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Practical Disease Concepts in Epidemiology

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Practical Disease Concepts in Epidemiology 45175_CH03_049_086.qxd:Merrill 7/12/12 7:18 PM Page 49 CHAPTER 3 Practical Disease Concepts in Epidemiology OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you will be able to: I Define disease and identify common sources and modes of disease transmission. I Classify acute and chronic diseases according to infectivity and communicability. I Understand the major stages in the disease process. I Know the five major categories of disease. I Define zoonosis and identify selected zoonotic diseases and potential carriers of infectious organisms that may be zoonotic. I Describe notifiable disease reporting in the United States. I Discuss immunity and immunizations against infectious diseases. I Identify the changing emphasis of epidemiologic study. I Be familiar with common nutritional deficiency diseases and disorders. I Be familiar with selected chronic diseases and conditions. 45175_CH03_049_086.qxd:Merrill 7/12/12 7:18 PM Page 50 50 CHAPTER 3 I Practical Disease Concepts in Epidemiology Disease is an interruption, cessation, or disorder of body functions, systems, or organs. 1 Diseases arise from infectious agents, inherent weaknesses, lifestyle, or environmental stresses. Often a combination of these factors influences the onset of disease. The early development of epidemiology was based on the investigation of infectious disease out - breaks. Today, epidemiologic studies also consider diseases that are influenced by non - infectious causes such as genetic susceptibility, lifestyle, and selected environmental factors. Identifying the causes of disease and the mechanisms by which disease is spread remains a primary focus of epidemiology. The science and study of the causes of disease and their mode of operation is referred to as etiology .1 Disease processes are complex and require an understanding of several factors, which may include anatomy, physiology, his - tology, biochemistry, microbiology, and related medical sciences. This chapter cannot pro - vide a comprehensive foundation of all these fields of study. Thus, only the basics of diseases, their classification, and processes are presented in this chapter. COMMUNICABLE AND NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES AND CONDITIONS Infectious diseases are caused by invading organisms called pathogens. Infectious diseases may or may not be contagious. When an infectious disease is contagious, or capable of being com - municated or transmitted, it is called a communicable disease .1 Examples of infectious com - municable diseases are HIV/AIDS, cholera, and influenza. Although all communicable diseases are infectious diseases, not all infectious diseases are communicable diseases. An example of an infectious noncommunicable disease is tetanus, caused by the bacterium Clostridium tetani , which is found in the environment. Spores of the bacterium live in the soil, may remain infec - tious for over 40 years, and are found throughout the world. Similarly, anthrax exposure may result by breathing spores that have been in the soil for, in some cases, many years. Another example is Legionnaires’ disease, which is caused by inhaling Legionella bacteria from the envi - ronment. Noninfectious diseases may be referred to as noncommunicable diseases and con - ditions, such as heart disease, most forms of cancer, mental illness, and accidents. Infectious communicable diseases may be transmitted through vertical or horizontal transmission. Vertical transmission refers to transmission from an individual to its off - spring through sperm, placenta, milk, or vaginal fluids. 1 Horizontal transmission refers to transmission of infectious agents from an infected individual to a susceptible contempo - rary. 1 Horizontal transmission may involve direct transmission (e.g., sexually transmitted diseases), a common vehicle (e.g., waterborne, food-borne, or blood-borne diseases), an air - borne pathogen (e.g., tuberculosis), or a vector-borne pathogen (e.g., malaria). Pathogens are defined as organisms or substances such as bacteria, protozoa, viruses, fungi, abnormal or infectious prions (proteins produced by mutated genes), or parasites that are capable of producing disease. 1 Infectious diseases are those in which the pathogen is capable of entering, surviving, and multiplying in the host. Invasiveness refers to the abil - ity of a pathogen to get into a susceptible host and cause disease. The host plays a major part in the ability of an organism to cause disease by providing nutrients and a life-sustaining environment. The disease-evoking power of a pathogen is called virulence .1 Antibiotics work against pathogens because of their toxicity—that is, the antibiotic substance contains elements that are more toxic to bacteria than to the human body. Toxins are poisons and consequently kill pathogens by poisoning them. For example, arsenic is a toxin once used to treat syphilis. 2 The strength of a substance or chemical is mea - sured by how little of it is required for it to work as a poison and how quickly it acts. The 45175_CH03_049_086.qxd:Merrill 7/12/12 7:18 PM Page 51 Natural History of Disease 51 TABLE 3-1 Examples of Diseases and Conditions According to Selected Classifications Communicable Noncommunicable Acute Chronic Acute Chronic Infectious Influenza/pneumonia Cancer Tetanus Lyme disease Leprosy Legionnaire’s Mumps Polio Anthrax Measles Syphilis Cholera Tuberculosis Noninfectious Accidents Alcoholism Drug abuse Cancer Homicide Diabetes mellitus Stroke Heart diseases Suicide Paralysistanus shorter the duration and the less of the substance needed to cause the organism to die, the higher the level of toxicity. Diseases are classified as acute and chronic. Acute: relatively severe disorder with sudden onset and short duration of symptoms. 1 Chronic: less severe but of continuous duration, lasting over long time periods if not a lifetime. 1 Infectious and noninfectious diseases can be acute or chronic. To help clarify acute and chronic disease classification according to infectivity and communicability, some examples are presented in Table 3-1 . NATURAL HISTORY OF DISEASE Each disease has a natural history of progression if no medical intervention is taken and the dis - ease is allowed to run its full course. There are four common stages relevant to most diseases. 1. Stage of susceptibility 2. Stage of presymptomatic disease 3. Stage of clinical disease 4. Stage of recovery, disability, or death The stage of susceptibility precedes the disease and involves the likelihood a host has of developing ill effects from an external agent. The stage of presymptomatic disease begins with exposure and subsequent pathologic changes that occur before the onset of symptoms. This is also typically called the incubation period . For chronic diseases, the time from exposure to clinical symptoms is typically called the latency period . The stage of clinical dis - ease begins when signs and symptoms are manifest. The final stage reflects the expected prognosis. Several factors may influence these stages including early detection and effective treatment. With regard to prevention, primary prevention may occur during the stage of susceptibility. Secondary prevention may occur during the stage of presymptomatic disease or the stage of clinical disease, and tertiary prevention may occur during the stage of clinical disease or in the final stage. 45175_CH03_049_086.qxd:Merrill 7/12/12 7:18 PM Page 52 52 CHAPTER 3 I Practical Disease Concepts in Epidemiology With an infectious disease, the natural course begins with the susceptible person’s expo - sure to a pathogen. The pathogen propagates itself and then spreads within the host. Fac - tors of each disease, each pathogen, and each individual host vary in the way a disease responds, spreads, and affects the body. The progress of a disease can be halted at any point, either by the strength of the response of the body’s natural immune system or through intervention with antibiotics, therapeutics, or other medical interventions ( Figure 3- 1). Changes in the body are initially undetected and unfelt. As the pathogen continues to prop - agate, changes are experienced by the host, marked by the onset of such symptoms as fever, headache, weakness, muscle aches, malaise, and upset stomach. The disease reacts in the body in the manner peculiar to that disease. Possible outcomes are recovery, disability, or death. A generalized presentation of the natural history of disease is shown in Figure 3- 2. General Natur al ly Resistance Acquir ed Act iv e (Skin, mucous Immunity membr anes, tears, Activ e (Throug h gastric acid, cilia) Immunity acquired case RESISTANCE (Body produces of the disease) TO INFECTION its o wn resistance through mild Artificiall y Immunity cases or Acquir ed Act iv e (Specific antibody vaccinations ) reaction, general Immunity immune system (Through a v accination) response, vaccines) Natur al ly Acquir ed Passi ve Passi ve Immunity Immunity (Antibodies pass (Antibodie s from mother to fetus ) produced by another person Artificiall y or animal) Acquir ed Passi ve Immunity (Serum containing antibodies or antibiotics injected ) FIGURE 3- 1 How the human body resists infections. TIME Susceptible Host Subclinical Clinical Disease Stage Disease Stage of Recovery, Stage Disability, or Death Diagnosis sought Serious cases Onset of hospitalized symptoms Point of exposure Beginning of pathological process and changes within the body FIGURE 3- 2 Natural course of communicable disease. 45175_CH03_049_086.qxd:Merrill 7/12/12 7:18 PM Page 53 Classifying Diseases 53 CLASSIFYING DISEASE Diseases
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