of Socialism with Chinese Characteristic and Strive for New Victories in Building a Moderately Prosperous Soci in the section VII: Promoting Vigorous Development and Prosperity of Socialist Culture. Full text can be access on: http://www.china.org.cn/english/congress/229611.htm

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Soft power building is a conducive to the domestic program of building a -Wen leadership in order to tackle mounting domestic social challenges as well as to maintain the legitimacy -defense shield.59

However, there are many tools that could help to build up soft power including news and radio channels, the internet, book publishing, cultural events and performances, worldwide event for instance the Olympic Games, academic communication, tourism and Chinese learning institutes.60

Former Minister of Culture, Cai Wu argues that precious assets to attract not only neighboring countries that share Confucian heritage with China but also

By holding the belief argues that,

61 Moreover, various institutions and organization have held forums and dialogues in order to promote soft power projection. The China Foreign -cultural communications conference that was sponsored by the International Public Center at Fudan developm .

Not only with organized forums and dialogues for promote soft power; through the 2008 Olympic Games, the 2010 Shanghai Expo, and the Confucius

59 Li, M. (2008). Soft Power in Chinese Discourse: Popularity and Prospect. S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies. [Online]. Available on: http://search.proquest.com.libezproxy2.syr.edu/docview/58821723?accountid=14214 retrieved on 2017 60 ]. Available on: http://news.xinhuanet.com/newmedia/2006-07/17/content_4845045.htm retrieved on 2017. 61 Xintian, Yu . Shanghai Institute of International Studies, p. 16

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and resurge itself as one of the most influential countries in the world.

Moreover, the Chinese government allocated budget for cultural aspect that reached 12.3 billion Yuan in 2006 (ca. 1.9 billion US$) that increase for 23.9 percent compared with 2015. In the terms of diplomatic spending especially in soft power activities in 2007, China allocated budget reached 23 billion Yuan (ca 3.6 billion US$) that rise 37.3 percent compared to the last budgeting.62 According to The Economist, through the Hanban, the Chinese government itself provide $278 million, more than six times as much as in 2006.63

However, China has earned 33 UNESCO World Heritage sites featuring

Huangshan, and the Imperial Palace, which attract foreigners worldwide.64

China realized that the investment through soft power is essential according to Yu Xintian. However through promote Chinese culture; China hopes to assure the world that it is a civilized, responsible and trustworthy nation.65

According to a professor of International Relations at Renmin University of China; Pang Zhongying stated that,

priorities. 66

The Chinese government has clearly focus on culture to expand cultural diplomacy. In the 17th

62 Li B, Cheng Y and Wang - 03/14/content_5847040.htm retrieved on 2017. 63 http://www.economist.com/news/china/21659753-communist-party-turns-ancient-philosophy- support-confucius-says-xi-does retrieved on January, 2017 64 Background Brief p.6 65 International Studies Vol. I No. 2 p.15 66 Pang Zhongying. (2008), , Brookings Institution [Online]. Available on: https://www.brookings.edu/opinions/the-beijing-olympics-and- chinas-soft-power/ retrieved on 2017.

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that was officially introduced by President Hu that stressed on the importance of had b realized that cultural products and activities need to promote by the government and there is a fast growing need for cultural products and services.

Former Secretary General of the Communist Party of China, Hu Jintao at the 17th Communist Party Congress in 2007 relate soft power and the role of

cohesion and creativity and a factor of growing significance in the competition in overall national strength. 67 The purpose of China to improve its cultural industry by launch major cultural projects creates a thriving cultural market, nurture investors and enhance its international competitiveness68. However, this century is a period for China in development. China must firmly grasp this historical opportunity, promoting cultural development and working hard in order to achieve major rise in its .69

Government of China establishing Chinese TV, cable and internet broadcasts worldwide, promoting Chinese language learning in order to educate foreigners about China. Chinese government invested 45 billion Yuan (US$7 with services in English, Spanish, and French, and actively contributed in

67 Hu Jiintao speech in Report to the Seventeenth National Congress of the Communist Party of China on O Hold High the Great Banner of Socialism with Chinese full text can be access on: http://www.china.org.cn/english/congress/229611.htm 68 Bandurs -measures to bolster its global cultural prowess. [Online]. Available on: http://cmp.hku.hk/2007/12/19/hitting- hard-with-soft-power-china-explores-macro-measures-to-bolster-its-global-cultural-prowess/ retrieved on 2017 69 Ibid.

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participating in regional multinational organization.70

II.1.3. Confucius Institute Project

One of the soft power programs that also as a form of cultural diplomacy done by government of China is Confucius Institute or also known as (CI). ublic diplomacy goals.

The Confucius Institute itself is a non-profit organization program under Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban) that correlated with Ministry of Education in China that aims for promoting Chinese culture and language through education and various activities especially dedicated for foreign learner and Chinese cultural enthusiast.

According to Don Starr, he defined the CI as:

The mission statement is to strengthen educational cooperation, promote the development of Chinese language education and increase mutual 71 The pioneer of the CI was inaugurated in Seoul, South Korea in 2004.72 According to the official Hanban website, there were 358 CI and 500 affiliated Confucius Classrooms that established in more than 96 countries. The rapid change of the development of the CI is significant, increased from 691 in 2010 with 24%.73

The organized cultural activities also having a significant change from 7,500 in 2010 to 130,000 in 2011. The participation rose exponentially growing

70 Meng, J., and Qian, H. (2007). Journalism Quarterly Vol. II p. 92 71 Don Starr. (2009). European Journal of Education, Vol. I No. 44 p. 71 72 Background Brief p. 12 73 Confucius Institute Headquarters (Hanban) official website. Available on: http://english.hanban.org/node_7719.htm retrieved on January 2017

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in 2010 it only reached 3 million and in 2011 it reached 8 million.74 By the end of 2013, China had established 440 institutes and 646 classrooms serving 850,000 registered students. There will be plans for 60 institutes with 350 classrooms to

Education plans to set up 1,000 the CI.75

According to The Economist, Chinese government through Hanban, provides institutes with sponsors cultural events and instructors. However, for every the CI, Chinese government continues to give about $100,000 annually to each CI as well as pays Chinese language instructors. With this budget allocation, it drives colleges to provide more programs related to China.76

Every CI ties in partnership with a Chinese university. Because of people especially student exchange or foreign learner wants to have direct connection and interaction with local people of China, this partnership is deemed as attractive. The partner of universities in China provides various opportunities as well as language teacher for the exchange students, staff, and faculty.77

Through the establishment of the CI, the consistent efforts are made by the Chinese government in the past decade in in order to build soft power. With the establishment of the CI, it is not only just a provider of language education service. On behalf of learning new language and culture, it is considerably bring people into larger scale, cultural traditions, sharing the way of life of China that can be intensively delivered through various cultural events through the CI. It is basically deliver how to tolerance and achieved mutual understanding as long as the promotion of world peace, as the foundation from the CI itself to deliver their peaceful rise

74 lable on: http://www.uschinapress.com/2011- 12/12/content_1169778.htm retrieved on 2017. 75 Confucius Institute Headquarters (Hanban) official website. Available on: http://english.hanban.org/node_7719.htm retrieved on January 2017 76 Schmidt, P. (2010). The -financed centers prompt http://chronicle.com/article/At-US- Colleges/124975/ retrieved on 2017. 77 Ibid

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argument that refers into build a harmonious world that featuring sustained peace as well as common prosperity.78

Based on cultural diplomacy theory that believes individual academics along with academic institution are agents of an effective public diplomacy to act as unofficial cultural diplomats that involved in cultural exchange, even though the individual or the academic institutions motivation might be purely for institutional or personal such as wanting to develop a greater knowledge base through academic exchange or to demonstrate their work and ideas to a new audience without any political or economic agenda.79

From this perspective, Chinese universities act as unofficial cultural diplomats, as their main motivation; desire to expand their contacts ad exchanges with foreign academic institutions. In return, they have benefited from their participation in the ventures, which can expand their contacts and exchanges with foreign academic institutions.80

Even ROK still considered as beginner in the competition for soft power, the rise of ROK transformation over the past 50 years are incredible, especially the rise of ROK happened after the end of the Korean War. ROK has emerged as an economic powerhouse and has matched its economic progress through soft

.81 ROK has various tools of soft power that become a big phenomenon or well known as Hallyu or Korean Wave that consisted of: Korean music or known as Kpop (stands for Korean Pop), movies, TV series or drama and Korean cuisines that nowadays have legions of admirers.

78 Ibid 79 www.culturaldiplomacy.org/index.php?en_culturaldiplomacy accessed January, 2017. 80 Paradise, J.F. (2009). The Role of Confucius Institute in Asian Survey Vol. 49 No. 4, pp. 647 81 Joseph, S. Nye Jr, (2010) [Online]. Available on: https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/south-korea-s-growing-soft- power?barrier=accessreg accessed on January 20, 2017

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Economy

known as Korean Wave, it is often understood as the logical outgrowth of us and power in Asia.82

However as mentioned before, the rise of ROK are on their popular culture as a core of its soft power sources. ROK determined its cultural sector as one of the main industry for its economy in the new century in 199883 and it is often to be referred as an example of successful practices in soft power.

Along with Korean wave that has made ROK to leading exporter of music, television programs and films to Asian countries by generating a total revenue that reached 500 million US dollar started in 2002 and 1 billion US dollars in 2005. This development model is not peculiar in the East Asia region and basically ROK largely indebted to the Japanese one. On the other hand, by adopting this strategy, ROK successfully overcame several difficulties, such as a shortage of food, inadequate capital accumulation, low level of technologies, and high unemployment ratio84 faced by ROK in the early of 1960 that mostly caused from the war devastation.

ROK reached 1.80% of average quarterly GDP growth from year 1970 until 201085 allows ROK to establish a wide range of its foreign policies towards the rest of the world, especially for developing countries in Asia.

couple of decades in order to enhance its attractiveness and reputation globally. However, the phenomenon of Korean Wave has a lot of positive effects directly

82 So Young, Park Biography 33, no 1 (Winter 2010) p.159 83 Mingjiang Li, (Lexington Books, 2009) p.33 84 Tamio Hattori Korea, Economic and Political Weekly 34, No. 22 (May 29-Jun 4, 1999); p.79 85 South Korea GDP growth rate that could be access on: tradingeconomics.com/Economics/GDP- Growth.aspx?Symbol=KRW [accessed Jan 25, 2017]

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and indirectly in the economy sector. For instance, the increasing of Korean brand products such as cosmetic, cellphone, or fashion items as the impact from the casts of Korean drama that using the same products, indirectly endorsed the brand by showing the products in the Korean drama.

By seeing the phenomenon of culture is increasing by how people especially foreign audience would like to learn about Korea especially for the language and its culture. Many of them also want to learn Korean language and culture as well that indicated that if a that country is attractive in terms of culture.

The phenomenon of Korean pop culture has begun to spread from its comfort zone in Asia to more global audiences in the Middle East, Africa, Europe, and the America.86

Seeing this phenomenon, the Korean government has tried to take the advantage of this phenomenon as a policy tool in order to improve its cultural and public diplomacy. Especially, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade and the Presidential Council on Nation Branding using the popularity of Korean Wave to seek the advantage in order to promote Korean national interest and to enhance Korean images in the world. The uniqueness of Korean Wave especially on its music are by combining the Westernized modernity with just the right amount of Asian culture. Korea took advanced foreign cultures, grafted them onto its own, and produced an advanced culture all its own.87

86 The Korean Wave: A New Pop Culture Phenomenon (2011). Contemporary Korea No. 1. Korean Culture and Information Service, Seoul p. 11 87 Ibid. p. 13

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According to Lee (2009):

orean Wave can contribute to its soft power by providing of Korean popular culture, and also producing internationally influential heroes 88 Moreover, currently the subject and object of diplomacy has expanded from government-oriented actors to private ones such as non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and in the terms of the means of diplomacy, the importance of the so- the aspect of culture.89

Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (MOFAT) of ROK made efforts in order to promote public diplomacy, a diplomacy that approaches the people of other countries directly by means of knowledge, art, language, media, and aid and so on, and strived to make it as the third pillar of diplomacy with economic and political diplomacy, beyond the traditional government-oriented diplomacy.90

Subsequently, MOFAT start to promote public diplomacy and focusing on cultural diplomacy by launched t the year of 2010 with the cooperation with the Korea Foundation (KF) on May 17, 2010. This forum is as a part of its efforts to stimulate the studies and a permanent advisory group that consisting of experts on public diplomacy from various field such as: culture, academia, media, society and economy.91

However, MOFAT develops the programs to support various cultural events that utilize the talents of those Korean artists residing overseas, in order to

88 Lee, G. (2009). The Review of Korean Studies No. 12 p. 123 89 Community, South Korea p. 268. Available on: http://www.mofa.go.kr/ENG/policy/whitepaper/index.jsp?menu=m_20_160 90 Ibid. p. 269 91 Ibid. p. 269

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maximize the use of phenomenon of Korean Wave. The program itself is helped the Korean diplomatic missions to more efficiently contribute to improving uch as traditional and art exhibitions and dance performances.92

Korean government effort for strengthening mutual understanding by using an approach through cultural diplomacy by MOFAT has also dispatched Korean performance teams and held Korean art fairs and Korean film festivals abroad sponsored by the Korea Foundation; which is an affiliated organization of

.93

Implementing the aim of MOFAT which is to promote good image of Korea through cultural activities, MOFAT sent Korean cultural delegations out to celebrate the 200th anniversary of independence of Central and South America and the 20th anniversary of establishment of diplomatic ties with Czech in the year of 2010.94 However, this is also contributed to enhancing the friendly and reliable relationships with counterpart countries by introducing the dynamic of Korean culture on the occasion of the memorable diplomatic events.

To be specified in the area of Korean Wave or known as Hallyu, MOFTA has continued to support overseas broadcasting of Korean TV dramas since 2006; since Korean dramas also one of the major driving forces of Hallyu.95

MOFTA has endeavored by cooperating with Arirang TV and Korea Foundation to promote Korean public diplomacy through visual media by providing overseas TV stations with videotapes and DVDs that introduce Korea and Korean culture to audiences abroad.

However, in areas where private broadcasters have found difficulties in gaining access, especially in Africa, Latin America, and Middle East airing

92 Ibid, p. 270 93 Ibid. p. 273 94 Ibid. 95 Ibid. p. 278

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Korean TV dramas and programs in those continents are helped to create a positive environment for the strengthening of resource diplomacy.96

Moreover, in order to promote and increase the export of Korean films, which have already gained worldwide recognition, MOFAT has supported the screening of Korean films in major international film festivals such as: the Berlin, Cannes, and Venice film festivals.97

However, MOFTA also has hosted various events that related with Korean Pop and Korean food such as the K-pop and K-Food World Festival, the Quiz on Korea and various contests related with South Korea (music and dance cover of K-pop singers, calligraphy, and art activities related with Korean culture) while working in cooperation with Korean broadcasters such as KBS, MBC, and Arirang TV.98

96 Ibid. 97 Ibid. p. 279 98 Community, South Korea p. 374. Available on: http://www.mofa.go.kr/ENG/policy/whitepaper/index.jsp?menu=m_20_160

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CHAPTER III

DIPLOMACY

-2016)

Bec mostly after post-war, Japan faced with a stagnant economy and emerging of China and ROK99 the region and simply as an extension of politics by other means. Even though Japan is still in the top position in terms of soft power and their economy, however they faced stagnant position that hold by Japan meanwhile ROK and China are significantly growing in the terms of soft power along with their economy.100

Nevertheless, this is the reason why Japan need to focus to expand its soft power by emphasized the utilization of soft power to augment China and ROK influence.101

Japanese cultural diplomacy purposed to dispel negative images of Japan by attempted to straighten up the misconception regarding Japan in the foreign countries. Nonetheless, Japan present as a pioneer of postmodern culture. The soft power instruments of Japan that included: pop music, cuisine, anime, manga, cultural activities.102

99 .d). [Online]. Retrieved from https://mises.org/library/explaining-japans-recession accessed on 2017. 100 Based on Elcano Global Presence Index. Japan rank in soft power and economy. Retrieved from http://explora.globalpresence.realinstitutoelcano.org (see chapter I figure 7 and 8) 101 [Online]. Available on: http://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_international/471476.html accessed on January, 2017. 102 Ibid.

44

The extent of Japanese popular culture that well known in the world in general and in East Asia region in particular; indicated it could serve as resource of soft power.103

nine universities, including Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Georgetown. The program itself is the first time for over than 40 years Japan has funded such studies at the United States universities. According to the Prime Minister of Japan, Shinzo Abe, this m growing influence of China and South Korea.104

project related with soft power across around the world, replacing the hard power that country had and then lost, first in World War II and later with the stagnation of its economic might in the 1990s.105 The government of Japan named the global image. Moreover, Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) is collaborated with the private sector through overseas diplomatic establishments and the Japan Foundation to promote cultural exchanges meanwhile it taking into the consideration of characteristic of each country.106

It is no coincidence behind the reason why Japan used its cultural products vehicle, it made against the backdrop of a rising China by the establishment of its Confucian Institute as one of the efforts done by the government of China to

103 Craig, T.J. (2000). Japan Pop!: Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. An East Gate Book. M. E Sharpe p. 13 104 Shino, Yuya ww.reuters.com/article/us-japan-diplomacy- idUSKBN0M905M20150313 retrieved on January, 2017. 105 [Online]. Available on: http://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_international/471476.html accessed on January, 2017. 106 Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan, Diplomatic Bluebook 2010, p. 17

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boost their cultural diplomacy, along with the rising of ROK with their phenomenon of Korean Wave.

According to Yoshizaki Tatsuhiko that come up with the idea of Japan need to market the Japanese brand as well as enhance its international image power and economy, especially with China. However, he said:

The challenge thrown down by East Asia region especially with fellow East Asian countries: China and South Korea by the rising of its sot power, however, has made Japanese diplomacy realize the necessity to rebuilding its soft power. In the post-Cold War world, the opportunity to deploy real military or economic power has decreased, and the roles played by instruments of soft power such as culture and image have grown larger. Many of the confrontations in this era will take place through the interchange of words and ideas. It will be an era when the battles among countries are virtual ones. It is necessary to employ as many 107 However due to this issue, Japanese government has been examining ways in order to promote Japanese cultural exports for earn economic benefits and nurture positive appreciations of the country overseas. Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) and Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) are major players in this practice that emphasizing in the rising importance how soft power.108

Japan Diplomatic Bluebook which is the condensed diplomatic text is a part of

rder to strengthening its relations especially focusing on soft power efforts through cultural diplomacy approach.

107 Tatsuhiko, Yoshizaki, Gaiko Forum, Vol. 7, No.1, Spring 2007, p.26 108 -japan-diplomacy- idUSKBN0M905M20150313 retrieved on 2017.

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-2013

is stressed various ways and program as effort to promote understanding and trust toward Japan109. MOFA implements to promote Japanese language overseas, including introduce pop-culture and other Japanese contemporary culture, and communicate Japanese foreign policy towards intellectual abroad. Japan foundation provides Japanese language programs, the government of Japan dispatched volunteers to four countries in Eastern and Central Europe (Poland, Romania, Hungary and Bulgaria). These volunteers are engages with Japanese language education and cultural activities under the Japan Culture Volunteer Program. Moreover, the Ministry assigned young leaders in the field of fashion as the Trend Communicators of Japanese Pop- in February and dispatched them to Japanese culture-related events in various countries.110

diplomatic anniversaries with other countries. With cultural grant assistance that provided by MOFA of Japan, it is actively supporting the preservation and restoration of capacity building and cultural heritage, along with making intellectual contributions towards establishing frameworks for international cooperation and standard-setting in the field of culture, through cooperation with the United Nations of Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and also with other organization.111

More than 100 Japanese language educational institutions were participated in the Japan Foundation (JF) Nihongo Network (Sakura Network) which is the system that links with the whole Japanese language institutions overseas that established through the Japan Foundation in 2010. However, the Ministry also takes the opportunity to present Japanese culture and current situation in Japan at

109 Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan, Diplomatic Bluebook 2010, p. 21 110 Ibid. 111 Ibid.

47

overseas events such as the World Expo 2010 Shanghai China (the Shanghai Expo) and Japan Expo 2010 (Paris, France) with a perspective to have better understanding and fostering interest toward Japan.112

However in addition to these measures, the Ministry also advance people-to- people and intellectual exchanges to have better understanding of Japan, inviting international opinion leaders and promising individuals likely to attain future leadership positions in different fields to Japan, supporting the participation of Japanese intellectuals at all types of international conferences and promoting the acceptance of exchange students and other youth from overseas.113

introducing various aspect of Japanese traditional and pop culture and has been promoting Japanese language education abroad through the Japan Foundation. Moreover, through collaboration and cooperation with other ministries, agencies and various organizations, MOFA of Japan proactively communicates the advantages of Japan, values of Japanese people and the appeals of regional cities by making the most of Japanese diplomatic missions overseas.114

-2016

introduces diverse aspects of Japanese traditional culture and pop culture in order to improve image of Japan in the world. The efforts include to promoting Japanese language through the Japan Foundation as the step to increasing importance of soft power.115

However, the MOFA of Japan supports international exchange activities through sports activities. At the International Olympic Committee (IOC) Session held in Buenos Airies, Tokyo was selected as the host city for the upcoming 2020

112 Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan, p. 26 113 Ibid. 114 Ibid. p. 31 115 Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan, Diplomatic Bluebook 2014, p. 38

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Olympic and Paralympic Games. Therefore, in order to prepare for a successful event in 2020, the Ministry will cooperate with the Tokyo Metropolitan City, the Organizing Committee and other pertinent ministries.116

reported their actions that they have implemented especially in the terms of strengthening soft power through cultural diplomacy.117

MOFA and the Japan Foundation (JF) continuously operate various projects in order to promote positive images of Japan in foreign countries and to boost brand images of entire Japan, by enhancing the understanding and way of life of Japan and foster pro-Japanese individuals and groups in the future. For instance, wide range of Japanese cultures from traditional to contemporary, manga, architecture, fashion, animation, and design.118

Moreover, in order to support and cultivate better understanding of Japan through Japan studies MOFA implements the following activities: provision of building networks of former foreign students in Japan in collaboration with the government in Japan, exchange programs for young people and adults from various continents from Asia, North America, and Europe; sending visiting professors to universities and research institutions overseas along with grant program for research activities.119

However, government of Japan focus on promoting Japanese language education overseas helps foster future leaders who will have a good relationship

116 Ibid. 117 Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan, p. 281 118 Ibid. p. 282 119 Ibid. p. 284

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meanwhile build a bridge between overseas and Japan, deepen understanding towards Japan, and lay a foundation for friendship with other countries.120

Moreover, MOFA engages in sending Japanese language specialist overseas, providing training for foreign Japanese language teaching materials, with the Japan Foundation. As mentioned in several Bluebook of Japan that Tokyo will be the host city for upcoming Olympic and Paralympic in 2020, MOFA enhance the presence of Japan in area of sport for successful delivery for the upcoming implements these following activities:

- Various sport exchange/contribution projects in many countries

- The dispatch and invitation of sport athletes/instructors by MOFA by Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) volunteers or by the Japan foundation.

- The provision of sports equipment and the improvement facilities.121

The government of Japan aware that by doing an approach through culture community to boost understanding towards Japan among foreign nationals who form the foundation of public opinion and policy making as well as to make promoting diverse attractiveness of Japan through diplomatic missions abroad and the Japan Foundation.122

Minister Abe in December 2013 with two main foundation of support for Japanese language education, cultural exchange projects and interactive arts.123

120 Ibid. 121 Ibid. p. 285 122 Ibid. 123 Ibid.

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However, MOFA of Japan consistent and continuously engage various good image in the international level. Therefore the following programs as below:

1. People-to-People Exchange and Exchange in the Area of Education.

MOFA carries out a number of invitation projects to promote the understanding of Japan by foreign nationals who have a great influence on shaping public opinion and policy making process who are expected to play a leading role in the future especially through education and sports.

- Exchange with foreign students; MOFA of Japan are actively introduces the attractiveness of studying in Japan and with those opportunities to study in Japan through diplomatic missions overseas that dedicated to foreign students. Basically, the selection procedures will accept competent students from around the world as a part of Government of Japan (MEXT) Scholarship students. After finishing the program in Japan, the former foreign students who have returned to relationship between pro-Japanese and groups.124

- JET Programme (The Japan Exchange and Teaching Programme)

educations and promote international exchanges in local areas. The program itself received 4,786 participants from 43 countries including 1,958 new participants and dispatched them all over Japan in FY2015. This program itself managed by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, MOFA, the Ministry of Education, Sports, Culture, Science and Technology (MEXT), and the Council of Local Authorities for International Relations, local governments invites young foreign nationals to Japan. Former from JET Program participants are valuable human/diplomatic assets for Japan.125

124 Ibid. p. 286 125 Ibid. p. 287

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- Sport Exchange; Sport could enables the communications beyond language and can be an effective tool for promoting and develop friendly relations and the understanding of Japan. For instance, the Government of Japan cooperation through sport started from January 2014. This program basically includes various sport exchange/contribution, human resource development projects in different countries, and promotional support along with the aim of spreading the spirit of sport for the upcoming event in Tokyo 2020, targeting in more than 100 countries, for over than 10 million people. MOFA carries out the dispatch of athletes and sport instructors, provision of equipment, other exchanges through sports in a more prompt and effective manner in response to request from sport associations and governments, as well as promotion of sport diplomacy.126

2. Exchange in the Intellectual Realm.

- Japanese Studies; MOFA of Japan are supports a range of overseas politics, culture, society and economy. visiting scholars, providing research grants to 65 institutions of Japanese studies in 26 countries and regions such as research institutions and universities, which are considered as Japanese studies hubs. However, MOFA usually granted the from 44 regions or countries, including with those who were granted in the previous year. This is helped the researchers conduct their study activities especially their researchers in Japan. On the other hand, MOFA also helps to promote network building among researchers and research institutions on Japan in different countries and religion dedicated for academic societies.127

126 Ibid. p. 287 127 Ibid. p. 288

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- Intellectual Exchanges; MOFA emphasized on cooperative work and exchange with other countries. Basically, MOFA implemented symposia and seminar on common international agenda and programs to deepen the understanding of modern Japan at major universities overseas through Japan Foundation. MOFA wanted to supported exchange program by strengthens the relationships and create deeper understanding through holding conventions in various level and fields and collaborate with other institutions as well.128

3. Promotion of Japanese Language Education

Nowadays, the interest to learn Japanese language has been increasing among people, especially in the youth that living outside of Japan. This occurs as the impact of Japanese pop culture, anime, manga, that getting more familiar worldwide. Based on survey on Japanese-Language Education Abroad 2012 conducted by the Japanese Foundation, currently about 3.99 million people in 136 countries and regions overseas are learning Japanese language.129 In this regard, the statistic of Japanese language learner is shown in the figure below:

Figure 10: Percentage and Number of Japanese Language Learners by Country/Region (Japan's Diplomatic Bluebook 2016 p.290)

128 Ibid. p. 289 129 Ibid. p. 290

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Based on the figure above, the number of learners has been steadily increasing since the first survey in 1979 by more 30 times. However in 2015, the number of applicants including tests that conducted in Japan reached approximately reached 750,000 examinees that took the Japanese-Language Proficiency Test of the Japan Foundation from 69 countries in 264 cities.130

130 Ibid.

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CHAPTER IV

The program of Japan in order to maximizing soft power effort through Japanese pop cultural products.131 According to Nye, highlighted the opportunities to maximize the usage of cultural aspects as the source of soft power. He argues that using pop cultural, as the source of soft power would enhance the positive image of the country itself.

pop culture is a source that produces soft power, even if it takes years to produce the desired outcome of being emulated by ot 132

However, this chapter serves as the center of heart of this research where the cultural diplomacy. Being the interlinked with chapter II and chapter III, this chapter will be elaborate further about the correlation between the rise of China to the rise of China and ROK soft power. However, this one will be focus on the efforts of Japan in order to expand its soft power and public diplomacy through cultural diplomacy by the program of Cool Japan.

Japanese government began to design a new industrial policy in the early of 2002, with t campaign that launched in 2014. The aim of establishing Cool Japan campaign is

131 Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan, p. 281 132 Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Soft Power: , New York: Public Affairs (2004) p. 125

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to enhance global competitiveness of the creative industry of Japan by using Japanese popular culture as the products with the collaboration with METI.133 It providing risk capital for business across a variety of areas, including media & content, food & services, and fashion & lifestyle.134 Moreover, Cool Japan addressed to increase Japanese economy in the creative industry sector and to

s in cultural terms, and cool.135 more opportunities to get its messages across and affect the preferences of others

Japan itself to attract people around the world to its foreign policy goals and good image of Japan in the world.136

Gross National popular culture including: art, literature, design, fashion, music, manga, food, 137

Moreover, the government of Japan claims that both old and new cultural products share long-standing traditional, Japanese values that will attract people around the world and government of Japan has embarked upon a public diplomacy program that known as Cool Japan as an efforts of Japanese

133 cabinet, available on: http://japan.kantei.go.jp/policy/titeki/index_e.html accessed on January, 2017. 134 - fund.co.jp/en/about/cjfund.html accessed on January, 2017. 135 Foreign Policy (130), p. 53 136 Ibid. 137 Daliot-Bul, Michal. (2009). Social Science Japan Journal. Vol. 12 No. 2, pp. 247

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government on maximizing its soft power with a focus on Japanese popular culture through cultural diplomacy.138

The Cool Japan campaign was officially launched in 2014 with a budget of $371 million to be increased to $1 billion by 2015. Ota Noboyuki is the CEO of the Cool Japan Fund, Inc., under his leadership, the campaign will work closely

139

Basically, fund managers will seek prospective products throughout Japan and promote them overseas along with build Japanese shopping centers and encourage foreign broadcasters to cover more Japan-related stories. Moreover, the fund also buys and rents space around Southeast Asia to promote and sell Japane realized that (manga, anime, fashion and food) will play important roles in 140

However, it is more than just economy policy that be highlighted on this program. It also claims that Cool Japan is basically representing a soft power he stresses that:

pop culture is a source that produces soft power, even if it takes years to 141 communication has more opportunities to get its messages across and affect the

138 tics of Japanese Popular Culture in East Asia. In Beyond Japan: The Dynamic of East Asian Regionalism. Itacha/London: Cornell University Press p. 221 139 Kasuaki, Nagata. (2013). Cool Japan Fund Chief says Crafty Marketing Key to Regional Japan Times. 140 Ibid. 141 Joseph S. Nye, Jr., (2004). Soft Power: , New York: Public Affairs. p. 125

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preferences of others 142 He believes that excellent opportunity for Japan is

Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Fumio Kishida said,

Japan is a culture, that appeals to the general population and that anyone can enjoy. We approach the creation of objects with a love for their beauty. At the root of this approach lies a spirit of harmony, which is evident in our philosophy of co-existence with nature 143 Emphasizing the facts that Japanese attention are becomes one of the main purposes Japan program. For instance, Japanese cuisines are received extraordinary popularity and have been listed as a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage144 in 2013.

A study by Adobe Systems Inc. (Adobe State of Create Study, 2012) has for Japan as well as it reflects that the world acknowledged and put concern regarding to Japanese culture and creativity, which undoubtedly works positively for Japan today.145

However the existence of Cool Japan is inspired by the Cool Britannia policy in the United Kingdom. The broad concept of Cool Japan is to promoting Japanese culture that cover all aspect from sub-cultural products such as: manga and Japanimation (Japan-Animation) until traditional cultural heritage. The idea the mission of Cool Japan.146

142 McGray, D. (2002). Foreign Policy (130), p. 44 143 Daliot-Bul, Michal. (2009) Challenges of Cultural Planning in a Postmodern Age. (2009). Oxford University Press in conjunction with the University of Tokyo. Vol. 12 Issue 2. p. 253 144 According to UNESCO, Washoku is a traditional dietary cultures of the Japanese. Could be access on: unesco.org/culture/ic 145 Cool Japan Proposal, Cool Japan Movement Promotion Council. (2014). Cabinet Office, Government of Japan p.2 146 Ibid. p. 5

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In order to fulfill the goal of the Cool Japan establishment, Cool Japan focus in five main categories which are cuisine, fashion, content, design and tourism. However, according to Cool Japan Proposal, there are 3 steps in order to achieve the mission as cool Japan, which are:

(a) Promoting domestic growth

(b) Connecting Japan and other countries

(c) Becoming Japan that helps the world, establishes three missions for each step, and processes the actions to fulfill those missions.147

147 Ibid. p. 14

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Japan are motivated to explore and developed its own programs and created Cool Japan Initiative in the term of support for overseas expansion are shown in figure below:

Figure 12: Cool Japan Program of Supporting Overseas Expansion (Cool Japan Initiative, July 2014)

However, based on the figure above, Cool Japan program aim to expand its contents by using the cultural products of Japan which are: Japanese music, television series (dorama), anime, manga, fashion, cuisine, and lifestyle as well as tourism sector. The detail of the scheme of the Cool Japan expansion and the budgeting are shown in the figures below.

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Figure 13: Japan's Cool Program Expansion (Cool Japan Initiative, 2014)

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Figure 14: Japanese Budget Allocation for Cool Japan Program (Cool Japan Initiative, July 2014)

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Power through Cool Japan Program

Moreover, related with the competitiveness of Japan towards ROK and China as its East Asia neighboring countries, the rise of ROK and China are increase especially in the terms of their soft power with the existence of development of Korean Wave.148 In this depth, the sense of competitiveness from Japan is increasing is not without any particular reason.

Seeing how China and ROK rise with their own soft power are enough to make Japan in the uneasy position.149 top level compared to China and ROK in the terms of soft power rank and eir economy are stagnant from time to time.150

In fact, even though Japan ranking in soft power and economy sector is in the top level compared to China and ROK, however Japan rank is always stagnant meanwhile ROK and China are continuously rising, slow but sure.151

148 Section II.1.3 Conficius Institute Project p. 38 and II.2.1 The Rise of ROK through Cultural Diplomacy p. 41-43 149 Based on Elcano Global Presence Index about Japan rank in Soft Power from 2014-2015. Available on: http://explora.globalpresence.realinstitutoelcano.org accessed on January 2017. 150 Ibid. 151 Based on Elcano Global Presence Index about Japan rank in Soft Power from 2014-2015. Available on: http://explora.globalpresence.realinstitutoelcano.org accessed on January 2017.

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Diagram 3: Framework Analysis

As one of a country that located in East Asia region, geographically Japan located near with China and ROK. On the regional level, the geopolitics between these countries are not harmonious with their historical enmity among these countries. Japan and China are having good relationship among each other but because of the First Sino war152, the relationship between Japan and China has been deteriorating and even worse following by the war which is the second Sino- Japanese War that started from 1937 until 1945 with the same reason which is Japan wanted to claimed Manchuria, a large geographic region in Northeast China as a result the failure of Japan to take over Manchuria.153

However, Japan and ROK involved in the dispute of 2 small islands that

152 Yinan He, History, Chinese Nationalism and the Emerging Sino-Japanese Conflict, Taylor & Francis, Vol. I (February, 2007) p. 2 153 Ibid. p. 4

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known as Dokdo by Korean people or Japanese people known it as Takeshima, or internationally known as Liancourt Rocks. The islands in the beginning are claimed by ROK since Japan does not acknowledge the islands as their own. However, after several years Dokdo being a part of ROK, Japan started to claim Dokdo or Takeshima Islands. Japan argued that the islands belong to Japan not ROK. Dokdo or Takeshima Islands are being contested because it has oil resource and rich with natural resources that will be very beneficial.154

However realizing that strengthening hard power is insufficient, China and ROK are focusing on creating wider influence to the world by strengthening its soft power through Confucius Institute, soft power effort done by China and Korean Wave that done by ROK.155 Because of their geopolitical and historical enmity between Japan and both countries which China and ROK and it reflects on their soft power efforts.

According to the soft rank index done by Elcano Global Presence between Japan, China, and ROK156 stagnant from time to time, meanwhile China and ROK and rising slow but sure. Japan saw the rise of soft power of China and ROK as a threat of Japan in the terms of soft power.

According to Yoshizaki Tatsuhiko he said that,

The challenge thrown down by East Asia region especially with fellow East Asian countries: China and South Korea by the rising of its soft power, however, has made Japanese diplomacy realize the necessity to rebuilding its soft power. In the post-Cold War world, the opportunity to deploy real military or economic power has decreased, and the roles played by instruments of soft power such as culture and image have grown larger. Many of the confrontations in this

154 Dokdo in Korea: A Story of Dokdo Island, a Korean Territory. (2006). Seoul: Dokdo Research and Preservation Association. p. 6 155 Soft Power in East Asia. The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. (2008). The Brookings Institution, Center For Northeast Asian Policy Studies in collaboration with The Chicago Council on Global Affairs and The East Asia Institute. 156 Elcano Global Index Soft Power Rank. Available on: http://explora.globalpresence.realinsitutoelcano.org

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era will take place through the interchange of words and ideas. It will be an era when the battles among countries are virtual ones. It is necessary to employ as many different routes as possible to create a broad base of Japan fans. 157 Moreover, according to threat perception theory by Robert. O. Tilman, geopolitical system itself is refers to size or geographical location158, which is in this case, refer to the East Asia region. Which means, according to the geographic slowly but sure rising in the soft power, it create the insecurities on Japan and the power. Moreover, historical dimension refers to the past experiences of particular non-states, which is for this thesis is addressed to historical enmity between Japan and China as well as Japan and ROK.

Meanwhile that led into the perspective of Japan need to invest seriously in rebuilding its soft power. Moreover, Japan tried to strengthen its soft power with the public diplomacy policies that specified into cultural diplomacy approach, which is through Cool Japan program.159

building up its soft power. There is also the possibilities China and ROK could overlap Japan in the terms of developing its soft power especially through cultural diplomacy if Japan did not take actions to strengthen their soft power.

157 Tatsuhiko, Yoshizaki, Gaiko Forum, Vol. 7, No.1, Spring 2007, p.26 158 Stein, J. G (2013). Threat Perception in International Relations. Oxford Handbook Online. p. 25 159 Cool Japan Proposal, Cool Japan Movement Promotion Council. (2014). Cabinet Office, Government of Japan.

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Diplomacy

exchange of ideas, information, art and other aspect of culture among nations and their people in order to foster mutual understanding 160

According to the Prime Minister of Japan, Shinzo Abe in his speech during the 190th session of the Diet on January 22, 2016 he stated that,

Japan will convey the attractiveness of its world-class art and culture. We

161

Based on his statement, definitely Shinzo Abe want to improve the cultural

.162

Cool Japan itself is basically a national movement that encouraging the Japanese people to fully exercise their voluntary creativity in the international community. In order to fulfill the goal of the Cool Japan establishment, Cool Japan focus on five main categories, which are cuisine, fashion, content, design and tourism. Emphasizing the facts that Japanese culture nowadays attracting the purposes of the establishment of .163

160 Waller, M. J., 2009. Cultural Diplomacy, Political Influence, and Integrated Strategy. In: Strategic Influence: Public Diplomacy, Counterpropaganda, and Political Warfare. Washington DC: Institute of World Politics Press, p. 74 161 Speeches and Statements by the Prime Minister, Policy Speech by Minister Shinzo Abe to the 190th Session of the Diet, January 22nd 2016. Full text of speech can be accessed on: http://japan.kantei.go.jp/97_abe/statement/201601/1215627_10999.html access on January, 2017. 162 Ibid. 163 Cool Japan Strategy (Modified Version of the Interim Report submitted to the Cool Japan Advisory Council), September 2012, Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. Full text can be access on: http://www.meti.go.jp/english/policy/mono_info_service/creative_industries/pdf/121016_01a.pdf retrieved on: January 2017

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Moreover, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe stated that: movie and TV drama, as well as modern art, literature, theater arts and others generation around the world. Japanese lifestyle represented in its cuisine and fashion has also widely spread in other countries. However, it is not only the attractiveness of contemporary Japanese culture transmitted and spread through cultural exchanges that can be c culture.164

Cool Japan itself are separated into various projects that has their own

One of the examples is Craft Renaissance Project as a part of Cool Japan program. It is basically using Japanese traditional craft as the hook. Through this project, it will present Cool Japan to the international audiences in order to to discover young talents and help to developing human resources. The Craftspeople in every area of Japan are discovered through 47 club e-commerce prefectures. This is basically contributes to the growth of small and medium business as well as contribute to the human development.165

Moreover, there are also another various projects as the branches of the Cool Japan program that known as the creative Tokyo project. However, this project are aim to ensure employment by promoting overseas development by small and medium businesses and young designers that basically to revitalizing local communities along with attracting tourist to Japan. Through the project of builds a new society through the combined power of its industries with the combination of culture and economy. With Creative Tokyo project, the main purpose of the project is to use the power of creativity to make

164 www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/policy /bunka. 165 http://mnj.gov-online.go.jp/wao.html accessed on January, 2017.

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greater Japan and enhancing the image of Japan itself. The implementation of various activities below Creative Tokyo project which are: Mercedez-Benz Fashion Week Tokyo and Tokyo Designer Week that held in 2011 from October to November.166

Not only a year, Tokyo Creative project also improving the project to be

Ru Fair Tokyo and JFW Exhibition as the main focus of targeting Japanese fashion, lifestyle and daily commodities.167

Through Tokyo Creative project, it has demonstrated the appeal of Tokyo Creative project to appeal of Tokyo to overseas influencers. However, during September 27th to deliver information regarding to the Cool Japan.168

Speaking of communication, Cool Japan program also concern with the communication especially on how to spreading the information related with Cool Japan around the world. However, Mr. Naoki Ito, as the Creative Director of both of these are web platform in order to deliver the information regarding Cool- Japan related and aims to attract people especially for international community.169

Cool Japan Daily basically provide an overview of Cool Japan Strategy projects complete with the latest information, blogs and anything related with Cool Japan development program. The second web platform is called Mazer. Unlike the previous web platform, Mazer is dedicated to create new ideas through

166 Promotion of the Cool Japan Strategy and the Creative Tokyo Project, Creative Industries Division, Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. Can be access on: http://www.meti.go.jp/english/policy/mono_info_service/creative_industries/pdf/121016_01b.pdf 167 Ibid. 168 Ibid. 169 Cool Japan Strategy (2012), Creative Industries Division, Ministry of Economy, Trade and Economy. Government of Japan. p. 20

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collaboration between creators that active not only South Asia, but also outside of Japan as well.170

IV.4. Global Attitude toward Japan through Cool Japan Program

As the main focus of Cool Japan which is to enhance the rapid growth in sales of Japanese creative products by using Japanese popular culture as the main products, the influence foreign audiences are important in order to have a positive .171

However, realizing the facts that in order to develop the domestic growth of Cool Japan it stressed more into the Japanese citizen to realize the process to disseminate creative industry in Japan needed the good communication skill in order to build good relationship with foreign audiences. The government of Japan are taught their citizen especially focusing with the children to build the perspective of Cool Japan in order to build the foundation skill to introduce the charm of Japan to the global level. Cool Japan supported the broadcasting sector especially for English broadcasting to enhance Japanese communication skill that will help them to communicate with the foreign audience. Moreover, Cool Japan allow their citizen to be as creative as possible to be able to face the challenges and help Japan as one of super cultural country.172

Japanese government has been examining ways in order to promote Japanese cultural exports for earn economic benefits and nurture positive appreciations of the country overseas. Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) and Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) are major players in

170 Ibid. 171 Waller, M. J., 2009. Cultural Diplomacy, Political Influence, and Integrated Strategy. In: Strategic Influence: Public Diplomacy, Counterpropaganda, and Political Warfare. Washington DC: Institute of World Politics Press, p. 74 172 Promotion of the Cool Japan Strategy and the Creative Tokyo Project, Creative Industries Division, Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. Can be access on: http://www.meti.go.jp/english/policy/mono_info_service/creative_industries/pdf/121016_01b.pdf

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diplomacy and economy, and its role in attaining Japan with soft power. 173

However, related with the Cool Japan program as one of the source to Japan in order to enhance its soft power through cultural diplomacy. The other important factors such as economy and tourism are significantly important.

Graph 1: Japan GDP Annual Growth Rate

Based on the graph that clearly shown above, Japan Annual GDP are fluctuating from time to time. However, since the official establishment of Cool Japan program in 2014, the GDP of Japan are slowly increasing and shown good progress in the terms of increasing its own economic power. It means that by the program of Cool Japan, the economy sector especially for creative industries that included with the activities of import and export and foreign direct investment (FDI).174

However, Cool Japan itself is hold significant role in the terms of the

Japanese cultural products to the world. Global citizens must be familiar with the existence of Pokemon, Doraemon, and Mario Bros. Moreover, as Tokyo will be the host country for the upcoming Games in 2020, Tokyo stole the show on the

173 Cool Japan Strategy (2012), Creative Industries Division, Ministry of Economy, Trade and Economy. Government of Japan. p. 25 174 Japan GDP Annual Growth Rate 2014-2016. (Online). Available on: http://www.tradingeconomics.com/japan/gdp-growth accessed on January, 2017.

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previous Olympic closing ceremony in Rio de Janeiro. It was deemed the best

In a surprise move, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe dressed up as Super Mario at the ceremony, emerging from the iconic character of Super Mario Bros175. This is also one of indirect factor that Cool Japan tried to embrace, by using product of Japanese pop culture as the main tools to deliver the message that Japan is one of the leading countries in terms of creativity and soft power.

175 : http://www.cnbc.com/2016/08/22/super-abe-was-a-taste-of- tokyos-2020-olympic-campaign.html accessed on January, 2017.

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CHAPTER V CONCLUSION

Japanese cultural diplomacy purposed to dispel negative images of Japan by attempted to straighten up the misconception regarding Japan in the foreign countries. Nonetheless, Japan present as a pioneer of postmodern culture. The soft power instruments of Japan that included: pop music, cuisine, anime, manga, cultural activities.

However, realizing the facts that in order to enhance the cultural diplomacy of Cool Japan, it stressed more into the Japanese citizen to realize the process to disseminate creative industry in Japan needed the good communication skill in order to build good relationship with foreign audiences. The government of Japan is taught their citizen especially focusing with the children to build the perspective of Cool Japan in order to build the foundation skill to introduce the charm of Japan to the global level. Cool Japan supported the broadcasting sector especially for English broadcasting to enhance Japanese communication skill that will help them to communicate with the foreign audience. Moreover, Cool Japan allows their citizen to be as creative as possible to be able to face the challenges and help Japan as one of super cultural country.

Furthermore, related with the competitiveness of Japan towards ROK and China as its East Asia neighboring countries, the rise of ROK and China are significantly increase especially in the terms of their soft power. In this depth, the sense of competitiveness from Japan is increasing is not without any particular reason.

In fact, even though Japan ranking in soft power and economy sector is in the top level compared to China and ROK, however Japan rank is always stagnant meanwhile ROK and China are continuously rising, slow but sure. Moreover, if Japan are not focus on expand its soft power and cultural diplomacy,

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ROK and China would might overlap Japan position that could be dangerous for the Japan itself. Moreover, responding to the rise of China and ROK with their various methods and approach to improving their own soft power, Japan especially through Cool Japan program are trying to maximize their soft power into the higher level.

In conclusion, Cool Japan as the one of the approach done by the government of Japan indicate that Japan efforts and competitiveness in order to having stable position in the world.

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