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A MESSAGE HIDDEN but ALWAYS SEEN: the Influence of the Spiritual Franciscans on the Works of Dante Alighieri

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A MESSAGE HIDDEN but ALWAYS SEEN: the Influence of the Spiritual Franciscans on the Works of Dante Alighieri A MESSAGE HIDDEN BUT ALWAYS SEEN: The Influence of the Spiritual Franciscans on the Works of Dante Alighieri Laura Sibley Franklin A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of Mount Holyoke College in partial fulfillment of The requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Arts with Honor History Department Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Massachusetts 2007 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Page 3 INTRODUCTION Page 6 I. JOACHIM DI FIORE: The Prophet and the Development of the Apocalyptic Vision of the 13th Century Page 12 II. BONAVENTURE: The Minister General of the Franciscans 1257-1274 Page 26 III. THOMAS OF CELANO: The First Hagiographer of St. Francis Page 51 IV. THE SPIRITUALS: The Rise of the Spiritual Franciscans in the Context of 13th Century Italy Page 64 V. DANTE, 1265-1300: The Formative Years Page 89 VI. DANTE, 1301-1323: In Exile Page 107 VII. THE COMMEDIA: Page 135 CONCLUSION Page 176 WORKS CITED Page 179 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Foremost I would like to thank Professor Claudia Chierichini and Professor Frederick McGinness. Over the past year their hard work and dedication have helped bring this thesis to life. The education I received in their classes inspired this thesis and for this I owe them an even deeper gratitude. In the spring of 2005 Prof. Claudia Chierichini guided five of us through the life and work of Dante. I was so grateful that fate had seated me in Claudia Chierichini’s small class. In that short one semester five of us were inspired by Dante and by Claudia. A great deal of my love and understanding of Dante came from the four other students who sat with me in Claudia’s class. I also offer a deep thank you to these four brilliant women whose minds and hearts were as engaged as mine in reading the Commedia. Their love of the work enhanced my own. Claudia’s passion and knowledge opened a door for all of us. My mind and my heart thank you for this. The previous spring I had a similar sense of gratitude when I sat in Prof. McGinness’s class in my first week of college. I came in as a determined psychology major, but one class with Prof. McGinness and I was hooked. On parent’s weekend of my sophomore year I heard him speak about history as story, and creative and poetic. The next day I went to the registrar, happy I was a history major. Through his passion for history was I able to find my own. Thank you Prof. McGinness for your constant encouragement, good humor (the pope voice) your unwavering support and dedication has made this thesis possible, thank you 4 so much for your hours of laborious edits. But most importantly, thank you, for believing I was historian before I ever knew I was. I will greatly miss my semester-ly McGinness class! I am also very grateful to Prof. Jeremy King for serving as one of my readers and on my committee. I am only regretful that I did not cross his path earlier in my years at Mount Holyoke, but his dedication and investment in the last few weeks of this project was truly admirable. He demonstrated how dedicated he is to his students and for this I thank him. I would also like to thank the countless professors I have encountered in my four years at Mt. Holyoke, particularly: John Varriano, Paula Alekson, Julia Whitworth, Joyce Devlin, and Karen Hollis. Their knowledge, dedication, and individuality have greatly contributed to the comprehensive education I have received at Mount Holyoke. My friends have made my years, but more importantly their friendship is what I will carry with me for the rest of my life. Thank you for always knocking on my door, for quoting the Simpsons when I felt panicked, and for being so supportive of my endeavor. You are amazing women whom I was lucky to meet. Your talents are boundless and I will love you all for the rest of my life. I offer a particular thank you to Courtney Long. Courtney, my muffin buddy, thank you for listening when everyone tuned out, and for checking in on me and all your encouragement, I’m so proud of your work, and I’m happy you stood beside me, figuratively and literally. 5 And Natalie Cheng: thank you for knocking, thank you for listening, thank you for loving Dante too, but most of all thank you for never giving up on me and telling me that “it was written in the stars.” You didn’t let me stop believing. Thank you. The Democrats need you. Finally, I would like to thank my mother, Renee Franklin. Her strength, brilliance, compassion and independence have shown me the greatest capacity a woman has. I could not have completed this work without your support. Thank you mom. This is for you. 6 INTRODUCTION “We are made for art, we are made for memory, we are made for poetry, or perhaps we are made for oblivion. But something remains, and that something is history or poetry, which are not essentially different.” 1 ~ Jorge Luis Borges, from “The Divine Comedy” In 2005, I wrote down Borges’s quotation in my small “thesis” notebook for reference. Two years later, with three quarters of my thesis done I again found these lines and I was reminded how my journey began: to find history in poetry and poetry in history, because they “are not essentially different.” This is also essentially the idea of this thesis. In 1274 in Florence, Italy, a nine-year old Dante Alighieri first saw the girl who would possess his mind for the remainder of his life: Beatrice. In 1274 in the Marche of Ancona,2 three members of a group known as the “spiritual” Franciscans were imprisoned for their rejection of papal authority on the issue of usus pauper (the use of property by members of the mendicant orders). From these two isolated events a glimpse emerged of the origins of one of the world’s greatest pieces of literature, the Commedia (Divine Comedy). This thesis attempts to explore the relationship between Dante and the spiritual Franciscans, a splinter group 1 Jorge Luis Borges, "The Divine Comedy," in The Poets' Dante: Twentieth Century Responses, ed. Paul S. Hawkins and Rachel Jacoff , 121 (New York, Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 2001) 2 The Marche is a region in central Italy which borders Tuscany, Emilia-Romagna, Umbria, and the Abruzzi, Latium, and the Adriatic Sea. It is comprised of five provinces: Ancona, Ascoli Piceno, Fermo, Macerata, and Pesaro e Urbino. 7 of the Franciscan order that claimed fidelity to the historical Saint Francis, his life and legacy. The spirituals were a group of men, and possibly some women, who were alleged to have strayed from the general order of Franciscans, primarily over the issue of obedience to the Rule of Francis and usus pauper, the vow of poverty. In 1223, as Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) lay dying, he made two requests that his brothers observe scrupulously: the usus pauper and, most importantly, the maintenance of independence from the papacy. However, less than two years after their founder’s death, the order requested that the pope allow them to reject these final requests of Francis. Thomas of Celano (1185/90-1260) was the first hagiographer of St Francis. He had been commissioned by Pope Gregory IX (1143-1241, papacy 1227-1241) on April 29, 1228 to write the first account of the saint’s life.3 But in 1260 the Council of Narbonne commissioned a new life of St Francis to be written by the current minister general, Bonaventure of Bagnoregio (1221-1274). The papacy and the order concerned with divisions occurring within the order wanted to produce a unified and official life of the saint. Thomas of Celano’s writings then became “lost” and Bonaventure’s life of the saint became the official 3 Thomas of Celano, “The Life of Saint Francis,” or “The First Life” [Vita Prima] from Francis of Assisi: Early Documents, Volume I, The Saint. ed. Regis J. Armstrong, et. al. (New City Press, 1999). Thomas of Celano wrote this work between 1228 and 1229 8 account of Francis. Although Bonaventure had used much of Celano’s writing, his refashioned image of Francis placed greater importance on the canonized Francis and his role as heavenly patron, the one sent by God now sitting in heaven. The earthly Francis and his historical mission and legacy receded as an ever more distant memory. This new image of Francis allowed Bonaventure and his fellow Franciscans to disregard the specific instructions in the writings of Francis, since these were of the earthly Francis. The new devotion was to center on the praise and glory of Francis among the blessed. Here the spirituals found much fault, as they were intent on remaining obedient to their founder and were not willing to submit to the pope if it meant violating the mandate of Francis. They would not compromise on the issue of usus pauper. They insisted on adhering to the wishes of the “historical”4 Francis. What was the “historical” Francis that the spirituals insisted on following? Francis believed that all creatures of the earth should receive the word of Scripture. His mission was like that of the itinerant Christ: to preach in towns and cities and in the countryside. Francis went to the towns, as Jesus commanded: “And he [Jesus] said to them: Let us go into the neighboring towns and cities that I may preach there also; for to this purpose am I come.” (Mark 1:38) 4 When I use this term I am referring to the represented presence of Francis in the writings of Thomas of Celano and Brother Leo, and referencing the writings and wishes of Francis.
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