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The Transformation of Traditional Asian Medical Knowledge Into International Commodities – the Link Between Traditional Medicines and the International Market

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The Transformation of Traditional Asian Medical Knowledge Into International Commodities – the Link Between Traditional Medicines and the International Market The Transformation of Traditional Asian Medical Knowledge into International Commodities – the Link between Traditional Medicines and the International Market Anthony Booker Centre for Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy University College London, School of Pharmacy Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of London April, 2014 Abstract Aims and Objectives Medicinal plant (herbal medicine) value chains have generally been overlooked compared with food commodities. Not surprisingly, revenue generation tends to be weighted towards the retail end of the chain and consequently the farm labourers, farmers and processors of the crude raw materials (the primary producers) are the lowest beneficiaries. This project aims to investigate medicinal plant value chains and interpret the impact different value chains have on the livelihoods of primary producers in developing countries and for the first time analytically assess the quality implications for the manufacturers (secondary producers) and end users in Europe. Methodological Approach This interdisciplinary project uses a mixed methods approach. Case studies were undertaken on three separate sites in India. Data were initially gathered on medicinal plant value chains by means of semi-structured interviews and non-participant observation. Samples were collected from locations in India, China, Europe and the USA and analysed using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and high performance thin layer chromatography. Results There were benefits for primary producers that belonged to a vertically integrated value chain and resulting products were subject to a higher standard of processing and storage. The analysis demonstrated that there was variation in the chemical composition of the samples tested and that products obtained from a vertically integrated value chain were more similar chemically to fresh turmeric rhizomes than other samples tested. Conclusions By using analytical methods, it has been possible to correlate important variations in product composition for selected samples and identify strengths and weaknesses of some key value chains. Through establishing direct contracts with farmers in India, the vertically integrated value chain investigated was able to exert greater control over cultivation and manufacturing processes than found in other chains. Consequently the vertically integrated value chain is able to produce a higher quality product than generally found on the market. This results in a value addition that can be passed back down the chain for the benefit of the primary producers. 2 I, Anthony Booker, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. 3 Acknowledgements I wish to express grateful thanks to Professor Michael Heinrich for his support, encouragement and advice over the duration of this project and for teaching me to investigate problems thoroughly and with an open mind. I am indebted to Dr. Deborah Johnston for her valued help and discussions and for opening my eyes to the world of agrarian economics. Thanks also to Professor Liz Williamson for helping with my fieldwork stage and introducing me to some key contacts in India. For their valued assistance with NMR spectroscopy, I would like to thank Dr. Mire Zloh and Dr. Colin James and thank you to Chinenye Umealajekwu for help with the analysis of the first batch of turmeric samples. Thanks to Debora Frommenwiler and Dr. Eike Reich for their assistance in developing the HPTLC methods and allowing me to undertake work at the CAMAG laboratories in Switzerland. I had a great deal of help during the fieldwork stages of my project and I would like to express gratitude to Professor P. Dhanabal for taking me to Erode and introducing me to turmeric farmers. Sincere thanks to Mr. CMN Shastry, Sebastian Pole and Ben Heron for allowing me into their farms / companies and interview their employees in Shimoga and Bangalore. Many thanks to Dr. Rambir Singh for his help accessing farms in Jhansi. Thanks to Amy Tso, George He and Dr. Wu-Chang Chuang for their help with the preliminary fieldwork in Anhui, China. I would like to thank Dr. Tommy Sopwith for introducing me to some key informants and for his help and advice. Thanks to Dr. Sunita Chaudhari for leading me to a greater understanding of Ayurvedic medicine. I am grateful to my friend Dr. Guo liuyun for translating Chinese texts. Grateful thanks to Johanna Michl for her help and advice, and to Dr Hannah Jennings, Amaka Izuka Ezuruike and Dr Ines Rocha for their valued help and support and all the students and staff of the pharmacognosy and phytotherapy research group. Thanks to Dr Jeff Waage and all the members of the Leverhulme Centre for Research on Agriculture and Health (LCIRAH) and grateful thanks to The Leverhulme Trust for the funding of this project. Thanks to my family for their support, and especially to my daughter Emily, to my mother-in-law, Betty Stringer for her proof reading and helpful comments and special thanks to my wife Jan Booker, for encouraging me from the beginning and who makes it all possible. 4 List of Figures Figure 1, 2006 - 2007 Regional turmeric production in India / tonnes Figure 2, Overall usage of herbal medicine, n = 230 Figure 3, Usage of Indian medicinal herbs as an aid to health, n = 226 Figure 4, Future attitudes towards Indian products, n = 225 Figure 5, Perceived benefits of Indian herbal medicine, n = 203 Figure 6, The most important Indian medicinal herbs, n = 191 Figure 7, Asian country suppliers of HMPs, n = 229 Figure 8, Sources for the supply of herbs, spices and HMPs, n = 209 Figure 9, Dosage form for Indian HMPs, n = 211 Figure 10, Quality and safety concerns regarding Indian HMPs, n = 76 Figure 11, Comments on Indian herbal medicine, n = 49 Figure 12, Laboratory cultivated Dendrobium catenatum Lindl. (Seeds are collected from wild specimens) Figure 13, The main trading building at Bozhou herbal market Figure 14, A local farmer trading his herbs at Bozhou market Figure 15, Herbarium voucher specimen at Anhui University Figure 16, Field worker in Bozhou harvesting mature plants Figure 17, An employee of ATHSC in the warehouse Figure 18, ATHSC factory employees sorting ziziphus, suanzaoren Figure 19, The Taiwan-Anhui supply chain Figure 20, Different routes of supply to the consumer Figure 21, Location of fieldwork study sites Figure 22, The PD Family at the Tamil Nadu farm Figure 23, Gathering the sugar cane (the leaves are removed before the cane is cut) Figure 24, A farm labourer boiling the turmeric root crop Figure 25, A farm labourer processing turmeric Figure 26, Farm labourers polishing turmeric rhizomes Figure 27, The state regulated auction house in Erode, Tamil Nadu Figure 28, Turmeric stored in jute sacks and treated with pesticides to minimise infestation and microbial growth. Figure 29, Ayurvedic medicine manufacture Figure 30, Workers at KF weeding the gotu kola field Figure 31, A farm worker undertaking processing of betel nut (Areca catechu L. Arecaceae) Figure 32, Women from a nearby village help to process the areca crop Figure 33, Pepper vines are grown amongst the areca forest 5 Figure 34, Bananas are grown on the farm and sold in a nearby town Figure 35, An experiment using shading techniques to promote plant growth Figure 36, Turmeric after harvesting and being laid out in the sun Figure 37, Areca catechu drying on the farm house roof Figure 38, Processing Areca catechu Figure 39, Different stages of crop processing; collecting, sorting, sequential washing, drying and batch record attachment Figure 40, Organic farm certification for KF Figure 41, Fields are weeded by hand and birds help to fertilise the land and reduce the insect population Figure 42, Factory staff at PA, sorting dried herbs Figure 43, Organic food products packed at PA Figure 44, Production of mycorrhizal fertiliser Figure 45, Laboratory production of bio-(fertilisers, pesticides and fungicides) Figure 46, Amount per kg paid for turmeric along the PA domestic value chain Figure 47, Amount per kg paid for turmeric along the PA export VIVC Figure 48, The herbal practitioner value chain. Figure 49, The value chain for OTC turmeric products found in UK retail outlets Figure 50, Comparison of wages for agricultural and factory workers Figure 51 1H-NMR spectroscopy curcumin reference standard (mixture of three curcuminoids Figure 52, Scores plot showing samples grouped according to species, PC1 VS PC2 Figure 53, Scores plot showing samples grouped according to form, PC1 VS PC2 Figure 54, Contributions plot showing the metabolite differences between sample 1, an ethanol extract and the group average, n = 52 Figure 55, Scores plot comparing all powders, roots and rhizomes, grouped by species, PC1 VS PC2, n = 44 Figure 56, Contributions plot showing the metabolite differences between sample 5 and the group average peak intensities for the remainder of the samples, n = 52 Figure 57, Contributions plot showing where the main differences in metabolite composition occur between a sample of C. longa (sample 16) and C. zanthorrhiza (sample 52) Figure 58, Scores plot showing differentiation of C. aromatica and C. zanthorrhiza, PC1 VS PC2, n = 12 Figure 59, Scores plot showing differentiation of C. aromatica and C. zanthorrhiza, PC4 VS PC5, n = 12 Figure 60, Comparison of all powders, dried roots, rhizomes and fresh rhizomes, PC1 VS PC2, n = 28 6 Figure 61, Contribution plot showing metabolite differences between sample 47 and the average peak intensities for the main group shown in Figure 60 (n = 28) Figure 62, Contribution plot showing metabolite differences between sample 47 and an ethanol extract, sample 1, n = 52 Figure 63, Contribution plot showing metabolite differences between sample 21, an aqueous extract and the main group, n = 52 Figure 64, Derivatised plate under white light showing curcumin standard and samples separated into 3 groups.
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