00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page i
Berkshire Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page ii 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page iii
Berkshire Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction
VOLUME1
William Sims Bainbridge Editor
Great Barrington, Massachusetts U.S.A. www.berkshirepublishing.com 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page iv
Copyright © 2004 by Berkshire Publishing Group LLC
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, elec- tronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval sys- tem, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Cover photo: Thad Starner sporting a wearable computer. Photo courtesy of Georgia Institute of Technology. Cover background image: Courtesy of Getty Images.
For information: Berkshire Publishing Group LLC 314 Main Street Great Barrington, Massachusetts 01230 www.berkshirepublishing.com
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publishing Data Berkshire encyclopedia of human-computer interaction / William Sims Bainbridge, editor. p. cm. “A Berkshire reference work.” Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-9743091-2-5 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Human-computer interaction--Encyclopedias. I. Bainbridge, William Sims. II. Title.
QA76.9.H85B46 2004 004'.01'9--dc22 2004017920 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page v
BERKSHIRE PUBLISHING STAFF
Project Director Karen Christensen
Project Coordinators Courtney Linehan and George Woodward
Associate Editor Marcy Ross
Copyeditors Francesca Forrest, Mike Nichols, Carol Parikh, and Daniel Spinella
Information Management and Programming Deborah Dillon and Trevor Young
Editorial Assistance Emily Colangelo
Designer Monica Cleveland
Production Coordinator Janet Lowry
Composition Artists Steve Tiano, Brad Walrod, and Linda Weidemann
Composition Assistance Pam Glaven
Proofreaders Mary Bagg, Sheila Bodell, Eileen Clawson, and Cassie Lynch
Production Consultant Jeff Potter
Indexer Peggy Holloway 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page vi 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page vii
CONTENTS
List of Entries,ix Reader’s Guide,xv List of Sidebars,xix Contributors, xxiii Introduction, xxxiii Publisher’s Note, xli About the Editor, xliii Entries Volume I: A–L 1–440 Vol II: M–W 441–826
Appendix 1: Glossary, 827 Appendix 2: Master Bibliography of Human-Computer Interaction, 831 HCI in Popular Culture, 893 Index, 931 • Index repeated in this volume, I-1
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LIST OF ENTRIES
Adaptive Help Systems Animation Artificial Intelligence Peter Brusilovsky Abdennour El Rhalibi Robert A. St. Amant Yuanyuan Shen Adaptive Interfaces Asian Script Input Alfred Kobsa Anthropology and HCI William Sims Bainbridge Allen W. Batteau Erika Bainbridge Affective Computing Ira Cohen Anthropometry Atanasoff-Berry Computer Thomas S. Huang Victor L. Paquet John Gustafson Lawrence S. Chen David Feathers Attentive User Interface Altair Application Use Strategies Ted Selker William Sims Bainbridge Suresh K. Bhavnani Augmented Cognition Alto Arpanet Amy Kruse William Sims Bainbridge Amy Kruse Dylan Schmorrow Dylan Schmorrow Allen J. Sears
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X ❘❙❚ BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION
Augmented Reality Compilers Digital Divide Rajeev Sharma Woojin Paik Linda A. Jackson Kuntal Sengupta Computer-Supported Digital Government Avatars Cooperative Work Jane E. Fountain Jeremy Bailenson John M. Carroll Robin A. McKinnon James J. Blascovich Mary Beth Rosson Digital Libraries Beta Testing Constraint Satisfaction Jose-Marie Griffiths Gina Neff Berthe Y. Choueiry Drawing and Design Braille Converging Technologies Mark D. Gross Oleg Tretiakoff William Sims Bainbridge E-business Brain-Computer Interfaces Cybercommunities Norhayati Zakaria Melody M. Moore Lori Kendall Adriane D. Davis Education in HCI Brendan Z. Allison Cybersex Jan Stage David L. Delmonico Browsers Elizabeth Griffin Electronic Journals Andy Cockburn Carol Tenopir Cyborgs Cathode Ray Tubes William Sims Bainbridge Electronic Paper Technology Gregory P. Crawford Gregory P. Crawford Data Mining CAVE Mohammad Zaki Eliza Thomas DeFanti William H. Sterner Dan Sandin Data Visualization Kwan-Liu Ma E-mail Chatrooms Nathan Bos Amanda B. Lenhart Deep Blue Murray Campbell Embedded Systems Children and the Web Ronald D. Williams Dania Bilal Denial-of-Service Attack Adrian Perrig ENIAC Classrooms Abraham Yaar William Sims Bainbridge Chris Quintana Desktop Metaphor Ergonomics Client-Server Architecture Jee-In Kim Ann M. Bisantz Mark Laff Dialog Systems Errors in Interactive Behavior Cognitive Walkthrough Susan W. McRoy Wayne D. Gray Marilyn Hughes Blackmon Digital Cash Ethics Collaboratories J. D. Tygar Helen Nissenbaum Gary M. Olson 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xi
LIST OF ENTRIES ❚❙❘ XI
Ethnography Handwriting Recognition and Information Theory David Hakken Retrieval Ronald R. Kline R. Manmatha Evolutionary Engineering V. Govindaraju Instruction Manuals William Sims Bainbridge David K. Farkas Haptics Expert Systems Ralph L. Hollis Internet—Worldwide Diffusion Jay E. Aronson Barry Wellman History of Human-Computer Phuoc Tran Eye Tracking Interaction Wenhong Chen Andrew T. Duchowski Jonathan Grudin Internet in Everyday Life Facial Expressions Hollerith Card Barry Wellman Irfan Essa William Sims Bainbridge Bernie Hogan
Fly-by-Wire Human-Robot Interaction Iterative Design C. M. Krishna Erika Rogers Richard Baskerville Jan Stage Fonts Hypertext and Hypermedia Thomas Detrie David K. Farkas Keyboard Arnold Holland Alan Hedge Icons Games Stephanie Ludi Language Generation Abdennour El Rhalibi Regina Barzilay Identity Authentication Gender and Computing Ashutosh P. Deshpande Laser Printer Linda A. Jackson Parag Sewalkar Gary Starkweather
Geographic Information Systems Impacts Law and HCI Michael F. Goodchild Chuck Huff Sonia E. Miller
Gesture Recognition Information Filtering Law Enforcement Francis Quek Luz M. Quiroga Roslin V. Hauck Martha E. Crosby Graphical User Interface Lexicon Building David England Information Organization Charles J. Fillmore Dagobert Soergel Grid Computing Liquid Crystal Displays Cavinda T. Caldera Information Overload Gregory P. Crawford Ruth Guthrie Groupware Literary Representations Timothy J. Hickey Information Retrieval William Sims Bainbridge Alexander C. Feinman Dagobert Soergel Machine Translation Hackers Information Spaces Katrin Kirchhoff Douglas Thomas Fionn Murtagh 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xii
XII ❘❙❚ BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION
Markup Languages Online Education Programming Languages Hong-Gee Kim Robert S. Stephenson David MacQueen Glenn Collyer Mobile Computing Prototyping Dharma P.Agrawal Online Questionnaires Richard Baskerville James Witte Jan Stage Mosaic Roy Pargas William Sims Bainbridge Psychology and HCI Online Voting Judith S. Olson Motion Capture and Recognition R. Michael Alvarez Jezekiel Ben-Arie Thad E. Hall Recommender and Reputation Systems Mouse Ontology Cliff Lampe Shumin Zhai Christopher A. Welty Paul Resnick
Movies Open Source Software Repetitive Strain Injury William Sims Bainbridge Gregory R. Madey Jack Tigh Dennerlein
MUDs Optical Character Recognition Scenario-Based Design Richard Allan Bartle V. Govindaraju John M. Carroll Swapnil Khedekar Multiagent systems Search and Rescue Gal A. Kaminka Peer-to-Peer Architecture Howie Choset Julita Vassileva Multimodal Interfaces Search Engines Rajeev Sharma Pen and Stylus Input Shannon Bradshaw Sanshzar Kettebekov Alan Hedge Guoray Cai Security Personality Capture Bhavani Thuraisingham Multiuser Interfaces William Sims Bainbridge Prasun Dewan Semantic Web Physiology Bhavani Thuraisingham Musical Interaction Jennifer Allanson Christopher S. Raphael Smart Homes Judy A. Franklin Planning Diane J. Cook Sven Koenig Michael Youngblood Natural-Language Processing Michail G. Lagoudakis James H. Martin Sociable Media Pocket Computer Judith Donath Navigation William Sims Bainbridge John J. Rieser Social Informatics Political Science and HCI Howard Rosenbaum N-grams James N. Danziger James H. Martin Michael J. Jensen Social Proxies Thomas Erickson Olfactory Interaction Privacy Wendy A. Kellogg Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna Jeffrey M. Stanton 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xiii
LIST OF ENTRIES ❚❙❘ XIII
Social Psychology and HCI Task Analysis Jenny Preece Susan R. Fussell Erik Hollnagel Diane Maloney-Krichmar
Sociology and HCI Telecommuting Value Sensitive Design William Sims Bainbridge Ralph David Westfall Batya Friedman
Socio-Technical System Design Telepresence Video Walt Scacchi John V. Draper Immanuel Freedman
Software Cultures Text Summarization Video Summarization Vaclav Rajlich Judith L. Klavans A. Murat Tekalp
Software Engineering Theory Virtual Reality Richard Kazman Jon May Larry F. Hodges Benjamin C. Lok Sonification Three-Dimensional Graphics David M. Lane Benjamin C. Lok Viruses Aniko Sandor J. D. Tygar S. Camille Peres Three-Dimensional Printing William Sims Bainbridge Visual Programming Spamming Margaret M. Burnett J. D. Tygar Touchscreen Joseph R. Ruthruff Andrew L. Sears Speech Recognition Rich Goldman Wearable Computer Mary P. Harper Thad Starner V. Paul Harper Ubiquitous Computing Bradley Rhodes Olufisayo Omojokun Speech Synthesis Prasun Dewan Website Design Jan P.H. van Santen Barbara S. Chaparro Unicode Michael L. Bernard Speechreading Unicode Editorial Committee Marcus Hennecke Work Universal Access Christine A. Halverson Spell Checker Gregg Vanderheiden Woojin Paik Workforce Usability Evaluation Brandon DuPont Sphinx Jean Scholtz Joshua L. Rosenbloom Rita Singh User Modeling World Wide Web Statistical Analysis Support Richard C. Simpson Michael Wilson Robert A. St. Amant User Support WYSIWYG Supercomputers Indira R. Guzman David M. Lane Jack Dongarra User-Centered Design Tablet Computer Chadia Abras William Sims Bainbridge 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xiv 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xv
READER’S GUIDE
This list is provided to assist readers in locating en- Navigation tries on related topics. It classifies articles into ten Online Education general categories: Applications; Approaches; Online Voting Breakthroughs; Challenges; Components; Disciplines; Planning Historical Development; Interfaces; Methods; and Recommender and Reputation Systems Social Implications. Some entries appear in more Search and Rescue than one category. Statistical Analysis Support Supercomputers Applications Telecommuting Classrooms Ubiquitous Computing Digital Government Video Digital Libraries E-business Approaches Games Application Use Strategies Geographic Information Systems Beta Testing Grid Computing Cognitive Walkthrough Law Enforcement Constraint Satisfaction Mobile Computing Ethics
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XVI ❘❙❚ BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION
Ethnography Components Evolutionary Engineering Adaptive Help Systems Information Theory Animation Iterative Design Braille Ontology Cathode Ray Tubes Open Source Software Client-Server Architecture Prototyping Desktop Metaphor Scenario-Based Design Electronic Paper Technology Social Informatics Fonts Socio-Technical System Design Keyboard Task Analysis Laser Printer Theory Liquid Crystal Displays Universal Access Mouse Usability Evaluation N-grams User Modeling Peer-to-Peer Architecture User-Centered Design Social Proxies Value Sensitive Design Spell Checker Website Design Touchscreen Unicode Breakthroughs WYSIWYG Altair Alto Disciplines Arpanet Anthropology and HCI Atanasoff-Berry Computer Artificial Intelligence CAVE Ergonomics Converging Technologies Law and HCI Deep Blue Political Science and HCI Eliza Psychology and HCI ENIAC Social Psychology and HCI Hollerith Card Sociology and HCI Mosaic Sphinx Historical Development Altair Challenges Alto Denial-of-Service Attack ENIAC Digital Divide History of HCI Errors in Interactive Behavior Hackers Interfaces Identity Authentication Adaptive Interfaces Information Filtering Affective Computing Information Overload Anthropometry Privacy Asian Script Input Repetitive Strain Injury Attentive User Interface Security Augmented Cognition Spamming Augmented Reality Viruses Brain-Computer Interfaces 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xvii
READER’S GUIDE ❚❙❘ XVII
Compilers Markup Languages Data Visualization Motion Capture and Recognition Dialog Systems Natural-Language Processing Drawing and Design Optical Character Recognition Eye Tracking Personality Capture Facial Expressions Programming Languages Fly-by-Wire Search Engines Graphical User Interface Semantic Web Haptics Software Engineering Multimodal Interfaces Sonification Multiuser Interfaces Speech Recognition Musical Interaction Speech Synthesis Olfactory Interaction Speechreading Online Questionnaires Text Summarization Pen and Stylus Input User Support Physiology Video Summarization Pocket Computer Visual Programming Smart Homes World Wide Web Tablet Computer Social Implications Telepresence Chatrooms Three-Dimensional Graphics Children and the Web Three-Dimensional Printing Collaboratories Virtual Reality Computer-Supported Cooperative Work Wearable Computer Cybercommunities Cybersex Methods Cyborgs Avatars Education in HCI Browsers Electronic Journals Data Mining E-mail Digital Cash Gender and Computing Embedded Systems Groupware Expert Systems Human-Robot Interaction Gesture Recognition Impacts Handwriting Recognition and Retrieval Internet—Worldwide Diffusion Hypertext and Hypermedia Internet in Everyday Life Icons Literary Representations Information Organization Movies Information Retrieval MUDs Information Spaces Multiagent systems Instruction Manuals Sociable Media Language Generation Software Cultures Lexicon Building Work Machine Translation Workforce 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xviii 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xix
LIST OF SIDEBARS
Adaptive Help Systems Chatrooms Farewell “Clippy” Life Online
Adaptive Interfaces Classrooms Keeping Disabled People in the Technology Loop History Comes Alive in Cyberspace Learning through Multimedia Anthropology and HCI Digital Technology Helps Preserve Tribal Language Computer-Supported Cooperative Work Internet Singing Lessons Anthropology and HCI Social Context in Computer-Supported Eastern vs. Western Cultural Values Cooperative Work
Augmented Cognition Cybercommunities Putting Humans First in Systems Design Welcome to LamdaMOO
Braille Cybersex Enhancing Access to Braille Instructional Materials Cybersex Addiction
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XX ❘❙❚ BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION
Digital Divide Internet in Everyday Life HomeNetToo Tries to Bridge Digital Divide Finding Work Online Information Technology and Competitive Digital Libraries Academic Debate Vannevar Bush on the Memex Law Enforcement Education in HCI Fighting Computer Crime Bringing HCI Into the Real World Literary Representations Eliza Excerpt from Isaac Asimov’s I, Robot Talking with ELIZA Excerpt from “The Sand-Man” (1817) by E. T. A. Hoffman E-mail The Generation Gap Machine Translation Warren Weaver on Machine Translation Errors in Interactive Behavior To Err Is Technological Movies HAL’s Birthday Celebration Fonts Our Most Memorable Nightmare MUDs The Wide World of a MUD Gender and Computing “Computer Girl” Site Offers Support for Online Education Young Women An Online Dig for Archeology Students Narrowing the Gap Virtual Classes Help Rural Nurses
Geographic Information Systems Political Science and HCI Geographic Information Systems Aid Land Washington Tales of the Internet Conservation Psychology and HCI Groupware Human Factors Come into the Forefront Away Messages Virtual Flight for White-Knuckled Travelers The Wide World of Wikis Repetitive Strain Injury History of HCI The Complexities of Repetitive Strain Highlights from My Forty Years of HCI History Scenario-Based Design Human-Robot Interaction The Value of a Devil’s Advocate Carbo-Powered Robots Social Psychology and HCI Hypertext and Hypermedia Love and HCI Ted Nelson on Hypertext and the Web Sociology and HCI Impacts “Who’s on First” for the Twenty-First Therac-25 Safety Is a System Property Century 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xxi
LIST OF SIDEBARS ❚❙❘ XXI
Spell Checker Work Check the Spell Checker Software Prescribes Break Time for Enhanced Productivity Task Analysis Excerpt from Cheaper by the Dozen Workforce Cultural Differences Unicode Employee Resistance to Technology History and Development of Unicode Relationship of the Unicode Standard to World Wide Web ISO_IEC 10646 “Inventing” the World Wide Web Tim Berners-Lee on the Web as Metaphor Usability Evaluation Global Usability WYSIWYG Is Usability Still a Problem? The Future of HCI 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xxii 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xxiii
CONTRIBUTORS
Abras, Chadia Alvarez, R. Michael Goucher College Caltech-MIT Voting Technology Project User-Centered Design Online Voting
Agrawal, Dharma P. Aronson, Jay E. University of Cincinnati University of Georgia Mobile Computing Expert Systems
Allanson, Jennifer Bailenson, Jeremy Lancaster University Stanford University Physiology Avatars
Allison, Brendan Z. Bainbridge, Erika Georgia State University Harvard University, Center for Hellenic Studies Brain-Computer Interfaces Asian Script Input
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XXIV ❘❙❚ BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION
Bainbridge, William Sims Bilal, Dania National Science Foundation University of Tennessee Altair Children and the Web Alto Asian Script Input Bisantz, Ann M. Converging Technologies State University of New York, Buffalo Cyborgs Ergonomics ENIAC Evolutionary Engineering Blackmon, Marilyn Hughes Hollerith Card University of Colorado, Boulder Literary Representations Cognitive Walkthrough Mosaic Movies Blascovich, James J. Personality Capture University of California, Santa Barbara Pocket Computer Avatars Sociology and HCI Tablet Computer Bos, Nathan Three-Dimensional Printing University of Michigan E-mail Bartle, Richard Allan Multi-User Entertainment Limited Bradshaw, Shannon MUDs University of Iowa Search Engines Barzilay, Regina Massachusetts Institute of Technology Brusilovsky, Peter Language Generation University of Pittsburgh Adaptive Help Systems Baskerville, Richard Georgia State University Burnett, Margaret M. Iterative Design Oregon State University Prototyping Visual Programming
Batteau, Allen W. Cai, Guoray Wayne State University Pennsylvania State University Anthropology and HCI Multimodal Interfaces
Ben-Arie, Jezekiel Caldera, Cavinda T. University of Illinois, Chicago Syracuse University Motion Capture and Recognition Grid Computing
Bernard, Michael L. Campbell, Murray Wichita State University IBM T.J. Watson Research Center Website Design Deep Blue
Bhavnani, Suresh K. University of Michigan Application Use Strategies 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xxv
CONTRIBUTORS ❚❙❘ XXV
Carroll, John M. Crosby, Martha E. Pennsylvania State University University of Hawaii Computer-Supported Cooperative Work Information Filtering Scenario-Based Design Danziger, James N. Chaparro, Barbara S. University of California, Irvine Wichita State University Political Science and HCI Website Design Davis, Adriane D. Chen, Lawrence Georgia State University Eastman Kodak Research Labs Brain-Computer Interfaces Affective Computing DeFanti, Thomas Chen, Wenhong University of Illinois, Chicago University of Toronto Cave Internet – Worldwide Diffusion Delmonico, David L. Choset, Howie Duquesne University Carnegie Mellon University Cybersex Search and Rescue Dennerlien, Jack Tigh Choueiry, Berthe Y. Harvard School of Public Health University of Nebraska, Lincoln Repetitive Strain Injury Constraint Satisfaction Deshpande, Ashutosh P. Cockburn, Andy Syracuse University University of Canterbury Identity Authentication Browsers Detrie, Thomas Cohen, Ira Arizona State University Hewlett-Packard Research Labs, Fonts University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign Affective Computing Dewan, Prasun Microsoft Corporation Collyer, Glenn Multiuser Interfaces iDacta, Inc. Ubiquitous Computing Online Education Donath, Judith Cook, Diane J. Massachusetts Institute of Technology University of Texas, Arlington Sociable Media Smart Homes Dongarra, Jack Crawford, Gregory P. University of Tennessee Brown University Supercomputers Cathode Ray Tubes Electronic Paper Technology Liquid Crystal Displays 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xxvi
XXVI ❘❙❚ BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION
Draper, John V. Fountain, Jane E. Raven Research Harvard University Telepresence Digital Government
Duchowski, Andrew T. Franklin, Judy A. Clemson University Smith College Eye Tracking Musical Interaction
DuPont, Brandon Freedman, Immanuel Policy Research Institute Dr. Immanuel Freedman, Inc. Workforce Video
El Rhalibi, Abdennour Friedman, Batya Liverpool John Moores University University of Washington Animation Value Sensitive Design Games Fussell, Susan R. England, David Carnegie Mellon University Liverpool John Moores University Social Psychology and HCI Graphical User Interface Goldman, Rich Erickson, Thomas University of Maryland, Baltimore IBM T. J. Watson Research Center Touchscreen Social Proxies Goodchild, Michael F. Essa, Irfan University of California, Santa Barbara Georgia Institute of Technology Geographic Information Systems Facial Expressions Govindaraju, V. Farkas, David K. University at Buffalo University of Washington Handwriting Recognition and Retrieval Hypertext and Hypermedia Optical Character Recognition Instruction Manuals Gray, Wayne D. Feathers, David Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute State University of New York, Buffalo Errors in Interactive Behavior Anthropometry Griffin, Elizabeth J. Feinman, Alexander C. Internet Behavior Consulting Brandeis University Cybersex Groupware Griffiths, Jose-Marie Fillmore, Charles J. University of Pittsburgh International Computer Science Institute Digital Libraries Lexicon Building 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xxvii
CONTRIBUTORS ❚❙❘ XXVII
Gross, Mark D. Hauck, Roslin V. University of Washington Illinois State University Drawing and Design Law Enforcement
Grudin, Jonathan Hedge, Alan Microsoft Research Cornell University Computer Science Keyboard History of HCI Pen and Stylus Input
Gustafson, John Hennecke, Marcus Sun Microsystems TEMIC Telefunken Microelectronic GmbH Atanasoff-Berry Computer Speechreading
Guthrie, Ruth Hickey, Timothy J. California Polytechnic University of Pomona Brandeis University Information Overload Groupware
Gutierrez-Osuna, Ricardo Hodges, Larry F. Texas A&M University University of North Carolina, Charlotte Olfactory Interaction Virtual Reality
Guzman, Indira R. Hogan, Bernie Syracuse University University of Toronto User Support Internet in Everyday Life
Hakken, David Holland, Arnold State University of New York Institute of California State University, Fullerton Technology Fonts Ethnography Hollis, Ralph L. Hall, Thad E. Carnegie Mellon University Century Foundation Haptics Online Voting Hollnagel, Erik Halverson, Christine University of Linköping IBM T. J. Watson Research Center Task Analysis Work Huang, Thomas S. Harper, Mary P. University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign Purdue University Affective Computing Speech Recognition Huff, Chuck Harper, V. Paul Saint Olaf College United States Patent and Trademark Office Impacts Speech Recognition 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xxviii
XXVIII ❘❙❚ BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION
Jackson, Linda A. Klavans, Judith L. Michigan State University Columbia University Digital Divide Text Summarization Gender and Computing Kline, Ronald R. Jensen, Michael J. Cornell University University of California, Irvine Information Theory Political Science and HCI Kobsa, Alfred Kaminka, Gal University of California, Irvine Bar Ilan University Adaptive Interfaces Multiagent systems Koenig, Sven Kazman, Richard Georgia Institute of Technology Carnegie Mellon University Planning Software Engineering Krishna, C. M. Kellogg, Wendy A. University of Massachusetts, Amherst IBM T. J. Watson Research Center Fly-by-Wire Social Proxies Kruse, Amy Kendall, Lori Strategic Analysis, Inc. State University of New York, Purchase College Arpanet Cybercommunities Augmented Cognition
Kettebekov, Sanshzar Laff, Mark Oregon Health and Science University IBM T.J. Watson Research Center Multimodal Interfaces Client-Server Architecture
Khedekar, Swapnil Lagoudakis, Michail G. University at Buffalo Georgia Institute of Technology Optical Character Recognition Planning
Kim, Hong-Gee Lampe, Cliff Dankook University University of Michigan Markup Languages Recommender and Reputation Systems
Kim, Jee-In Lane, David M. Konkuk University Rice University Desktop Metaphor Sonification WYSIWYG Kirchhoff, Katrin University of Washington Lenhart, Amanda B. Machine Translation Pew Internet & American Life Project Chatrooms 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xxix
CONTRIBUTORS ❚❙❘ XXIX
Lok, Benjamin C. Miller, Sonia E. University of Florida S. E. Miller Law Firm Three-Dimensional Graphics Law and HCI Virtual Reality Moore, Melody M. Ludi, Stephanie Georgia State University Rochester Institute of Technology Brain-Computer Interfaces Icons Murtagh, Fionn Ma, Kwan-Liu Queen’s University, Belfast University of California, Davis Information Spaces Data Visualization Neff, Gina MacQueen, David University of California, Los Angeles University of Chicago Beta Testing Programming Languages Nissenbaum, Helen Madey, Gregory R. New York University University of Notre Dame Ethics Open Source Software Olson, Gary M. Maloney-Krichmar, Diane University of Michigan Bowie State University Collaboratories User-Centered Design Olson, Judith S. Manmatha, R. University of Michigan University of Massachusetts, Amherst Psychology and HCI Handwriting Recognition and Retrieval Omojokun, Olufisayo Martin, James H. University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill University of Colorado, Boulder Ubiquitous Computing Natural-Language Processing N-grams Paik, Woojin University of Massachusetts, Boston May, Jon Compilers University of Sheffield Spell Checker Theory Paquet, Victor L. McKinnon, Robin A. State University of New York, Buffalo Harvard University Anthropometry Digital Government Pargas, Roy McRoy, Susan W. Clemson University University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee Online Questionnaires Dialog Systems 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xxx
XXX ❘❙❚ BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION
Peres, S. Camille Rogers, Erika Rice University California Polytechnic State University Sonification Human-Robot Interaction
Perrig, Adrian Rosenbaum, Howard Carnegie Mellon University Indiana University Denial-of-Service Attack Social Informatics
Preece, Jenny Rosenbloom, Joshua L. University of Maryland, Baltimore County University of Kansas User-Centered Design Workforce
Quek, Francis Rosson, Mary Beth Wright State University Pennsylvania State University Gesture Recognition Computer-Supported Cooperative Work
Quintana, Chris Ruthruff, Joseph R. University of Michigan Oregon State University Classrooms Visual Programming
Quiroga, Luz M. Sandin, Dan University of Hawaii University of Illinois, Chicago Information Filtering CAVE
Rajlich, Vaclav Sandor, Aniko Wayne State University Rice University Software Cultures Sonification
Raphael, Christopher S. Scacchi, Walt University of Massachusetts, Amherst University of California, Irvine Musical Interaction Socio-Technical System Design
Resnick, Paul Schmorrow, Dylan University of Michigan Defense Advanced Projects Agency Recommender and Reputation Systems Arpanet Augmented Cognition Rhodes, Bradley Ricoh Innovations Scholtz, Jean Wearable Computer National Institute of Standards and Technology Usability Evaluation Rieser, John J. Vanderbilt University Sears, Andrew L. Navigation University of Maryland, Baltimore County Touchscreen 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xxxi
CONTRIBUTORS ❚❙❘ XXXI
Sears, J. Allen Stage, Jan Corporation for National Research Initiatives Aalborg University Arpanet Education in HCI Iterative Design Selker, Ted Prototyping Massachusetts Institute of Technology Attentive User Interface Stanton, Jeffrey M. Syracuse University Sewalkar, Parag Privacy Syracuse University Identity Authentication Starkweather, Gary Microsoft Corporation Sengupta, Kuntal Laser Printer Advanced Interfaces Augmented Reality Starner, Thad Georgia Institute of Technology Sharma, Rajeev Wearable Computers Advanced Interfaces Augmented Reality Stephenson, Robert S. Multimodal Interfaces Wayne State University Online Education Shen, Yuan Yuan Liverpool John Moores University Sterner, William H. Animation University of Chicago Eliza Simpson, Richard C. University of Pittsburgh Tekalp, A. Murat User Modeling University of Rochester Video Summarization Singh, Rita Carnegie Mellon University Tenopir, Carol Sphinx University of Tennessee Electronic Journals Soergel, Dagobert University of Maryland Thomas, Douglas Information Organization University of Southern California Information Retrieval Hackers
St. Amant, Robert A. Thuraisingham, Bhavani North Carolina State University National Science Foundation Artificial Intelligence Security Statistical Analysis Support Semantic Web
Tran, Phuoc University of Toronto Internet — Worldwide Diffusion 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xxxii
XXXII ❘❙❚ BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION
Tretiakoff, Oleg Westfall, Ralph David C.A. Technology, Inc. California State Polytechnic University, Pomona Braille Telecommuting
Tygar, J. D. Williams, Ronald D. University of California, Berkeley University of Virginia Digital Cash Embedded Systems Spamming Viruses Wilson, Michael CCLRC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory Unicode Editorial Committee World Wide Web Unicode Witte, James van Santen, Jan P.H. Clemson University Oregon Health and Science University Online Questionnaires Speech Synthesis Yaar, Abraham Vanderheiden, Gregg Carnegie Mellon University University of Wisconsin, Madison Denial of Service Attack Universal Access Youngblood, Michael Vassileva, Julita University of Texas, Arlington University of Saskatchewan Smart Homes Peer-to-Peer Architecture Zakaria, Norhayati Wellman, Barry Syracuse University University of Toronto E-business Internet - Worldwide Diffusion Internet in Everyday Life Zaki, Mohammad Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Welty, Christopher A. Data Mining IBM T.J. Watson Research Center Ontology Zhai, Shumin IBM Almaden Research Center Mouse 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xxxiii
INTRODUCTION
By William Sims Bainbridge
In hardly more than half a century, computers have hitherto existed only in the pages of science fic- become integral parts of everyday life, at home, tion. For a sense of the wide reach of HCI, consider work, and play. Today, computers affect almost the following vignettes: every aspect of modern life, in areas as diverse as car design, filmmaking, disability services, and sex Gloria, who owns a small fitness training busi- education. Human-computer interaction (HCI) is ness, is currently trying out a new system in which a vital new field that examines the ways in which she and a client dance on sensor pads on the floor, people communicate with computers, robots, in- while the computer plays rhythms and scores formation systems, and the Internet. It draws upon how quickly they are placing their feet on the several branches of social, behavioral, and infor- designated squares. mation science, as well as on computer science and Elizabeth has made friends through chatrooms electrical engineering. The traditional heart of HCI connected to French and British music groups has been user interface design, but in recent that are not well known in the United States. She years the field has expanded to include any science occasionally shares music files with these friends and technology related to the ways that humans before buying CDs from foreign online distrib- use or are affected by computing technology. utors, and she has helped one of the French bands HCI brings to the fore social and ethical issues that translate its website into English.
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Carl’s work team develops drivers for new color puter recognition of pen or stylus movements on printers far more quickly and effectively than be- tablet or pocket computers. fore, because the team comprises expert design- All of these have been very active areas of research ers and programmers who live in different or development since he wrote, and several are fun- time zones around the world, from India to damental to commercial products that have already California, collectively working 24 hours a day, appeared. For example, many companies now use 7 days a week, by means of an Internet-based col- speech recognition to automate their telephone in- laboration system. formation services, and hundreds of thousands of Bella is blind, but her wearable computer uses people use stylus-controlled pocket computers every Internet and the Global Positioning System not day. Many articles in the encyclopedia describe only to find her way through the city safely but new approaches that may be of tremendous impor- also to find any product or service she needs at tance in the future. the best price and to be constantly aware of her Our entire perspective on HCI has been evolving surroundings. rapidly in recent years. In 1997, the National Research Anderson, whose Internet moniker is Neo, dis- Council—a private, nonprofit institution that pro- covers that his entire life is an illusion, main- vides science, technology, and health policy advice tained by a vast computer plugged directly into under a congressional charter—issued a major re- his nervous system. port, More Than Screen Deep, “to evaluate and sug- gest fruitful directions for progress in user interfaces The first three stories are real, although the names to computing and communications systems.” This are pseudonyms, and the scenarios are duplicated high-level study, sponsored by the National Science millions of times in the modern world of personal Foundation (NSF), concluded with three recom- computers, office automation, and the World Wide mendations to the federal government and univer- Web. The fourth example could be realized with to- sity researchers. day’s technology, simply given a sufficient investment 1. Break away from 1960s technologies and para- in infrastructure. Not only would it revolutionize the digms. Major attempts should be made to find lives of blind people like Bella, it would benefit the new paradigms for human-machine interac- sighted public too, so we can predict that it will in tion that employ new modes and media for in- fact become true over the next decade or two. The put and output and that involve new story about Mr. Anderson is pure fiction, no doubt conceptualizations of application interfaces. recognizable to many as the premise of the 1999 film (192) The Matrix. It is doubtful that HCI ever could (or 2. Invest in the research required to provide the com- should) become indistinguishable from real life. ponent subsystems needed for every-citizen in- terfaces. Research is needed that is aimed at both Background on HCI making technological advances and gaining understanding of the human and organizational In a brief history of HCI technology published in capabilities these advances would support. (195) 1996, the computer scientist Brad Myers noted 3. Encourage research on systems-level design and that most computer interface technology began as development of human-machine interfaces that government-supported research projects in univer- support multiperson, multimachine groups sities and only years later was developed by corpo- as well as individuals. (196) rations and transformed into commercial products. He then listed six up-and-coming research areas: In 2002, John M. Carroll looked back on the his- natural language and speech, computer-supported tory of HCI and noted how difficult it was at first to cooperative work, virtual and augmented reality, get computer science and engineering to pay atten- three-dimensional graphics, multimedia, and com- tion to issues of hardware and software usability. He 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xxxv
INTRODUCTION ❚❙❘ XXXV
argued that HCI was born as the fusion of four fields technological revolution is likely to give computer (software engineering, software human factors, com- technology an additional powerful boost: nanotech- puter graphics, and cognitive science) and that it con- nology. The word comes from a unit for measuring tinues to be an emerging area in computer science. tiny distances, the nanometer, which is one billionth The field is expanding in both scope and importance. of a meter (one millionth of a millimeter, or one mil- For example, HCI incorporates more and more from lionth the thickness of a U.S. dime). The very the social sciences as computing becomes increas- largest single atoms are just under a nanometer in ingly deeply rooted in cooperative work and human size, and much of the action in chemistry (including communication. fundamental biological processes) occurs in the range Many universities now have research groups between 1 nanometer and 100–200 nanometers. The and training programs in HCI. In addition to the de- smallest transistors in experimental computer signers and engineers who create computer interfaces chips are about 50 nanometers across. and the researchers in industry and academia who are Experts working at the interface between nano- developing the fundamental principles for success technology and computing believe that nanoelec- in such work, a very large number of workers in many tronics can support continued rapid improvements industries contribute indirectly to progress in HCI. in computer speed, memory, and cost for twenty The nature of computing is constantly changing. The to thirty years, with the possibility of further progress first digital electronic computers, such as ENIAC (com- after then by means of integrated design approaches pleted in 1946), were built to solve military problems, and investment in information infrastructure. Two such as calculating ballistic trajectories. The 1950s and decades of improvement in computer chips would 1960s saw a great expansion in military uses and ex- mean that a desktop personal computer bought in tensive application of digital computers in commerce 2024 might have eight thousand times the power and industry. In the late 1970s, personal computers of one bought in 2004 for the same price—or could entered the home, and in the 1980s they developed have the same power but cost only twenty cents and more user-friendly interfaces. The 1990s saw the trans- fit inside a shirt button. Already, nanotechnology formation of Internet into a major medium of com- is being used to create networks of sensors that can munications, culminating in the expansion of the detect and identify chemical pollutants or biologi- World Wide Web to reach a billion people. cal agents almost instantly. While this technology In the first decade of the twenty-first century, will first be applied to military defense, it can be two trends are rushing rapidly forward. One is the adapted to medical or personal uses in just a few years. extension of networking to mobile computers and The average person’s wristwatch in 2024 could embedded devices literally everywhere. The other is be their mobile computer, telling them everything the convergence of all mass media with computing, they might want to know about their environment— such that people listen to music, watch movies, take where the nearest Thai restaurant can be found, when pictures, make videos, carry on telephone conversa- the next bus will arrive at the corner up the road, tions, and conduct many kinds of business on com- whether there is anything in the air the person hap- puters or on networks of which computers are central pens to be allergic to, and, of course, providing any components. To people who are uncomfortable with information from the world’s entire database that these trends, it may seem that cyberspace is swal- the person might want to know. If advances in nat- lowing real life. To enthusiasts of the technology, it ural-language processing continue at the rate they seems that human consciousness is expanding to en- are progressing today, then the wristwatch could also compass everything. be a universal translator that allows the person to The computer revolution is almost certainly speak with anyone in any language spoken on the going to continue for decades, and specialists in face of the planet. Of course, predictions are al- human-computer interaction will face many new ways perilous, and it may be that progress will slow challenges in the years to come. At least one other down. Progress does not simply happen of its own 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xxxvi
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accord, and the field of human-computer interac- and data. After a while I realized I was going deaf tion must continue to grow and flourish if comput- from the noise and took to wearing earplugs. Later, ers are to bring the marvelous benefits to human life back at Harvard in a faculty position, I began writ- that they have the potential to bring. ing my own statistical analysis programs for my first personal computer, an Apple II. I remember that one kind of analysis would take a 36 hours to run, with My Own Experience with Computers the computer humming away in a corner as I went Computer and information technologies have pro- about my daily life. For a decade beginning in 1983, gressed amazingly over the past fifty years, and they I programmed educational software packages in so- may continue to do so for the next half century. My first ciology and psychology, and after a series of com- computer, if it deserves that word, was a Geniac I re- puter-related projects found myself running the ceived for my sixteenth birthday in 1956. Costing only sociology program at the National Science Founda- $20, it consisted of masonite disks, wires, light bulbs tion and representing the social and behavioral and a vast collection of nuts, bolts, and clips. From these sciences on the major computing initiatives of parts I could assemble six rotary switches that could be NSF and the federal government more generally. programmed (by hardwiring them) to solve simple After eight years of that experience, I moved to the logic problems such as playing tick-tack-toe. I devel- NSF Directorate for Computer and Information oped a great affection for the Geniac, as I did for the Science and Engineering to run the NSF’s programs foot-long slide rule I lugged to my high school in human-computer interaction, universal access, classes, but each was a very far cry from the pocket com- and artificial intelligence and cognitive science be- puter or even the programmable calculator my sixteen- fore becoming deputy director of the Division of year-old daughter carries in her backpack today. Information and Intelligent Systems, which contains Geniac was not really an electronic computer be- these programs. cause it lacked active components—which in 1956 My daughters, aged sixteen and thirteen, have meant relays or vacuum tubes, because transistors used their considerable computer expertise to cre- were still very new and integrated circuits had not ate the Center for Glitch Studies, a research project yet been invented. The first real computer I saw, in to discover and analyze programming errors in com- the early 1960s, was the massive machine used by my mercial video games. So far they have documented father’s company, Equitable Life Insurance, to keep on their website more than 230 programming errors its records. Only decades later did I learn that my in popular video games. The hundreds of people who uncle, Angus McIntosh, had been part of a team in visit the website are not a passive audience, but send World War II that seized the German computer that e-mail messages describing errors they themselves was cracking Soviet codes, and that the secret Colossus discovered, and they link their own websites into a computer at Bletchley Park where he worked had growing network of knowledge and virtual social been cracking German codes. In the middle of the relationships. twentieth century, computers were huge, rare, and isolated from the general public, whereas at the be- ginning of the twenty-first century they are essen- A Personal Story—NSF’s FastLane tial parts of everyday life. Computers have become vastly more important at My first experience programming computers work over recent decades, and they have come to play came in 1974, when I was a graduate student in the increasingly more complex roles. For example, sociology department at Harvard University, and I NSF has created an entire online system for re- began using the machines for statistical analysis of viewing grant proposals, called FastLane, and thou- data. Starting the next year at the University of sands of scientists and educators have become Washington, where I was a beginning assistant familiar with it through serving as reviewers or prin- professor, I would sit for hours at a noisy keypunch cipal investigators. machine, making the punch cards to enter programs 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xxxvii
INTRODUCTION ❚❙❘ XXXVII
A researcher prepares a description of the proj- the institution, and the abstract is posted on the web ect he or she hopes to do and assembles ancillary for anyone to see. Each year, the researcher submits information such as a bibliography and brief biog- a report, electronically of course, and the full record raphies of the team members. The researcher sub- of the grant accumulates in the NSF computer sys- mits this material, along with data such as the dollar tem until the work has been completed. requests on the different lines of the formal budget. Electronic systems connect the people— The only software required is a word processor researcher, program director, and reviewers—into a and a web browser. As soon as the head of the in- system of information flow that is also a social sys- stitution’s grants office clicks the submit button, the tem in which each person plays a specific role. Be- full proposal appears at NSF, with the data already cause the system was designed over a number of years arranged in the appropriate data fields, so nobody to do a particular set of jobs, it works quite well, and has to key it in. improvements are constantly being incorporated. Peer review is the heart of the evaluation process. This is a prime example of Computer-Supported As director of the HCI program, I categorize pro- Cooperative Work, one of the many HCI topics cov- posals into review panels, then recruit panelists ered in this encyclopedia. who were experts in the field with specializations that matched the scope of the proposals. Each panelist re- views certain proposals and submits a written review The Role of the Berkshire Encyclopedia electronically. of Human-Computer Interaction Once the individual reviews have been submit- Because the field of HCI is new, the Berkshire ted, the panel meets face-to-face to discuss the Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction breaks proposals and recommend funding for the best ones. new ground. It offers readers up-to-date information The panelists all have computers with Electronic about several key aspects of the technology and its Panel System (EPS) groupware that provides easy ac- human dimensions, including cess to all the proposals and reviews associated with the particular panel. During the discussion of a par- applications—major tools that serve human ticular proposal, one panelist acts as “scribe,” keep- needs in particular ways, with distinctive usability ing a summary of what was said in the EPS. Other issues. panelists can read the summary, send written com- approaches—techniques through which scien- ments to the scribe, and may be asked to approve the tists and engineers design and evaluate HCI. final draft online. breakthroughs—particular projects that marked Next the NSF program officer combines all the a turning point in the history of HCI. evaluations and writes a recommendation in the elec- challenges—problems and solutions, both tech- tronic system, for approval by the director of the di- nical and human, especially in controversial vision in which the program is located. More often areas. than not, unfortunately, the decision is to decline to components—key parts of a software or hard- fund the proposal. In that case, the program officer ware system that are central to how people use it. and division director processes the action quickly on disciplines—the contributions that various sci- their networked computers, and an electronic no- ences and academic fields make to HCI. tification goes immediately to the principal inves- interfaces—hardware or software systems that tigator, who can access FastLane to read the reviews mediate between people and machines. and summary of the panel discussion. methods—general computer and information In those rarer and happier situations when a science solutions to wide classes of technical grant is awarded, the principal investigator and pro- problems. gram officer negotiate the last details and craft an social implications—technological impacts on so- abstract, describing the research. The instant the ciety and policy issues, and the potential of multi- award is made, the money goes electronically to user HCI systems to bring about social change. 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xxxviii
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These categories are not mutually exclusive; many of HCI. I have written occasional encyclopedia arti- articles fit in two or more of them. For example, the cles since the early 1990s, when I was one of sev- short article on laser printers concerns an output in- eral subject matter editors of The Encyclopedia of terface and explains how a laser printer puts words Language and Linguistics. Often, an editor working and pictures on paper. But this article also concerns on a specialized encyclopedia for one publisher or a breakthrough, the actual invention of the laser another would send me an e-mail message asking printer, and it was written by the inventor himself, if I would write a particular essay, and I would Gary Starkweather. send it in, also by e-mail. I had a very good experi- ence contributing to the Encyclopedia of Community, Contributors edited by Karen Christensen and David Levinson The 175 contributors to the encyclopedia possess the of Berkshire Publishing. I suggested to Karen that full range and depth of expertise covered by HCI, Berkshire might want to do an encyclopedia of and more. They include not only computer scien- human-computer interaction and that I could re- tists and electrical engineers, but also social and cruit excellent authors for such a project. Berkshire behavioral scientists, plus practicing engineers, sci- has extensive experience developing high-quality ref- entists, scholars, and other experts in a wide range erence works, both in partnership with other pub- of other fields. The oldest authors were born around lishing houses and on its own. the time that the very first experimental digital elec- Almost all the communication to create the tronic computer was built, and the entire history encyclopedia was carried out online. Although I know of computing has taken place during their lives. many people in the field personally, it was a great Among the influential and widely respected con- help to have access to the public databases placed on tributors is Jose-Marie Griffiths, who contributed the Web by NSF, including abstracts of all grants the article on digital libraries. As a member of the made in the past fifteen years, and to the online pub- U.S. President’s Information Technology Advisory lications of organizations such as the Association for Committee, Griffiths understands the full scope and Computing Machinery and to the websites of all of social value of this new kind of public resource. the authors, which often provide copies of their pub- Contributors Judith S. Olson, Gary M. Olson, and lications. Berkshire created a special password- John M. Carroll are among the very few leaders who protected website with information for authors and have been elected to the Academy of the Special a section where I could review all the essays as they Interest Group on Computer-Human Interaction of were submitted. the Association for Computing Machinery (SIGCHI). In 2003 Carroll received the organization’s Life- For the Reader time Achievement Award for his extensive accomplish- There are many challenges ahead for HCI, and many ments, including his contributions to the Blacksburg are described in this encyclopedia. Difficult prob- Electronic Village, the most significant experiment lems tend to have both technical and human aspects. on community participation in computer-mediated For the benefit of the reader, the articles identify stan- communication. Jack Dongarra, who wrote the con- dard solutions and their ramifications, both positive tribution on supercomputers, developed the and negative, and may also cover social or political LINPACK Benchmark, which is used to test the speed controversies surrounding the problem and its pos- of these upper-end machines and which is the sible solutions. Many of the articles describe how a basis of the annual list of the five hundred fastest particular scientific discipline or branch of engi- computers in the world. neering approaches HCI, and what it contributes to the multidisciplinary understanding of and im- Building the Encyclopedia: provement in how computers, robots, and informa- Computer-Supported Cooperative Work tion systems can serve human needs. Other articles The creation of this encyclopedia is an example of focus on a particular interface, modality, or medium computer-supported cooperative work, a main area in which people receive information and control the 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xxxix
INTRODUCTION ❚❙❘ XXXIX
computer or system of which it is a part. These articles Some seventy-five diverse illustrations, which range explain the technical features of the hardware or soft- from “antique”photos of the ENIAC computer (c. ware; they also explain the way humans perceive, 1940s) to cutting-edge computerized images. learn, and behave in the particular context. Still other A bibliography of HCI books and journal articles concern how computer and information sci- articles. ence has developed to solve a wide class of problems, A popular culture appendix that includes more using vivid examples to explain the philosophy of than 300 annotated entries on books, plays, the method, paying some attention as well to the hu- movies, television shows, and songs that have man side of the equation. connections to HCI. Many articles—sometimes as their central focus and sometimes incidentally—examine the social im- William Sims Bainbridge plications of HCI, such as the impact of a particular kind of technology, the way that the technology The views expressed are those of the author and do not fits into societal institutions, or a social issue involving necessarily reflect the position of the National Science computing. The technology can strengthen either Foundation cooperation or conflict between human beings, and the mutual relations between technological change and social change are often quite complex. FURTHER READING For information technology workers, this ency- clopedia provides insight into specialties other than Asher, R. E., & Simpson, J. M. Y. (Eds.). (1994). The encyclopedia of the one they work in and offers useful perspectives on language and linguistics. Oxford, UK: Pergamon. the broad field. For policy makers, it provides a basis Bainbridge, W. S. (1989). Survey research: A computer-assisted intro- duction. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. for thinking about the decisions we face in exploit- Bainbridge, W. S. (1992). Social research methods and statistics: A ing technological possibilities for maximum human computer-assisted introduction. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. benefit. For students, this encyclopedia lays out how Carroll, J. M. (Ed.). (2002). Human-computer interaction in the new to use the technology to make a better world and of- millennium. Boston: Addison-Wesley. Christensen, K., & Levinson, D. (2003). Encyclopedia of community: fers a glimpse of the rapidly changing computer-as- From the village to the virtual world. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. sisted human world in which they are living their lives. Myers, B. A. (1996). A brief history of human computer interaction To illuminate and expand on the articles them- technology. ACM Interactions, 5(2), 44–54. National Research Council. (1997). More than screen deep. Washington, selves, the encyclopedia includes the following spe- DC: National Academy Press. cial features: Roco, M. C., & Bainbridge, W. S. (2001). Societal implications of nanoscience and nanotechnology. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer. Approximately eighty sidebars with key primary Roco, M. C., & Bainbridge, W. S. (2003). Converging technologies for text, glossary terms, quotes, and personal stories improving human performance. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer. about how HCI has had an impact on the work and lives of professionals in the field. 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xl 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xli
PUBLISHER’S NOTE
By Karen Christensen
The Berkshire Encyclopedia of Human-Computer relationships than in binary code; but it was books— Interaction (HCI) is our first independent title. We’ve and a career in publishing—that at last brought home done many other award-winning encyclopedias but to me that computers can support and expand hu- HCI will always have a unique place in our hearts man connections and improve our lives in myriad and in our history. ways. Berkshire Publishing Group, based in a tiny Even though most of our work has been in the New England town, depends on human-computer social sciences, when William Bainbridge at the interaction to maintain working relationships, and National Science Foundation wrote to suggest the friendships too, with many thousands of experts topic of HCI, I knew instantly that it was the right around the world. We are convinced, in fact, that this topic for our “knowledge and technology”company. topic is central to our development as a twenty-first I grew up with the computer industry. My father, a century publishing company, computer engineer in the Silicon Valley, tried very The Berkshire Encyclopedia of Human-Computer hard to explain the fundamentals of computing, and Interaction takes computing into new realms, intro- even built a machine out of plywood and blinking ducing us to topics that are intriguing both in their lights to show my sixth-grade class that information technical complexity and because they present us— can be captured and communicated with nothing human beings—with a set of challenging questions more than a combination of on-off switches. I was about our relationship with “thinking”machines. There a reader, much more interested in human stories and are opportunities and risks in any new technology, and
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HCI has intrigued writers for many decades because The Berkshire Encyclopedia of Human-Computer it leads us to a central philosophical, religious, and even Interaction provides us with an essential grounding historical question: What does it mean to be human? in the most relevant and intimate form of technol- We’ll be exploring this topic and related ones in fur- ogy, making scientific and technological research ther works about technology and society. available to a wide audience. This topic and other as- Bill Bainbridge was an exceptional editor: or- pects of what Bill Bainbridge likes to refer to as “con- ganized, focused, and responsive. Working with him verging technologies” will continue to be a core part has been deeply rewarding, and it’s no surprise of our print and online publishing program. And, as that the hundreds of computer scientists and engi- befits a project so closely tied to electronic tech- neers he helped us recruit to contribute to the en- nology, an online version of the Berkshire cyclopedia were similarly enthusiastic and gracious. Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction will be All these experts—computer scientists and engineers available through xrefplus. For more information, as well as people working in other aspects of HCI— visit www.xreferplus.com. truly wanted to work with us to ensure that their work would be accessible and understandable. Karen Christensen To add even greater interest and richness to the CEO, Berkshire Publishing Group work, we’ve added dozens of photographs, personal [email protected] stories, glossary terms, and other sidebars. In addi- tion to article bibliographies, there is a master bib- liography at the end, containing all 2,590 entries in Editor’s Acknowledgements the entire encyclopedia listed together for easy ref- Karen Christensen, cofounder of the Berkshire erence. And we’ve added a characteristic Berkshire Publishing Group, deserves both thanks and touch, an appendix designed to appeal to even the praise for recognizing that the time had come when most resolute Luddite: “HCI in Popular Culture,” a a comprehensive reference work about human re- database compilation listing with 300 sci-fi novels, lations with computing systems was both possible nonfiction titles, television programs and films from and sorely needed. Courtney Linehan at Berkshire The Six-Million Dollar Man to The Matrix (per- was both skilled and tireless in working with the au- haps the quintessential HCI story), and even a hand- thors, editor, and copyeditors to complete a mar- ful of plays and songs about computers and velous collection of articles that are technically technology. accurate while communicating clearly to a broad The encyclopedia has enabled us to develop a public. At various stages in the process of develop- network of experts as well as a cutting-edge resource ing the encyclopedia, Marcy Ross and George that will help us to meet the needs of students, Woodward at Berkshire made their own indispen- professionals, and scholars in many disciplines. Many sable contributions. Among the authors, Mary articles will be of considerable interest and value to Harper, Bhavani Thuraisingham, and Barry Wellman librarians—Digital Libraries, Information Filtering, were unstinting in their insightful advice. I would Information Retrieval, Lexicon Building, and much particularly like to thank Michael Lesk who, as di- more—and even to publishers. For example, we have rector of the Division of Information and Intelligent an article on “Text Summarization”written by Judith Systems of the National Science Foundation, gave Klavans, Director of Research at the Center for me the opportunity to gain invaluable experience Advanced Study of Language, University of managing the grant programs in Universal Access Maryland. “Summarization is a technique for and Human-Computer Interaction. identifying the key points of a document or set of related documents, and presenting these selected William Sims Bainbridge points as a brief, integrated independent represen- Deputy Director, tation”and is essential to electronic publishing, a key Division of Information and Intelligent Systems aspect of publishing today and in the future. National Science Foundation 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page xliii
ABOUT THE EDITOR
William Sims Bainbridge is deputy director of the resented the social and behavioral sciences on five ad- Division of Information and Intelligent Systems of vanced technology initiatives: High Performance the National Science Foundation, after having di- Computing and Communications, Knowledge and rected the division’s Human-Computer Interaction, Distributed Intelligence, Digital Libraries, Information Universal Access, and Knowledge and Cognitive Technology Research, and Nanotechnology. Systems programs. He coedited Converging Tech- Bill Bainbridge is also the author of ten nologies to Improve Human Performance, which books, four textbook-software packages, and some explores the combination of nanotechnology, bio- 150 shorter publications in information science, technology, information technology, and cognitive social science of technology, and the sociology of science (National Science Foundation, 2002; culture. He earned his doctorate from Harvard www.wtec.org/ConvergingTechnologies). He has rep- University.
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