POLITICAL SYSTEM President: Checks and Balances The Constitution-  On Congress:  Created in 1787, ratified in 1788 o Recess appointments  Article 1- Legislative, Article 2- Executive, Article 3- o Can veto laws Judiciary o Can command military without them  In order to amend you must have a 2/3rds  On the Supreme Court majority in Congress, the amendment must then o Can appoint judges be approved by 3/4s of all states. o Can pardon criminals  It has only been amended 27 times. Supreme Court: Make-Up Federalism-  Made up of 9 judges so there is always a majority.  System of power sharing between the Federal and  Judges serve until they die or retire. State Governments Supreme Court: Powers Congress: Make-Up  Power of judicial review declaring laws  Made up of 535 members and the House/Senate constitutional or unconstitutional  100 senators, 2 from every state  Rule on cases between states.  435 Reps, depends on population of each state  Is highest court in land, so may deal with cases (always changing) referred to them.  Elections every two years- but only a 1/3rd of the senate is elected each time. Supreme Court: Checks and Balances  On Congress: Congress: Powers o Power of judicial review.  To make and amend legislation o Compensation cannot be diminished  To confirm appointments clause (salary can’t be changed)  To pass the national budget  On the President:  To declare war o Preside over impeachment. o Power of judicial review. Congress: Checks and Balances  On the President: FDR’s effect on the Presidency o Power of impeachment  Fireside Chats o Can reject Presidential appointments o FDR would directly address the nation via o Power of the Purse radio o Can overturn Presidential vetoes. o First one on March 13, 1933 o Can reject treaties agreed to by the o Used this medium to announce President legislation- 80% of words used in 1000  On the Supreme Court most popular o Can reject appointments to the judiciary  Legislator in Chief o Can initiate amendments to the o Changed perception of President as being constitution the person to change the law. Not just o Can impeach judges enforce it. o In his first 100 days he passed 15 pieces President: Make-Up of legislation. In his 12 years he vetoed  President and Vice President 635 laws!  Cabinet appointed by the President to lead various  The New Deal Depts. (Health, Defense etc.) o Expanded the power of the Federal  The Executive Office of the President and Federal Government in regulating domestic Organizations affairs- especially the economy. o Created new Federal Departments, President: Powers  Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces appointing close advisors without  Chief Diplomat confirmation. o EXAMPLE: WPA in 1938 employed over 3  Appoints Federal employees/Cabinet million Americans using Federal money members/Judges  The Executive Office of the President  Can veto bills o Established through Reorganization Act of  Executive orders 1939 o Made up of WHO and Bureau of the  Describes how USSR cannot coexist with the USA, Budget- President has power to change and must be contained to stop Communism make-up of it. spreading. Recommends USA do this through  The Court Packing Scandal economic and diplomatic means o Judicial Procedure Reform Bill of 1937  Kennan is appointed as Chief of the Policy Planning created by FDR declared justices had to Unit by SofS George Marshall, and is integral in retire at 70. design of Marshall Plan o Never enacted but scared Court enough to begin ruling in FDR’s favour. Truman Doctrine  Announced on 12th March 1947. WWII’s effect on the Presidency  In response to Greek Civil War and Communist  Increasing Executive Power threat in Turkey, Truman asks Congress to approve o FDR claimed infinite powers during WWII- $400 million in aid to both countries, they accept. declaring unlimited national emergency  Sets precedent of US help to threatened states on May 27 1941. through economic means. o War Powers Acts of 1941 and 1942 led to FDR having the power to reorganize the Marshall Plan entire executive branch, censor all media,  Designed by Marshall and Kennan- fulfilled and take over any public land for Govt. economic containment recommended by Kennan use.  Began in April 1948 and continued for four years  Provided 17 billion dollars to European countries  Secrecy of War Diplomacy helping them rebuild after WWII o The increase in diplomacy created a  Led to huge growth, with average increase of 35% greater disconnect between President growth in European countries and nation. o The Nuclear Weapons programme, Berlin Blockade  Germany split into 4 in 1945. June 1948 GB, Fr and Tehran Conference and Yalta Conference the USA united their countries as Trizonia, were all largely done in secret- even introduced new currency. Truman didn’t know  Stalin felt left out so he decided to block trade and access to his section of East Berlin. The Blockade TRUMAN’S FOREIGN POLICY Summary: Unprecedented prosperity, growing fears and lasted 318 days. tensions, growing intervention to stop communism,  USA responded by sending 275,000 planes domestic tensions over race and industry transporting 1.5 million tons of supplies over the The inherited situation 318 days. A plane landed every three minutes at  Truman becomes President on April 12th 1945. Berlin's airport.  Yalta Conference in Feb 1945 agrees to split  Stalin eventually gives up in 12 May 1949 Germany into 4 sections, have free elections in

Eastern Europe and for USSR to join war against NATO Japan.  Established in April 1949- influenced by Berlin  USA is winning both wars Germany surrenders on Blockade th 8 May 1945; Japan is still fighting but weak.  National Atlantic Treaty organisation- ensured  Truman learns of the Atomic Bomb and has the European countries knew they were protected due power to use it on Japan to establishment of system of Collective Security  Member states: USA, UK, France, Belgium, Potsdam: Netherlands, Luxembourg, Canada, Portugal, Italy,  Truman, Atlee and Stalin. Norway, Denmark and Iceland  July-Aug 1945  Effectively meant that the USSR could not invade  Confirmed split of Germany into 4 and Berlin into any of the above countries without US 4. Truman didn’t tell Stalin he had the atomic bomb. USSR had spread communism to Poland involvement against America’s wishes. NSC 68 Kennan’s long telegram:  Dean Acheson becomes SofS in Jan 1949, was  George Kennan is deputy ambassador to USSR, much more militaristic than Marshall sends telegram on 22md February 1946 explaining  USSR get A-Bomb in August 1949, in reaction why USSR wouldn’t join world bank Kennan’s theories had to be readdressed  Acheson replaces Kennan with Paul Nitze in 1950, Nitze also believed in stronger force. Demobilisation:  Makes NSC/68 recommends than containment  12 million soldiers needed to be reintegrated into the economy and society. only works with a stronger military- ask for  Army was reduced to 3 million in 1945 and then increase in budget from 13 to 50 billion 1.5 million in 1946.  Truman accepts.  GI Bill of Rights helped reintegrate them distributing $20 Billion to 7.8 million veterans China becoming Communist between 1945 and 1955. Unemployment never  October 1st 1949- Mao proclaims the People’s goes up beyond 5%. Republic of China, a new communist state  Chiang Kai-Shek and defeated nationalists escape Labour Unions:  to Taiwan. Truman had spent $2 Billion supporting In 1945 36% of workers were unionised.  1946 was worst year- 4.6 million workers on them. strike- 116 million days lost.  Truman is tarnished for having ‘lost China’. Many  Truman found it hard to deal with as Labour is a say he should have done more. democrat supporting group.  Truman threatens to conscript railroad workers in Involvement in Indochina May 1946, so they back down. Wins court case  After shock of China- Truman decides to support against United Mine Workers (UMW). But in France over the Vietnamese Freedom Fighters of general seen as weak- Polls suggested strikes were Ho Chi Minh. He was worried Chi Minh would be seen as nation’s main problem. Stalin’s puppet.  Republican Congress introduce Taft Hartley Act in  Begins funding in May 1950. He eventually agrees 1947- Unions were liable for breach of contract, Unions couldn’t force workers to join and to cover 78% of French fees for fighting and President could order a 80 day cooling off period. controlling the area. Unions angry at this and blame Truman.  He sends MAAG (Military Advisory Assistance  In April 1952 Steel Workers threaten to strike- Group) to assist the French in their fight. Truman seizes control to stop this. Press and  This all increases in wake of Korean War. country view him as a dictator. Supreme Court says it is unconstitutional. Truman is humiliated- Korean War Steel workers go on strike and military output in  In 1945 Korea had been split along the 38th 1952 is cut by a 1/3rd. parallel. N. Korea became communist. S. Korea was capitalist. POLITICAL PROBLEMS: Problems with Congress:  On 25th June, 1950 N. Korea invaded S.Korea with  Congress wanted to regain power after FDR- great success. Truman had no crisis to justify legislation like the  In response to this USA got the UN to support Great Depression S.Korea. Led by Douglas Macarthur and pushed  Republicans win 1946 mid-term elections meaning th N.Korea back over the 38 parallel- nearly they have a majority and can fight Truman (Taft defeating her. This decision to go beyond was Hartley passed for example). They opposed the known as ‘rollback’ majority of Truman’s laws- he nicknamed it the  China then pushed the S.Korean’s back with ‘Do Nothing Congress’  Democrats did regain Congress post 1948 due to military force. They recaptured N.Korea and went improving economy and Truman being seen as into S.Korea. tough on Communism. 1948 Election  The Americans landed more troops and drove the  Defeats Republican favourite Thomas Dewey in Chinese back to the 38th parallel. The war ended huge upset. Also regains Congress. Seen as in 1953, with a return to the status quo. remarkable as Strom Thurmond had run as a  36,914 Americans die, Initial aim of saving S Korea Dixiecrat in the South. successful, but Communism was not rolled back.  Truman embarked on 33 days 33,000-mile tour of USA, energising base of support, blaming all social DOMESTIC PROBLEMS: ills on the ‘do nothing congress’. “Give ‘em hell Inflation: Harry!” became a slogan shouted by supporters.  Inflation rose to 25% in 1945-46. Due to a  Voters could see how Economy was improving and combination of the end of wartime price controls also how Truman was successfully containing and a shortage of consumer goods. Communism.  Truman tried to stop it by using the Office of Price  Voters saw Republicans sought to pass many laws Administration (OPA) but Congress weakened it they had previously rejected while in Congress. and allowed prices to increase.  Dewey was seen as boring with quotes such as  Healthcare plans ruined by claims it was ‘Your future is still ahead of you’ communist to create ‘socialised medicine’  Eventually had to give up on Fair Deal due to the Red Scare Korean War, with GDP on military spending  HUAC (House of Un-American Activities increasing to 14%. Committee) made permanent in 1945- dominated  Failed to overturn the Taft-Hartley Act. by Republicans- investigate Hollywood 10 in 1947  Failed to achieve Anti-Lynching Bill.  March 1947 Truman set up Loyalty review boards to find communists in Government  1950- Truman tried to veto McCarran Act (Communist organizations had to register with CIVIL RIGHTS AND TRUMAN: Govt. and could be deported/denied a passport) It In 1945 there are 14 million African Americans in the USA, passed. making up 10% of the population.  Between 1947 and 1952 over 3 million investigations. 1945 South  In this time- Alger Hiss and Rosenbergs Case- Communist spies seemed a real threat  Jim Crow laws were still prevalent in the South- in McCarthyism all public services and private businesses.  McCarthy makes his speech in Wheeling in Jan.  Jobs were mainly agricultural or menial- hard to 1950- announces he knows of 205 communists in get better jobs due to segregated education State Dept.  Best job was that of a minister (hence MLK’s good  Creates the Tydings Committee to investigate education) claims- when Tydings says there are no spies-  Very hard to vote- only 12% in 1947. Literacy tests McCarthy claims he is a communist and he loses were used to ask impossible questions like how re-election.  He headed up sub-committees investigating many bubbles in a bar of soap- barring AAs from Communism- spread to local politics- state voting officials, teachers and professors lost jobs  Little protection from the law.  Helped ensure the defeat of Adlai Stevenson in the 1945 North 1952 election and ensured Nixon won the Californian Senate race- with the Democratic  Jim Crow laws don’t exist but segregation exists candidates being accused of being ‘Pinks’ and soft through economics and ghettoization. Poor on Communism. northern areas, with bad public services with only

AAs living there. The Fair Deal:   Introduced in January 1949 after his election win, AAs also faced discrimination through with 21 points. employment and housing. Such as ‘restricted  Seen as difficult as there was no crisis to force covenants’ where buyers had to promise not to Congress to pass them like the New Deal. Also sell to AAs. seen as too much- Republican Joseph Martin said  AAs found it easier to vote and even win political ‘Not even FDR had asked for so much’ office, with Reps Adam Powell and William Dawson being high profile AA politicians. Successes:  Were equally discriminated against in the courts  Social Security extended to an extra million Americans Effect of WWII  Minimum wage rose from 40 cents to 75 cents.  Due to increase in manufacturing jobs, there was  Farmers get assistance with measures for flood control, soil conservation and rural electrification. a ‘Great Migration’ of AAs to the more liberal  Increase of 11 million in employment North, with 1.4 million moving.  Poverty reduced from 33% in 1949 to 28% in 1952.  Migration leads to racial tension- race riots in  National School Lunch Act 1946 provided cheaper Detroit 1943, leading to 43 deaths. lunches for children.  Armed forces remained segregated for the war, and the Red Cross wouldn’t accept blood Failures: donations from Black People.  Truman was perceived as being unsuccessful  Renewed political activism: Double V Campaign, having a 22% approval rate in 1952. founding of CORE in 1942, NAACP increases from  IRS scandal of 1951 with mass resignations due to 50,000 to 450,000. corruption  A. Phillip Randolph led the Black Labour Union-  The Housing Act of 1949 was meant to build Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters threatened to 810,000 homes but only built 156,000 by 1952. strike- in reaction Truman create the FEPC (Fair Slum clearances also meant urban housing increased in prices. Employment Practices Commission) in 1941. Promising no discrimination in the war industry o He wanted to win the Black Vote for the (which 2 million AAs worked in) 1948 election (see timing of orders)  African Americans earned great deal of respect o He needed USA to look much more liberal from war- Tuskegee Airmen (all black squadron) than USSR earned over 700 medals. o He believed in fairness- as seen through  KKK revived in the South- estimated to have killed speeches and was disgusted by treatment ____ of soldiers (he fought in WWI)  Isaac Woodward case- Black Veteran blinded by  Federalism was a huge problem with Southern Sheriff in 1946, white jury find him innocent. States controlling public services.  Jim Crow laws and discrimination remained.

 Army eventually desegregated in 1948 though EISENHOWER REVISION GUIDE segregated units continue to exist until 1954 Summary: Prosperity, multiple international crises which Civil Rights Campaigns threatened peace, AA’s protested against inequality

 CORE organised the 1947 ‘Journey of Reconciliation’, travelling on the apparently Eisenhower ‘desegregated’ interstate buses They were Eisenhower also known as ‘Ike’ was Republican president who had been a five-star general and supreme commander arrested several times gaining media attention of the allies in Europe in WW2- committed to the USA and that Morgan vs Virginia 1946 was being ignored wanted to lead without infringing on state’s rights  NAACP focused on court cases, rather than direct Domestic action. Establishing a Legal Defence Fund in 1939. 1952 Election They wanted to overturn Plessy vs Ferguson 1896.  Eisenhower won with 55% of the vote. Had many successes  Led the D-Day landings in 1944 and was Supreme o 1946 Morgan vs Virginia- segregation on Commander in Europe interstate buses was illegal  McCarthyism tarnished Democrats and the ‘Pink’ o 1948 Shelley vs Kramer- banned Adlai Stevenson. ‘restrictive covenants’  Eisenhower was seen as a change from the foreign o 1950 Henderson vs USA- banned policy failures of Truman. segregation in railway dining carts Dynamic Conservatism:  Supreme Court had no means to enforce these ‘Liberal when it comes to people- Conservative when it decisions, but was symbolic and helped NAACP to comes to money’  gain more support and funding. Established the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, which created a vaccine for Polio in Truman and Government’s influence on Civil Rights 1955  Expanded Social Security to include 10 million  Truman found it hard to deal with congress, so more people, increased minimum wage by 25% passed several Executive Orders:  Federal Highway Act 1956, created many jobs and o June 1941, 8802 Established FEPC built 41,000 miles of road. o Dec. 1946, 9802 Creates PCCR to write  Under Eisenhower domestic spending increased report on Civil Rights progress from 31% in 1953 to 49% in 1961. o July 1948, 9981 Desegregates Army  Failed to pass a law to construct schools in 1955- o Dec. 1951, 10308 Establishes CGCC, but passed the National Defence Education Act in putting pressure on companies with Govt. 1958 (after Sputnik) creating federal funding for Contracts to not discriminate. colleges.  Achieved a balanced budget in 1956, 1957 and

1960.  PCCR produce ‘Secure these Rights’ in 1947,  Poverty still a problem- ¼ of all Americans were in recommending a huge programme of Civil Rights poverty in the 1950s- recessions of 1954 and 1958. laws supported by Truman.  Had difficulties with the Old Guard of the  Truman appeals to Congress with speech in Feb Republicans- they demanded tax cuts and wanted 1948. Congress ignores it, no laws passed. Biggest Eisenhower to be less liberal opposition from Dixiecrats like Strom Thurmond. Boom Statistics  Truman also became first President to make  GNP rose significantly from $355.3 billion in 1950 speech before NAACP in 1946. to $487.76 billion in 1960  Truman was seen to be preoccupied with foreign  Per Capita income rose from $1720 in 1940 to affairs- fails to pass any laws and doesn’t support $2699 in 1960 FEPC enough  By 1960, the average family was 30% richer than in  Why was Truman supporting Civil Rights? 1950  Between 1953-57 the cost of living rose by 2.8%,  Advert industry increased from a 6- but wages went up by 8.6% billion-dollar industry in 1950 to a 13  Overall the economy grew by 37% during the billion dollar one in 1963. 1950s  Robert Sarnoff (President of the National Broadcasting Company said ‘Advertising is End of McCarthyism the foot on the accelerator, the foot on  Eisenhower was reluctant to confront McCarthy the throttle’. due to the power he had with the electorate (Aug Credit 1954 showed 62% of Republicans still admired  American Express created in 1958. him)  FHA and VA gave loans for housing.  Eisenhower believed he would destroy himself.  Private debt more than doubled- being  He did so- Army-McCarthy April-June 1954. $104.8 billion in 1950 to $263.3 billion in Eisenhower didn’t allow McCarthy to use any 1960 National Security files so McCarthy had no Impacts of the consumer society: evidence and resorted to bullying- the trials were  Creation of the service/tertiary sector- jobs no longer filmed. in production. By 1960 white collar workers  Led to decline- Censured in March 1954 and died outnumbered blue collar workers- many poorly paid in 1957.  The homogenisation of culture- 50% of Americans said Why did the economy boom? watching TV was their favourite activity- they would Impact of War watch the same shows. McDonalds and Burger King  Destruction of world industry allowed US became more popular. to take advantage- 7% of population- 50%  Creation of suburbia- houses in suburbia were near of world’s manufactured goods identical- Levittown houses. TV shows such as Father  Military spending continued after the knows Best entrenched family roles and values. Many war, accounting for 14% of GNP in 1953, suburban houses had restrictive covenants, meaning creating lots of jobs. suburbs were mainly white- leaving cities as African  GI Bill created new wave of American hubs. wealthy/educated veterans  Limitations of the boom- ¼ still unemployed, due to Baby Boom middle class/white Americans leaving to the suburbs  Between 1946 and 1964, 76.4 million cities became ghettoized, with public services babies were born (a huge increase. becoming poorer. 1958 recession led to 5 million  Each baby was reckoned to be with $800 unemployed and production falling by 14% to the economy.  Life magazine in August 1959 described FOREIGN this generation as having ‘$10 billion  New Look Policy: Eisenhower’s policy of getting power’. Due to their buying of non- more bang for your buck, by reducing military essential goods. spending and focusing on Nuclear Weapons- seen Motor Industry by 1957 USA had 5543 Nuclear Weapons compared  This new found wealth was usually spent to USSR’s 650. on cars, with their being 68 million on the  Massive Retaliation: SofS Dulles believed in road by 1958. promoting a policy of extreme reaction to any show  This led to a boom in car manufacturing in of force. This would act as a deterrent. the USA with the US firms of GM, Chrysler  Both Enshrined in NSC 162/2 and Ford producing over 7.9 million cars in 1955 alone. Europe:  These American firms produced 90% of cars bought in the USA, meaning all profit  Berlin Crisis stayed within their borders. o 10th Nov 1958. Khrushchev demands West  This boom had a knock-on effect, creating Berlin. an Automobile culture- 228 Mids. by 1960 o Eisenhower refuses and manages to Housing diplomatically end the crisis in a meeting  The Levitt brothers created a new at Camp David in September 1959 ‘Levittown home’ selling for only $8000.  Hungary Crisis  By 1960- 30% of families lived in the o 1956, hard-line Rakosi is replaced by suburbs moderate Nagy. He promises reforms and  Led to increase in demand for consumer to leave Warsaw Pact goods o Khrushchev sends in 250,000 soldiers- Advertising 3,000 Hungarians killed, 20,000 flee.  Increased the selling of non-essential o Eisenhower does nothing, despite goods: $255 million dollars in 1952 on Hungarians expecting and pleading for chewing gum alone support  U2 Crisis o U2 Spy Plane shot down 1 May 1960 o 5th Jan 1957. Eisenhower promises to o 5 May 1960, Gary Powers presented to assist any nation in the Middle East in media- Eisenhower admits it was a spy defending against communism. Congress plane ‘distasteful necessity’ agree $200 million fund o Severely soured relationship- Paris o Worried about the growing influence of Conference descended into chaos. Nasser in Lebanon- he uses the fund to Asia ensure Lebanese support.  Taiwan o ‘Operation Blue Bat’, sending 14,000 o 1954, Mao orders the shelling of troops to assist the Government in July. Taiwanese islands Quemoy and Matsu. They remained until a new election took o In reaction Eisenhower passes the place ensuring Lebanon’s independence, Formosa Resolution in Jan 1955, providing and left in October. for the defence of Taiwan CIVIL RIGHTS o JF Dulles also suggested that Nuclear  Brown vs Topeka 1954 Weapons may be used. In response on 1 o Linda Brown walked 21 blocks to black May 1955, Mao stopped the attack. school, applies to white school 7 blocks  Vietnam away. Application refused. NAACP, o By 1954 French were clearly losing the Thurgood Marshall and Oliver start court war. Eisenhower opted against airstrikes, case, further ensuring French Defeat th o Geneva Accords of 1954 agreed to split o 17 May 1954 the US Supreme court ruled Vietnam into two states (one Communist that segregation in schools should end. and one Capitalist) with the promise of Justice Warren’s appointment was 1956 election to unite the two. described ‘as the biggest damned-fool o Eisenhower worried that the Communists mistake I ever made’ would win, refused to sign the agreement o Earl Warren was republican governor and supported Diem’s regime in South Vietnam. By 1961 he had provided $7 from California and is renowned for Billion in aid and 100 advisors. presiding over a number of liberal  Korea decisions- he also leads JFK investigation o Eisenhower went to Korea in December o March 1956, 22 Southern State senators 1952 (before he was even inaugurated) for made the Southern Manifesto promising 7 months started a campaign of to oppose segregation. diplomacy. o No deadline for desegregation set its o Dulles also sought to scare China/N.Korea by threatening to use an atomic bomb guidelines were ‘by all deliberate speed’ o The armistice was signed on 27 July 1953 o KKK numbers increased, White Citizens Middle East Councils were established having over  Suez Crisis 250,000 members in 1956 o Nasser tried to get help from both sides of  Little Rock the Cold War- getting aid from USA to o In 1955 Supreme Court follow up Brown build Aswan Dam, buying weapons from decision and declare schools have to the Czechs and recognising China. desegregate ‘at all deliberate speed’ In o USA withdrew aid in reaction, so to make money Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal 1957, Arkansas State Press start a in July 1956 campaign to desegregate their schools and o Britain/France/Israel invade expecting US In September Little Rock High School was Support. Eisenhower condemns it and set to accept its first nine black students. stops invasion. But is viewed as imperialist o Eisenhower tried to persuade Governor now. Orval Faubus to stop the National Guard  Iran Coup and CENTO from preventing the students. He failed. In o In 1951 Mossadegh was elected Iranian Prime Minister and he nationalised the Oil response he federalised the 10,000 strong companies. USA organise Coup in 1953, National Guard (meaning they now had to installing US puppet and now getting 40% listen to him) and sent in the 101st airborne of oil division to protect them. He does this for o 1955 Dulles establishes CENTO (Central the entire year, but only 3 graduated Treaty Organization) made up of Iran, Iraq, o For his actions Faubus was voted as one of Pakistan, UK and Turkey. BUT in 1958 Iraq the ten most admired men in America in a leave after a coup and Nasser never joins  Eisenhower Doctrine Gallup Poll of 1958. He would go on to be re-elected four times. However, he had previously been in support of pass a bill to protect integrated schools desegregation but had used segregation to and also further help AAs get the vote. win votes in the South. o It was again watered down- but it made the obstruction of school desegregation a o The schools were reopened in 1959, but federal crime ($5000 dollars or 5 year jail de-facto segregation continued and in term) and established further penalties 1960 only 3% of Little Rock was African for denying AA’s the vote... But the American. penalty was a $1000 dollar fine.  Montgomery Bus Boycott o However, in total, Eisenhower was only o 1/12/1955 Rosa Parks arrested and fined able to add 3% of AAs to the electoral for refusing to give up her seat... Rosa register Parks with NAACP launch boycott. Started JFK REVISION GUIDE Summary: ‘New Frontier’- set of challenge including as one day, developed into a year. 17,000 science, space, peace, war, ignorance, prejudice, poverty Black Americans took part, 200 vehicles and surplus. If met these challenges would bring a version organized by church transporting black of the American Dream in the public’s interest. Americans. MLK arrested for speeding, his car carried people to work. 1960 ELECTION: o In December 1956, the US Supreme Court Eisenhower’s Mistakes: made bus segregation illegal- Bowder vs  Caused a recession in 1960, due to creating a Gayle deficit in 1959. o 1966, Rosa Parks was awarded the  Refused to correct Kennedy’s misconception that Presidential Medal of Freedom. But she there was a missile gap was targeted by racists so moved to  When asked about what ideas Nixon had in Detroit. Government- he stuttered ‘give me a week and I  Emmett Till might think of one’ o 1955, 14 year old Emmett Till is Nixon’s errors: murdered for ‘flirting’ with an older white  Nixon promised to campaign in all 50 states women. Body is found and is hugely wasting time and money. Meant he looked tired disfigured. No-one is arrested. and worn out during debate. o Becomes a huge news story, with his  Nixon failed to help MLK in October 1960 allowing burial being an open casket- Eisenhower Kennedy to win the black vote 70:30 does nothing.  He failed to capitalise on the popularity of  Autherine Lucy Eisenhower not allowing him to campaign until o 1956 Autherine Lucy is expelled from October Alabama University despite winning a Kennedy’s Strengths: 1995 Court Case Lucy vs Adams which  Kennedy was a war hero and seen as a youthful said she could attend. option with his young wife Jackie. o Again, Eisenhower does nothing.  He spoke well and his idea of the ‘New Frontier’  Civil Rights Act 1957 captured the imagination o Driven by a desire to win the black vote in  He took on his Catholicism dead on in a speech to the 1956 election and shocked that only Houston Ministers (although it is still estimated to 7000 of Mississippi’s 900,000 black have lost him 1.5 million votes) population were able to vote.  LBJ was his running mate, as strong Southerner, o Eisenhower didn’t help the bill pass helping him win votes in the South claiming he didn’t really understand it- TV ‘There were certain phrases I did not  The first TV debate was watched by 74 million completely understand’. Nixon was more people. in charge.  Nixon was ill- ‘My god they’ve embalmed him o Dixiecrats did much to weaken it, before he even died’ infamously Strom Thurmond filibustered  Nixon was seen as weak ‘I agree with Senator the bill- for 24 hours and 18 minutes Kennedy’ and didn’t look at the camera. o Ultimately the bill was poor- as any public  After that point JFK pulled away in the polls- official found obstructing a AAs right to having been neck and neck before. vote would be tried by a white jury  Kennedy had adverts with jungles to convince o MLK stated ‘the present bill is far better housewives- ‘Kennedy for Me’ than no bill at all  Civil Rights Act 1960 New Frontier: Announced in Democratic Convention o Worried about the violence facing AA speech of July 1960 children attending schools- he wanted to Successes:  Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962 provided 351 training programmes in 40 states. Berlin:  Social Security Amendments Act 1961 expanded  After Vienna Summit Khrushchev thought JFK was benefits for elderly and disabled. naïve and could be taken advantage of  Raised minimum wage by 25%, and built over  After 2 million had fled to West Berlin between 100,000 new houses. 1949 and 1958 Khrushchev built the Berlin Wall on  Extended food stamp programme to 240,000 more 13 August 1961. people. Extended free school lunch programme to  JFK instructed Dean Rusk to use it as propaganda 700,000 more children and 85,000 schools to prove Capitalism>Communism  Area Redevelopment Act of 1961 created 26,000  JFK sought to ensure Berlin felt supported in his jobs and 15,000 training positions. famous June 1963 visit (Ich bin ein Berliner)  Kennedy managed to pass 35 of the 58 bills he submitted to Congress. Cuba  Established the Presidential Commission on the  January 1959 Castro succeeds in his revolution in Status of Women in 1961 and passed the Equal Cuba; he is invited to Washington by the Pay Act in June 1963 allowing Women to reclaim Eisenhower administration. Despite the revolution lost wages (171,000 women reclaimed $84 million) not being Communist, Eisenhower began  Provided $9 billion for Nasa economic sanctions in 1960.  JFK didn’t lift these sanctions and endorsed the Failures: Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961, training 1600  Many initiatives rejected: Civil Rights Act, Cubans to invade- it failed and pushed Castro Medicaid to support elderly healthcare, tax cuts towards the USSR, announcing they were programme, financial aid to schools and communist reauthorisation of Area Development Act in 1963.  February 7 1962, JFK announced an embargo of  Many initiatives only provided temporary work or Cuba, Castro begins trading with Khrushchev and just training positions. agrees to house missiles for him.  The Omnibus Housing Act of 1961 provided 5 billion to help build housing, but money went to Cuban Missile Crisis developers and building companies rather than  14th of October U2 spy plane takes photos of helping to create cheap housing missile sites on Cuba  Many of Kennedy’s acts were simply extensions of  22nd October Kennedy announces situation to US existing programmes rather than innovative ones: public and forms embargo of 800km (later reduced Omnibus Housing Act, Interstate Highway System to 500km) etc.  24th October two Soviet ships and a submarine  Minimum wage increase to cover over half a approach the embargo but turn back million of the poorest workers including 150,000  26th October Kennedy threatens to invade Cuba Laundry workers (usually African American and Khrushchev offers to take missiles out in Women) return for promising to not invade. He then says only if missiles are removed from Turkey. FOREIGN POLICY:  29th of October Kennedy publically accepts first agreement, but secretly removes missiles from Vietnam: Turkey- publically looks like winner.  Kennedy did not want to be known as the  In aftermath a hotline is set up between White President who lost Vietnam and had to prove House and Kremlin and Partial Nuclear Test Ban himself treaty is signed in August 1963  Increased US personnel to 17,000 (compared to 800 before) and even had soldiers fight in first CIVIL RIGHTS CAMPAIGNS battle of Ap Bac.  Established MACV in 1962 to assist South Sit-ins: Vietnamese military (Military Assistance Command  Began under Eisenhower- 1st Feb 1960, spread to Vietnam) over 50,000 protests in seven states.  Followed the doomed policy of ‘Strategic Hamlets’  Led to founding of SNCC (Student, Non-violent, forcibly moving villagers to protect them- this only Coordinating Committee) increased support for the Communists.  MLK got involved and was arrested for  Supported Diem who persecuted the Buddhist participating in Oct. 1960- JFK secured his release majority and was unpopular- leading to self- Freedom Rides: immolation of Buddhist Monk. Kennedy didn’t  Spring of 1961 CORE recreate Journey of even know Buddhism was the main religion. Reconciliation 1947 to test if desegregation of  Due to Diem’s failure he supported a coup and buses was accepted (Boynton vs Virginia 1960) Diem was killed, General Westmoreland said this  Begins with 13 riders, led to 60 further rides. compelled USA to stay in Vietnam and clean up Bobby Kennedy pressured ICC (Interstate the mess. Commerce Commission) to enforce desegregation.  ICC ended segregation 1st November 1961.  Politicians Albany Campaign: o Dixiecrats- Southern Democrats who  Albany, Georgia. Organised by SNCC and MLK. Aim opposed Civil Rights- voting against laws, to peacefully protest to end segregation. filibustering them, and weakening them.  Chief Laurie Pritchett studied SNCCS tactics and JFK relied on their support. knew to let protest stay peaceful- annoying SNCC o Governors- Many Southern Governors who wanted attention to injustice. MLK left, such as Faubus and Wallace who opposed believing he had failed. integration within their states. Wallace  SNCC stayed and by 1962 had desegregated. won in 1962 running as a racist who James Meredith and University Cases opposed Black voter registration and said  James Meredith got into Ole Miss and was allowed in his winning speech ‘segregation now, entry after NAACP cases. segregation tomorrow, segregation  He entered on Oct. 1st 1962, led to riots- two dead forever’. and Bobby Kennedy called in 500 US Marshalls to protect him. JFK’S CIVIL RIGHTS ACTIONS  With this protection he graduated in August 1963- Similar case in Alabama June 1963, Governor Successes: Wallace refused to allow black students on  Proactive actions of Bobby Kennedy in supporting campus- Kennedy federalised the Alabama state James Meredith, getting King released from jail guard to stop this. and supporting Birmingham campaign Birmingham:  Bobby Kennedy also led 57 cases against illegal  Organised by SCLC in April 1963- Targeted due to violations of voter rights. knowledge of how violent Chief Bull Connor was.  JFK helped promote AAs in Government-  Arrests and violence directed at protestors led to appointing 40 to top posts and appointing 5 black national outrage. US Circuit Judges.  Bobby Kennedy again helped- getting King  Created EEOC (Equal Employment Opportunity released from prison on 20 April 1963. Also sent Commission) in 1961 to promote integration an assistant to help desegregate Birmingham. Failures: March on Washington  No significant legislation passed  Organised by SNCC, SCLC, NAACP and MLK- Aim to  Never stood up to Dixiecrats- Retreated on Voting increase pressure on Kennedy. Rights in 1963 when Senators protested, still  27 Aug, 1963. Over 200,000 marchers ending at appointed 20% segregationist judges to satisfy Lincoln Memorial, where King made Speech Dixiecrats.  Kennedy didn’t initially want march to happen, but  While he invited Civil rights Leaders to meet, he in the end supported it with 19,000 troops. never accepted their ideas- ‘Everyone was charmed by the manner they had been turned OPPONENTS OF CIVIL RIGHTS down’  General population:  EEOC did not achieve significant change boasting a o Many normal white Americans were rise from 1 to 2 employees as a 100% increase against Civil rights- One poll saw Civil  Ignored and resented activism- considered SNCC Rights at bottom of a list of voters as ‘sons of bitches’, waited a long time to help concerns, a 1961 poll saw 63% of people Freedom Riders. were against the Freedom Rides o Led to many Southern Democrats and AMERICAN DREAM BY 1963: Republicans being elected to fight against Many disillusioned with the Dream after the death of JFK Civil Rights laws (1963 act rejected for and problems of the two presidents who followed him. example)  White Citizens Councils World Position: o Formed in aftermath of Brown vs  Had many treaties- NATO (1949) SEATO (1954 and Topeka- reached membership of 60,000 CENTO (1959. Pactomania by Kennedy Era  o Brought together white professional and  upper class families to oppose integration  via local, state and national politics.  .  Kul Klux Klan  Was ahead in Nuclear Arms race- o The Third Klan was directly responsible for violence- Killing NAACP organiser Medgar Evers in 1963, bombing church in Birmingham killing 4 schoolgirls. o They would also threaten white  Covert actions had been used to keep allies- businesses to stay segregated as Congo, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, and Brazil. happened in Florida 1964  The Peace Corps (1961) improved image being  18 states didn’t allow female jurors, 6 states said sent to 44 countries. females needed male approval to enter financial  Cuba had been pushed into Soviet arms and was agreements- and contraception was banned in now Communist 90 miles from USA many states  Behind in Space Race- Sputnik in 1957 and Yuri  Majority in low paid jobs- so equal pay act didn’t Gagarin 1961- failed satellite- Flopnik help  America was being sucked into Vietnam- failing Other Protest movements: strategies of Strategic Hamlets and weakness of  Inspired by success of Civil rights- Freedom Rides Diem. and Freedom marches. Economy:  Angered by sexism of protest movements- SDS  During JFK-Unemployment down to 6%, GNP went (33% female, but leaders were only 6% female), up 20%, production up 22% and personal income Stokely Carmichael of SNCC was a renowned sexist up 15%. Net Income for Farmers increased by claimed best position for a women was horizontal $330. Corporate Profits reached 51 billion dollars  Activist Tradition of women who fought for the in 1962 vote in the 1910s  Committed to cutting taxes to stimulate economy- The Pill: can be seen as deficit shrunk between 1962 and  Approved by FDA in 1960, by 1962 over 1.2 million 1966. are using it.  Despite Boom- Americans still concerned- Inflation o Allows women to decide when they want and Unemployment was rated as biggest problems a family. by voters in 1963.  Poverty had only reduced to 19% from 20% in JOHNSON REVISION GUIDE 1960- Other America Summary: ‘Great Society’ - most idealistic version of  Poverty was a particular problem in ethnic American Dream yet, AA’s continue to protest about minorities (35% of AAs) - Ghettoisation still a poverty and discrimination, young people protest about massive issue. Vietnam, damage to Johnson’s presidency Women:  JFK Set up Presidential Commission on Women in Background 1961, led by Eleanor Roosevelt  6’3’’ -second tallest president  JFK passed Equal Pay Act 1963 making it illegal to  Texas born and educated- poor background meant pay male and female employees different wages. he did not have enough money for college so he  Economically unequal in times of position- 80% of taught teachers but only 10% of principals, 7% of doctors  Worked in Texas for New Deal Agency was then and 3% of lawyers. promoted  18 states didn’t allow female jurors, 6 states said  Background in the armed forces, entered politics females needed male approval to enter financial in 1930- Southern Democrat agreements- and contraception was banned in  Elected to the senate in 1948, majority senate many states. leader in 1955  Even protest groups were sexist SDS (33% female,  Chosen to be JFK’s running mate in 1960 but leaders were only 6% female) Johnson as Vice-President Youth:  Chaired Equal Employment Opportunity  More students than ever before and they have Commission (EOCC) which LBJ did not want to do free speech as it was poorly funded  Port Huron Statement 1962 showed anger with  how rich the USA was yet- minorities and poor Did best, considered ‘genuine’ by NAACP leader Americans still treated poorly. Roy Wilkins, although LBJ could not force contractors on Equal Employment - federal jobs Why does Women’s Movement emerge? for AAs up 17% in 1962 and 22% in 1963. Activists Feminine Mystique: dissatisfied Racist or Idealist?  Published in 1963- described how housewives  deserve more and were conditioned to want to Privately referred to AAs as ‘niggers’ and believed not be independent/have careers- argued women that deep rooted racial customs could not should rise up and fight misogyny disappear overnight   First print sold 1.4 million and sold 3 million in first Voted against Civil Rights Measures 3 years.  Texas was 15% black so to court votes he  Many argue that this is the trigger for the second explained why he voted against Truman’s Civil wave of feminism. Rights programme as it would not be passed, only Inequality: go so far, damage state’s rights, remove freedom of will -> riots, healthcare and schooling would  Economically unequal in times of position- 80% of help Blacks more teachers but only 10% of principals, 7% of doctors  and 3% of lawyers. HOWEVER  Arranged burial for Mexican-American (MA) soldier after segregated cemetery refused him  Worked to get black farmers and school children  Still to provide reasonable health insurance for all equal treatment  Gaps in coverage (e.g. spectacles)  1938 federal funding for AAs and MA Poverty and Education  Johnson also realised that in order to become 54m Americans never finished high school, 8m <5 years president he could not be an ardent school, 100,000 high ability students could not afford segregationist, court the black vote, accept college, schools overcrowded, shortage of good teachers inevitable change and would need to improve  53 Job Corps centres proving training receiving situation of AAs to develop South’s economy 1000s of applications daily Johnson as President  25,000 families on welfare receiving training  Came into politics experienced  35,000 learning literacy  Kennedy’s death had traumatised nation  35,000 college students on work-study  Desire to memorialise Kennedy led to LBJ being programmes able to pass Civil Rights Act 1964  Federal expenditure doubled to $8bn  Nation sympathised for Johnson -> winning 1964  1965 - Elementary and Secondary Education Act elections (ESEA) and Higher Education Acts (HEA) - money to  Known for ‘the Johnson treatment’ intimidating poorer states   Passed over 60 pieces of legislation 13m children benefitted  No. with high school diploma doubled  Ability to intimidate meant that he had to use  New buildings, no more shortage of teachers Executive Orders a lot less than JFK or Carter  By 1970 25% of college students received support despite controversial nature of many of his from HEA proposals  Robert Dallek (LBJ’s biographer - ‘ They have at  Policies were largely domestic and seen as an least made it for a better society’ extension of the ‘New Frontier’  Head Start Programme and Upward Bound  Overseas remained committed to Truman Doctrine programme helped 1m disadvantaged pre- and containment. schoolers and 500k HE students  After landslide victory against Barry Goldwater

(who seemed to campaign against JFK) in 1964 Poverty and Urban Problems Johnson had mandate to pass Great Society Inner cities - poor schools and housing

 Loans given to small businesses ($17bn in 1968) Johnson’s ‘Great Society’  1968 Fair Housing Act

 Housing and Urban Development Dept. (HUD) to  Radical vision for new American Dream (no longer combat urban decay and housing shortages about affluence)- wanted to achieve racial  Demonstration Cities Act (1966) which put focus equality, end of poverty, educational reform, on improving poor cities but was underfunded and modern housing, end of urban decay & peace too many cities were included  75% approval rating- lots of Great Society was  Omnibus Housing Act (1965) financed rent passed supplements and $8bn of low and moderate  1964 ‘War on Poverty’ income housing  Economic Opportunity Act (EOA) which establish  Ghettos continued - 4/5 of Detroit ghetto riots an Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) to arrested in 1967 had jobs paying over $120 weekly coordinate war on poverty suggesting housing was the problem  Key achievements:  1968 Fair housing Act was difficult to enforce due  44 states anti-poverty programmes to white opposition  8,000 volunteers in service to America (VISTA) were helping poor children, NA Great Society- overall assessment and migrant workers  % of families in poverty 17% in 1965 to 11% in  4 million receiving AFDC benefits (Aid to 1970 Families with Dependent Children)  3.9% unemployment  Minimum wage rose by 35c Poverty and Health  Federal expenditure on poor rose from $13bn in Elderly large proportion of America’s poor because health 1963 to $20bn in 1966 care was so expensive but congress did not want to support  LBJ received a lot of criticism them as free healthcare = communism  Poverty had not been eradicated- 1/3 of non-white  Medicare ( federally funded health insurance for families below poverty line, infant mortality and all over 65s and the disabled) and Medicaid ( unemployment 2x that of whites financial assistance to states to help the poor)  Torn between ‘the woman I really loved- the Great established 1965 (Social Security Act) Society’ and the ‘bitch of a war’ against  Focus on helping elderly communism in Vietnam (1965-1973 - $15.5bn on  19m Americans helped in 1966 Great Society, $120bn on Vietnam)  Medicare and Medicaid too expensive - budgeted Economic Developments at $12bn by 1990 but actually cost $98bn 1964 (hospitals allowed to set own fees  43 months of unbroken business expansion  Limited inflation study Vietnam and make recommendations.  Low unemployment Recommendations: USA needed to support  GNP growth Vietnam and supported heavier bombing 1965  Operation Rolling Thunder 1965 in response to  Economy beginning to overheat concerns over US bomber bases, 67% of  LBJ tried to prevent inflation by introducing wage Americans approved action. Aimed to secure and price guidelines American position, demoralise and decrease 1966 infiltration from N.Vietnam and encourage  After tax wages increased by 35% S.Vietnam.  Cooperate earning up by 65%  Spring 1965 3500 - American ground troops -  Farm income up 40% 535,000 by 1968. 70% of nation supported  Unemployment at 13 year low Johnson  Inflation at highest for 10 years  Average age of US soldier in Vietnam was 19 1967  However, LBJ never declared war for fear of Sino-  Budget deficit of $10bn Soviet intervention and congress cutting funding  Tax increase for Great Society  4.5% consumer price rise Tet Offensive early 1968   Interest rates rising Great and unexpected communist offensive in South Vietnam in early 1968.  Slowdown in investment and construction  Demonstrated communist strength as forces held  Fall in unemployment and 4.5% increase in GNP US embassy in Saigon for 6 hours- symbolic.  60% saw cost of living as main problem 11,000 US and S.Vietnamese troops to recover. 1968  Deaths: 3895 US troops, 4954 S.Vietnamese  Deficit increased to $19.8bn troops, 14,300 S.Vietnamese civilians, 58,373  Trade deficit 3x that of 1966 Communist soldiers.  Gold supplies sold to help trade deficit, trade  Turning point for public and media opinion despite reserves down 40% it being a huge defeat for N.Vietnam.  Dollar weakened  Walter Cronkite (US’s most trusted TV reported FOREIGN POLICY “What the hell is going on? I thought we were Vietnam winning the war” William Westmoreland - appointed by LBJ to command Khe Sanh Base military operations. Convinced by policy of attrition-  US base since 1962 to patrol Ho Chi Minh Trail reducing strength through sustained attack (supply route to Vietcong),

 General Giap (NVA- skilled and strategic)  By Nov 1963: Vietnam was sponsored by US surrounds base with 200,000 men created SEATO and governed by General Minh,  LBJ drops 80,000 tons of bombs 17,000 American advisors  Base closed after Westmoreland was replaced  Johnson supported views of containment, domino  theory, aggressive communist dictators, Vietnam US tried to keep it secret but ¾ of Hanoi radio was was an issue of national honour devoted to their victory Relations between the USA and its Western allies  Kennedy legacy meant Johnson had to continue  despite knowing war would be long and costly LBJ Soviets used Vietnam as an opportunity to also kept McNamara and Rusk build up weapons   By 1964 Minh and successor incapable, S. Of the 40 states allied to the USA only Vietnamese did not want to fight as S.Vietnamese Australia, NZ, S.Korea and Thailand sent governments were unpopular and unwilling to troops to Korea reform (N.Vietnam had introduced popular land  Johnson received criticism from the Canadian reforms) PM Escalation of War  Harold Wilson PM of UK privately criticised LBJ  Gulf of Tonkin incident Aug 1964- two US ships on damaging ‘special relationship’ espionage mission (Turner Joy and Maddox)  Greatest critic French President Charles de attacked by N.Vietnam Gaulle who called Vietnam an  Tonkin Resolution (TR)- congress gave LBJ powers ‘unjust…detestable war’, said USA could not to ‘take all necessary steps’ (98:2 votes) be relied on to contain communism,  LBJ criticised for TR as it was said he wanted promoted French power in Europe, withdrew escalation, deceived congress, wanted to appear France from NATO in 1966 -> 26,000 US tough on communism after Republican opponent troops removed from France, France vetoed in 1964 had called him ‘tough on communism’ Britain’s entry into the European Economic after 1st bombing of N.Vietnam approval rating up Community fearing it would lead to US from 42% to 72% interference, developed ties with Eastern bloc, gave speech to 10,000 Cambodians  1964 Working Group created- CIA, State denouncing war Department, Defence Department and JCS to State of USA by end of Johnson’s presidency  McNamara resigns due to unwinnable and  Support from religious institutions unjustified war in 1967 Selma Campaign, Alabama 1965  End of presidency approval rating had dropped to  Result of failures of 1964 Civil Rights Act below 40%- LBJ decides not to stand in 1968  AAs made up 50% of Selma’s 29,000 population elections but only 23 were registered to vote  Anti-war activists- ‘Hey, hey LBJ! How many kids  MLK had said Selma was a “symbol of bitter-ed did you kill today?’ resistance to the CRM”  Seeing LBJ’s weaknesses Bobby Kennedy joins in  Robert Kennedy was unable to succeed with presidential race but is assassinated in April 1968 lawsuits months after MLK’s assassination  MLK knew Selma’s sheriff Jim Clark was a brutal as  August 1968- bloody confrontation between police Bull Connor and protestors and Democratic Convention in  MLK began by taking AAs to register to vote court Chicago house- unsuccessful  Democrats lost heavily in mid-term elections 1966  Violence from white community- throwing AFRICAN AMERICANS IN THE NORTH AND SOUTH venomous snakes and beating, MLK wanted to be  LBJ considered genuine in fight against segregation arrested “There are more Negroes in jail with me by Wilkins and MLK’s associate than there are on the voting rolls” - campaign was  Wanted to desegregate to improve economic and not as explosive as King had hoped political position of South  SCLC and SNCC organised march from Selma to Civil Rights Act 1964 Montgomery for Voting Rights- 80 Alabama whites  Ended de jure segregation- it was made a federal joined march -> ‘Bloody Sunday’- state troopers crime meaning it would not be enforced in biased attacked marchers + tear gas state courts  Interracial marches were repeated  Prohibited discrimination in public places  Communist propaganda emphasised inequality  Established Equal Employment Commission  Congress forced to pass Voting Rights Act  Furthered school desegregation Voting Rights Act 1965 X - Did not go far enough- poverty and discrimination  Disallowed literacy tests - > riots in East Coast cities  Replaced Southern white registrars with federal X - Did not facilitate black voting registrars X - Longest filibuster in Senate History (54 days by Impact of change on the South Dixiecrats)  By 1966 only 4 Deep South states had less than X - Lost democrats Southern support 50% of their population registered to vote X - Three murdered in Mississippi failed to get justice  By 1980 % of AAs registered only 7% less than as murderers were only tried for discrimination as whites murder was a state crime  Numbers of AAs in office increased six fold ‘69-‘80 Reasons for passing  Larger and richer black middle class  JFK memory  Decrease in black unemployment -34%  MLK awarded Nobel Peace Prize Oct 1964  Decrease in black poverty - 25%  Black activist drew attention to injustices + wanted X Continued poor housing, poor schools, poor job to pressure LBJ to pass act which JFK had opportunities, inability to get out of poverty- introduced report of black children eating bark in Mississippi  SCLC+NAACP Florida 1964 sit-ins, swim- Limitations on Johnson’s role in passing Civil Rights ins and wade-ins -> violence from locals  After 1965 decreased white sympathy for Civil  SNCC+CORE Mississippi 1964 arranged for Rights Northern White volunteers to join black  ‘Too far, too fast’- leading democrat activists to register black voters, teach  Rejection of 1966 Civil Rights Bill for fair housing - literacy and civics at 41 freedom schools 70% of white voters against black neighbours and promote Mississippi Freedom  LBJ difficult to sustain war on poverty Democratic Party-> led by Fannie Lou  LBJ relied on local officials so sometimes had to Hamer financially support de facto segregated schools  After one week three civil rights workers  Rioting in black ghettos 1964-1968-> white (Chaney(AA) and Schwerner and backlash Goodman (white) went missing and later  88% of white advocated black self-improvement found dead->criticisms of gov. for lack of  1966 90% opposed new Civil Rights legislation protection  Black Power and Black Panthers frightened and  17,000 voters tried to register but only alienated whites 1600 were successful  Cost of Vietnam war-> tax rises-> whites unhappy  1062 arrests, 37 churches bombed, 80 paying for black poor workers beaten Fair Housing Act 1968  LBJ bullied and cajoled to win over important  Prohibited discrimination in sale or rental of leaders housing  68% of Americans supported bill  LBJ received lots of hate mail X NOI lost support after Malcolm X left  Only pushed through in memory of MLK after his because of materialism, hypocrisy and assassination love affairs  Difficult to enforce X Exacerbated racial tensions Executive Order 1965 X Alienated black activists from all  Required any institution receiving federal funding CRM- called MLK a ‘fool’ to employ more non-whites-> affirmative action X Unrealistic aims- return to Africa, (giving disadvantaged minorities more separate black state in South opportunities even if poorly educated) Malcolm X after NOI Developments in CRM  Established Organisation of Afro-American Unity (OAAU)- unite those of African descent and  After 1964-1965 organisations such as NAACP, promote black independence SCLC and CORE lost direction as missions had  Rejected NOI’s racist theory been achieved  Pilgrimage to Mecca  Now focus on the North, new strands  Established good relationships with white Muslims developing focused on ghettoization  Drew attention to ghettos NOI  Inspired new generation of black leaders like  Nation of Islam (separate nation) Stokley Carmichael and Core’s Floyd McKissick  Founded by Wallace Fard in Detroit in  Some argument over whether change was genuine 1930 or to recreate public image  Led by Elijah Muhammad from 1934  Controversial memory- Thurgood Marshall  Different to teaching of Islam described NOI as ‘run by a bunch of thugs’ NOI  Believed white people were created by an accused of not putting their lives on the line like evil scientist called Yakub who would rule MLK had, did not establish organisations like the the world for several thousand years NAACP or SCLC before Allah would end their supremacy  Assassinated 1965 on stage by NOI  Aimed to be an alternative to white Radicalisation of African-Americans Christianity, improve black self-esteem  MLK switches focuses to North after 1965- but and economic situation and separate there was a lack of focus whites and blacks.  Chicago campaign - failure only gets 30,000  Established temples in Northern black supporters (not the 100,000 hoped for), white ghettos in Detroit, NY and Chicago backlash, charged $2m for fire hydrant opened to  Malcolm X (born Malcolm Little), cool locals, MLKs ghetto accommodation quickly originally a criminal, joined NOI in prison refurbished to prevent media attention in 1946, got rid of slave name in 1952,  Ghettos- only 32% of ghetto pupils finish high recruited thousands of new members to school compared to 56% of white children NOI, became a minister in Harlem  Chicago ghetto- 50-70% black youth  1959 Documentary The Hate that Hate unemployment Produced Malcolm X encouraged AAs to  46% of unemployed Americans were black defend themselves by ‘any means  SNCC and CORE became disillusioned with slow necessary’-> national prominence and progress, excluded whites in the late 1960s, and white hostility declared non-violence inappropriate if black  10,000 attended NOI event in people needed to defend themselves. Washington where Elijah attacked MLK’s  1966 James Meredith first black student at Uni. of ‘turn the other cheek’ tactics Mississippi 200 mile walk from Memphis to Key achievements Jackson- shot on second day- SCLC and SNCC go on  Membership estimates 25,000 to the ‘March against Fear’ - 15,000 marchers in total 250,000 by 1969  Stokley Carmichael - new leader of SNCC  NOI newspaper 600,000 a week demanded ‘black power’- failings of national gov.  Established schools in Detroit and which outshone SCLC ‘freedom now’ Chicago which taught black history  Divisions in CRM  Inspired ghetto inhabitants - self  Poor People’s Campaign in Washington poorly pride and economic self-help planned  Started businesses- restaurants,  MLK assassinated Apr 1968 after giving speech to bakeries, grocery stores-> black striking sanitation workers in Memphis employment opportunities rare in ghettos Urban riots  Elijah described as bringing ‘pride in  ‘Long hot summers’ 1964-1968- every city outside thousands of black derelicts, bums, of the south and drug addicts, turning outlaws  1st major riot in Watts, LA, 1965-> 34 deaths, 1000 into useful, productive men and injuries, 3500 rioters and looters arrested, $40m women’ Washington Post obituary damage to majority white owned businesses  Poverty (8% white, 30% black), substandard language of the ruling class, JFK’s ‘New Frontier’, housing (18% white, 50% non-white) CRM, resentment of patronising college  Poor Americans down from 39m to 33m but % of authorities poor AAs increased from 28-31%  Access to new music from British invasion->  Black unemployment 2x white- but 80% of those Rolling Stones, The Beatles and The Who- drug arrested had well-paid jobs - > housing root cause taking and sexuality  Angered Johnson who felt he had done enough  Port Huron Statement from Tom Hayden and the  Whites did not want to pay more in taxes for Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) 1962- ‘handouts’ to blacks in ghettos and believed black discontent with national gov. neighbours would drive down house prices and  1968 221 major demonstrations at universities- the quality of education but only 12% of students identified themselves as Kerner Commission 1967-8 part of the New Left  12 reasons for rioting from interviews  Berkley Protest - Mario Savio wanted to raise $ for  Blamed white racism in starting riots (40% of riots SNCC, not allowed, thousands of Berkley students involved alleged police discrimination/abuse) occupied administration building- 800 arrests.  Other interpretations: Great Society promised too Students supported by teaching staff. much, assassination of MLK, huge changes in ‘You can’t trust anyone over 30’ - sparked South but nothing in North, FBI blamed ghettos, nationwide student protest hot weather, communists, Johnson blamed  Anti-War Movement - Student Peace Union had poverty and despair. 3000 members by 1962, tens of thousands joined Black Power in response to Vietnam war due to: fear of draft,  Differing interpretations belief in self-determination for Vietnam, (NOI/SNCC/MLK/Conservative Blacks) - but opposition to bombing of civilians. emphasis on black pride and black culture-> 1st notable protest - 1000 Yale students in 1964 Black=Beautiful, James Brown’ Say it loud, I’m protest in NY black and proud’ 1968 20,000 Berkeley teach-ins Black Panthers Largest protest - stages by SDS in Washington  Black Panther Party for Self Defence established in 25,000 joined in (1965), 100,000 in Washington in California in 1966 by Huey Newton (24) and Bobby 1967 Seale (30)  Growing anti-war violence- ‘Stop the Draft’ week-  Black paramilitary uniform draft cards burnt-> congress making it a criminal  Radical manifesto including compensation to AAs offence, 1966 Muhammed Ali refused draft for slavery, freedom for AAs, black juries for black Norman Morrison 32 yr. old Quaker and father of people, black exemption from military service, end 3 burned himself to death outside McNamara’s to police brutality and ghettoization office in 1965  5000 members on West Coast- won respect in Violent protests (on both sides) against Reserve ghettos Officer Training Corps and Draft headquarters  1968 Mexico Olympics Tommy Smith and John  Columbia University Protests 1968 Carlos after winning 1st and 3rd in 200m race Students opposed university’s weapons research adopted black power gesture- were banned from and eviction of Harlem population (mainly black Olympics and Hispanic) for expansion- building of a gym  self-help, set up clinics for health, welfare and with separate door for Harlem population led to legal rights, ran lessons, provided childcare for ‘Gym Crow’ working mothers, Free Breakfast programme 1700 1000s protested- seized and vandalised university meals weekly, free food buildings, defence contracts and gym abandoned,  Followed police cars in ghettos armed to prevent 692 arrests police brutality, Arguably little achieved except from persuading LBJ to halt escalation and Nixon to end the war. Led to LBJ refusing to  Petty theft, sought confrontation, advocated run in 1968. Protesters promoted violence, offered little killing of police that was constructive, lacked focus (environment ‘silent  Targeted and destroyed by police and FBI 1967-9 spring’, CRM…) - led to conservative reaction-> Nixon’s  1970 poll 64% Black Americans took pride in Black victory in 1968 Panthers

 Movement was ill defined, Newton’s biographer Counterculture defined them as a ‘temporary media  Disagreement over definition: Protest against phenomenon’, loss of liberal white funding, female dominant culture, feminism, hippies, anti-war supporters turned to feminism activists, black panthers- though mainly defined as Social Divisions and Protest hippies  1960s decade of change  Hippies rejected US culture of materialism, Education and Youth individualism, competitiveness  Driven by: increasing student population( 1941-  Promoted communal living and harmony average leaving age 13-14, 1970 average leaving age 18)-> ability to express themselves in the  San Francisco Haight-Ashbury area became  Outlasted most 1960s protest movements popular destination (100,000 hippies)- use of  1967 Executive order from LBJ banning federal cannabis, concerts, new names and long hair contractors from gender discrimination  Human Be-In Golden Gate park 1967- march to  NOW monitored enforcement winning $13m celebrate freedom, communal living and the compensation for women by 1971. environment Sexual Liberation  ‘Summer of Love’ - Time Magazine estimated  Change in attitudes-> sexual revolution 300,000 hippies  Increase in premarital sex, abortions and  Woodstock 1969- 400,000 attendees, ‘make love extramarital relations not war’  74% of women in 1969 believed premarital sex  Faded by 1970s - triggered conservative reaction was wrong, 53% in 1973 drew attention to health foods, religion,  Playboy first published 1953- increasingly on open environmentalism and liberal attitudes towards shelves sex and drugs  Pace of change sped up with the pill  Long standing conservatism - 1965 Supreme Court Feminism ruled married couples could not be refused  1966 Friedan formed National Organisation for contraception, 1974 doctors could no longer Women (NOW) in response to EEOC refusing to refuse birth control to unmarried adults for ‘moral enforce ban on discrimination in employment on reasons’, abortion illegal until 1973 - backstreet the basis of sex abortions (early 1960s one Chicago hospital  NOW wanted an Equal Rights Amendment to the treated over 5000 women for abortion related constitution complications), some worried by ‘permissive’  Tactics: litigation, political pressure, public society information campaigns, protests Role of the Media  Early-mid 1960s Women’s rights movements By 1968 24% of households had a colour TV- made events sought equal rights and opportunities in work more sensational  Late 1960s Publicising and opposition sexist  Coverage of CRM helped progress - e.g. ‘Bloody oppression and cultural practices that objectified Sunday’-> Voting Rights Act women  BUT media coverage of riots reduced support  New feminists: Firestone, Atkinson and Freeman  Disproportionate coverage of Black Panthers and (who produced a newsletter Voice of the Women’s Hippies-> backlash amongst socially conservative Liberation Movement-> women’s liberation groups (e.g. 1967 diggers of San Francisco proclaimed nationwide ‘Death of the Hippie’  Conscious-raising - 1960 ¼ of women felt discriminated against, by 1970 this reached 2/3 NIXON REVISION GUIDE  Firestone and Atkinson set up New York Radical Summary: Most hated president in history -> prolongation Feminists and The Feminists in New York who of Vietnam and Watergate. Though had some successes in were more radical focusing on the subordination foreign policy and helped the disadvantaged despite of men by women and the inequality of the sexual rhetoric revolution which had given men more freedom than women 1968 Election  Valerie Solanos founded the Society for Cutting Up Reasons for Nixon’s Victory Men (SCUM)- attempted to assassinate Andy 1. Divisions within Democrat Party Warhol  Plot against Johnson  WITCH - Women’s International Conspiracy from  In 1967 Democrats sought to Hell - hex of Manhattan banks, hosting bridal fair challenge Johnson’s nominations chanting ‘here come the slaves/ off to their graves’ for president  Germaine Greer and Erica Jong- academic side to  Robert ‘Bobby’ Kennedy movement also discussed misogyny encouraged to run Reasons for division in movement:  Eugene McCarthy (not in any  Over 100 feminists disrupted the swim suit parade way to do with McCarthyism) at the Miss America beauty pageant in Atlantic decides to run against Johnson. City 1968 with stink bombs, crowning a live sheep  In primary vote in New Miss America and throwing objects of oppression Hampshire: Johnson 49%, such as bras, girdles, curlers, false eyelashes etc. McCarthy 42%-> into a freedom trash can unprecedentedly low percentage  Abortion for incumbent president-> R.  Radicalesbians and other breakaway groups who Kennedy running felt there was a lack of support from NOW  Johnson’s pulls out of next Domination of feminist movement by white election middle class  Robert Kennedy Key achievements  Robert Kennedy (JFK’s younger population, lost patience with brother)-? Glamour of JFK legacy rioters, ‘handouts’, and federal  Became popular with the less gov. for heavy taxation, children privileged - Native Americans, sent to Vietnam, increased Mexicans, NAACP, AAs living in borrowing and cost of living= ghettos for his visits and emotive difficult to maintain standard of speeches - e.g. Visited living. Indianapolis ghetto in April 1968  Named ‘the Silent Majority’ by against advise to speak about Nixon. MLK’s assassination.  Promises and Policies  Kennedy Vs McCarthy  Bring peace with honour in  McCarthy cold compared to Vietnam Kennedy  Restore law and order  McCarthy did not appeal to  Less and cheaper gov. minorities or poor, only to  Southern Strategy and the Sun Belt middle class.  Nixon had a Californian  Press+ public pro-Kennedy- often background drew large crowds.  Sunbelt (North West Coast)-  Democrat party infuriated with growing industry Kennedy for not challenging  Nixon appealed to Sun Belt by: Johnson fears he would split rejecting policy of cutting federal vote. funds to schools who refused to  Humphrey’s pro-Vietnam stance desegregate, New Federalism  Kennedy assassinated in 1968 (giving more power and money after winning primaries by a directly to states), Nixon was Palestinian who claimed socially conservative. Kennedy was too pro-Israel.  Nixon’s Campaign 2. Impact of the Democratic National Convention in  Stayed tanned. Chicago 1968  Only spoke in large audiences or  Youth International Party (members through television-> dignified called Yippies) called for young people to appearance, didn’t need to go show discontent for American politics by everywhere to be known. disrupting convention  Mastered media presentation.  10,000 protestors (anti-war+ yippie)  Eisenhower’s Support  Chicago Democratic Mayor- Richard Daley  Married daughter (Julie) to sent 12,000 police Eisenhower’s grandson (David) -  Violence on both sides- Daley accused of announced in 1967-> big boost ‘Gestapo tactics’ by a Democrat senator for campaign.  Lost democrats support because: shows  David got Eisenhower to endorse how violence had increased under Nixon. Johnson, Daley’s violence had hit the  Julie big asset to Nixon’s headlines, lost Democrat support for campaign. Humphrey’s pro-Vietnam campaign Election Results 3. Nixon’s campaign and promises  Close and nasty  Winning the Republican nomination  Nixon won on electoral college  Lost to Kennedy in 1960. comfortable (tactical win)  Lost gubernational election in  Popular votes Nixon 43.4%, Humphrey California -> retired from politics 42.7%  In retirement Nixon on over  Lowest winning margin since 1912 party loyalists through  George Wallace as an independent fundraising and loyalty candidate (splintered from democrat  1964 election Republican Barry party) had on 13.5% Goldwater crushed by Johnson->  Low turnout under 60% meant Nixon only needed new leadership. had support from 27% of population  Anti-communist and moderate  Demonstrates conservative backlash views The personalities of the Nixon administration  Experience as VP  Kissinger- National Security Advisor  Attacks on Johnson’s leadership Specialist in international relations (Harvard Uni.  Winning Middle America prof.)  Middle America = $5,000- Once said ‘power is the ultimate aphrodisiac’ $15,000 a year (not poor but  Rogers - SoS, inexperienced certainly not wealthy), 55% of  Haldeman - ran campaign and was chief of staff  Ehrlichman - domestic affairs advisor  Disliked by Nixon- but in practice put (Haldeman and Ehrlichman controlled access to pressure on federal contractors to employ Nixon + were blamed for Watergate by Nixon) minorities (gap between promises  John Mitchell +reality) Lawyer- managed presidential campaign Reaction to protest movements Authorised wiretaps without court authorisation  1st inauguration marred by protest Tried to block publication of Pentagon Papers  84% of Americans believed student demonstrators (which revealed escalation of war in Vietnam) treated too leniently Headed CREEP (Committee to Re-Elect the  Oct-Nov 1969- Moratorium (suspension of normal President) activities for protest)- tens of thousands marched Domestic Policies in every major city-> violence and destruction Main issues: social problems, protest movement, economy  Protests erupted after Nixon extended war into Campaign attacked expense of Great Society Cambodia BUT- democrat control of congress + moderate views ->  Celebrities involved including John Lennon and Great Society remained intact Yoko Ono ‘bed-in’ + Lennon’s Give Peace a Chance  Welfare and anti-poverty record. Others included Phil Ochs, Joni Mitchell,  84% believed too many were receiving Bob Dylan, Noam Chomsky, Muhammed Ali and welfare money Jimi Hendrix  Great Society’ AFDC-> benefitting 3m families in 1960-> 8.4m by 1970  Kent State and Jackson State  1in 9 (1 in 3 black) children on welfare  Most famous police/protestor clash  Nixon shrank OEO, cut funding for  Kent State students rioted, firebombed housing and youth programmes, closed ROTC building then had peaceful rally 59 job corps centres  National Guard shot 4, 2 of whom were  Nixon attempted to reform welfare only walking to class system through Family Assistance Plan  Following week 2 killed and 12 wounded (FAP) but congress rejected it at predominantly black Jackson State  Nixon vetoed 1971 Child Development  Reactions mixed: some viewed as Act (free childcare to poor mothers) deliberate murder, some blamed  Nixon actually increased spending on students (over half the population), Nixon healthcare, Social Security, Medicare and refused to express sorrow for “bums” Medicaid (spent more than Johnson!)  How Nixon dealt with protestors  Racial Equality  Did not handle Kent/ Jackson State well  Middle America wanted Nixon to be  Attempts to communicate with protest conservative movement unsuccessful- even invited  1971 and 1973 Supreme Court rulings -> some to the White House busing (particularly in North)  Defied protestors whilst campaigning  American disapproved of policy 8:1  Discredited protestors by no  Congress rejects Nixon’s appeal for a differentiating between peaceful and constitutional amendment to end busing violent groups  Nixon appoints conservative justices (incl.  Nixon’s success against protestors Warren Burger)->Milliken vs Bradley->  Well-timed troop withdrawals halted busing in Detroit in 1974  Adjusted draft in 1972- removed students  Law and Order over 20yrs and removed draft in 1973  Nixon + Middle American believed  Threatened to end scholarships and loans violence and crime had escalated due to for convict ‘soft’ liberals.  Surveillance  Miranda ruling 1966 - meant improperly  Too protestors to court(litigation)- Spring obtained confessions were excluded from 1970 10,000 arrests-> used up protestors trials-> seen as criminal given more rights time and money than victim  Divisions among radicals  Increase in crime and violence: 1969- 62  Nixon’s successes against protestors bombings or attempted bombings, 1970  Lack of success for New Left 1577 bombings of attempted bombing  Divide over peaceful/violent tactics  Nixon administration dealt harshly with radicals: Chicago 8 (New Left leaders Economic Change and the End of the Post-War Boom charged with conspiracy at Democrat  Nixon inherited: Large deficit, inflation 4.7% (high), National Convention- incl. Hayden of declining productivity and competition from Japan SDS), 5 convicted but were successfully and Germany. BUT a booming economy from appealed, 28 Black Panthers killed, 100s Kennedy and Johnson- unemployment 3.3% imprisoned 1969  For inflation: Nixon cut federal spending but hit  Affirmative Action record deficits  By 1971 - high inflation and rising trade deficit  BUT- democrats still in control of weakened dollar congress-> big problems in 2nd term  New Economic Policy (NEP) Aug 1971 froze wages, Foreign Policy prices and devalued the dollar to make US exports o Kissinger and Nixon had experience but no regard more competitive (75% approval rating)- did not for moral considerations (realpolitik)- not worried solve underlying problems by bombing of Vietnam or actions in S. America  The Great Inflation 1973 o Did not get support from congress due to secrecy  Lost focus because of Watergate o Kissinger wins Nobel Peace Prize for peace  Energy Crisis - from WW2 USA had gone from self- negotiations in Paris-> Nixon furious sufficiency to dependency o Wanted détente to: help ensure re-election, 6% of world’s population but 1/3 of world’s oil ensure ideology did not dominate foreign policy, production bipolar to multipolar world, US needed new 30% of oil imported from Middle East friends, to get peace with Vietnam Nixon supports Israel in Arab-Israeli (Yom Kippur) Vietnam and Cambodia War led OPEC (Organisation of Petroleum  Nixon cold warrior but wants to end war because Exporting Countries) to introduce oil embargo-> of decreased communist threat, wants rep. as a 387% increase in oil prices damaged business and peacemaker, Vietnam had ruined Johnson standard of living-> reduced confidence in nation’s  Wanted ‘peace with honour’ economy  William Fullbright (senator) sustained opposition Business  Nixon Doctrine/ Vietnamization -> hand over war  Occupational Safety and Health Administration to S.Vietnam under leadership of Nguyen Van (OSHA) Thieu (President 1965-1975).  Environment Protection Agency (EPA) Achieved through- pressure via China and Soviets,  National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Vietnamization put military pressure on N.Vietnam NOAA  1969  1972 Noise Control Act  Bombing of Ho Chi Minh trail  1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act  Failed peace talks with N.Vietnam due to  1973 Endangered Species Act presence of troops in S.Vietnam  1974 Safe Water Drinking Act  Troop withdrawals  Imposed bureaucracy on business to curry favour  Millions protest 1969 ‘Moratorium’ with environmentalists. Acts did not go far  Exposure of My Lai- massacre of enough. inhabitants by US soldiers in 1968 divided Americans Re-election in 1972  1970 Re-elected for Foreign policy, Middle America and  Bombing of N.Vietnam anti-aircraft bases Democrat problems and Ho Chi Minh trail in Vietnam and  Foreign Policy Triumphs Cambodia  SALT I  Sent 30,000 S.Vietnamese and American  Improved relations with China soldiers into Cambodia-> protests  Withdrawal of troops from Vietnam  Congress threaten to cut funding due to  Democrat Problems Nixon taking too much power  Democratic National Convention 1968  1971 had divided Democrats  Lam Son Offensive in Laos - 5,000  McGovern (very left-wing)- S.Vietnamese troops (test of ‘counterculture candidate’ wanted to Vietnamization). Humiliating defeat- legalise marijuana and abortion, pardon fleeing soldiers clinging onto helicopter Vietnam war deserters and daft dodgers, skids-> more protests cut defence spending, redistribute  Failed negotiations with N.Vietnam income and reduce poverty-> Republicans despite concessions made regarding play on conservative fears troops   Election Results Pressure from China and Soviets on  Unpleasant campaign- McGovern likens N.Vietnam Nixon to Hitler, Nixon organises break in  1972 at Democratic campaign headquarters  Large communist offensive->bombing of  Nixon wins with landslide 60.7% of Hanoi and port of Haiphong’ madman popular vote- with every state except theory’- seeking negotiations and Massachusetts, 1st Republican to gain bombing at same time Catholic vote, working class vote, increase  Congress threatens to cut off money in Southern support from 38% in 1968 to  55% of population support bombing 72% in 1972  N.Vietnam pressured into peace talks in  McGovern rejected because opposition to Paris Vietnam war and defence spending  Concessions made on both sides, National  CIA granted $10m to prevent or unseat Committee of Reconciliation (CNR) set up Allende (1/3 N.Vietnam, 1/3 S.Vietnam, 1/3  Allende elected-> Nixon wants to neutral) recognition of communists as destabilise-> America stops all aid and legitimate force, Nixon backed out and loans from World Bank and International Thieu opposed agreement American Development Bank  After re-election Nixon bombs Haiphong  CIA funds media criticisms of Allende, over Christmas to reassure Thieu- opposition and strikes ‘madman theory’  1973 Augusto Pinochet leads bloody  Paris Peace Accords coup, Allende ‘commits suicide’  Basically the same that had been agreed in  Church Committee 1975 concludes Nixon 1972 had played role in stimulating coup  Ceasefire, POW exchange, N.Vietnam  Operation Condor forces could stay but not increase in  Pinochet uses Condor (communal S.Vietnam, CNR, S.Vietnam continues to intelligence system used by dictators in exist under Thieu Southern Latin America) to get rid of  Secretly promised billions of aid to opposition N.Vietnam  Condor ends in 1983- responsible for USSR 50,000 deaths, large scale torture and  Nixon and Kissinger concerned about Soviet disappearance of thousands nuclear parity, stability of Europe and increasing  Still to be confirmed- but Nixon definitely Soviet power knew of Condor and encouraged and  Hoped détente would be the new containment-> funded it. slowing down arms race-> less spending on China weapons-> help US economy  Relations were hostile  Soviet leader Brezhnev wants to stabilise Europe  Nixon and Kissinger pursue détente and get US tech and agricultural expertise  Mao Zedong (leader of China) sees Soviets as  Nixon inauguration ‘era of negotiations’ with enemies wants to counter them through détente Soviets with US  Four Power Agreement (USA, USSR, GB +FR) 1971  Nixon relaxes trade restrictions with China recognises Western access rights to W.Berlin  ‘Ping-pong’ diplomacy - Chinese invited USA table  Basic Treaty 1972 (W.Germany +E.Germany) tennis tables to China recognition of each other’s frontiers and validity  Nixon visits China 1972  Both treaties demonstrate acceptance of status  China puts pressure on N.Vietnam to agree to quo peace  SALT 1 May 1972  HOWEVER- tensions continue over US relations  Ended race over defensive anti-ballistic with Taiwan missile systems  Froze no. of nuclear missiles and strategic Watergate missiles Summary  Soon criticised after Soviets carried out 1. Nixon anxious about election nuclear missile tests less than a year later 2. CREEP established  Significance of Soviet-American détente 3. Break in discovered at Watergate  Put pressure on N.Vietnam 4. Nixon administration attempted cover-up  Increased stability-> Nixon re-elected 5. Burglars convicted However 6. Senate investigated Nixon+team  Arab-Israeli war put pressure on détente 7. Tapes reveal Nixon ordered cover-up (both countries supported opposite sides) 8. House moved on impeachment  Egypt and Syria attack Israel in 1973- 9. Nixon resigns to avoid impeachment >Israeli counterattack->Egypt call for 10. Nixon is pardoned by Ford Soviet help-> Soviets mobilise-> US put Conspirators nuclear strike forces on alert->US resolve  Haldeman, Ehrlichman and Mitchell were cynics issue excluding Soviets  Members of CREEP including: Jeb Magrauder, Latin America James McCord, Charles Colson, Gordon Liddy - all  Supported authoritarian national governments to had close links to Nixon and the White House protect US interests  Gordon Liddy and Howard Hunt worked in White  Chile House - both were ‘plumbers’ (stopped leaks of  1970 socialist Salvador Allende may win information) elections  John Dean gave Nixon legal advice over Watergate  Nixon and Kissinger fear this may lead to CREEP nationalisation of US industry  Main purpose to re-elect president  Main problem: Vietnam war  Actions-> illegal fundraising ($60m), discredited  Watergate Committee (Select Committee of Democrats, surveillance Presidential Campaign Activities) chaired by CREEP, Ellsberg and the Pentagon Papers Democrat senator Sam Ervin Feb 1973  Nixon wanted to keep secrets about Vietnam  Some burglars now willing to talk-> 37 days of  Ordered FBI to wiretap 11 offices incl. SoS hearings  Nixon believed that his actions were not illegal  John Mitchell admits to meeting with burglars 3  White House Special Investigation Unit 1971 days before ‘plumbers’ appointed after Ellsberg leaks Pentagon  John Dean fired, Haldeman and Ehrlichman Papers resigned -> Nixon blamed them for cover up.  Pentagon Papers made Democrat Presidents look  Dean testifies Nixon was involved by Haldeman bad over Vietnam- but Kissinger convinces Nixon it Ehrlichman and Mitchell deny this. is important to keep secret  Details of Ellsberg case revealed  Nixon seeks to discredit Ellsberg but FBI refuse to  White House aide reveals highly secret White tap phone, ‘plumbers’ sent to do task House taping system- Nixon’s own family did not  3 Sept. 1971 ‘Plumbers’ break into Ellsberg’s know Psychiatrist’s office to find evidence to discredit  May 1973 Congress forces Nixon to appoint special him- found nothing. Hunt takes pic of Liddy on prosecutor- Harvard law professor Archibald Cox- ‘borrowed’ camera and camera is returned to CIA Democrat and Kennedy family friend with photo still on it  Cox concentrated on getting tapes  Unknown if Nixon knew about this  Nixon sacks Cox in Oct. CREEP and Watergate break-ins  Nixon’s approval ratings down to 17%  CREEP organises break-in at DNC in Watergate 17th  Nixon forced to name Leon Jaworski as special June 1972 prosecutor in Oct for impeachment investigation  Break in discovered by security  Nixon releases 7 White House tapes  McCord+5 Cuban-Americans arrested at scene,  In same month, Agnew resigns for bribery and tax Liddy and Hunt arrested in building opposite with evasion walkie-talkies coordinating burglary  Nixon’s finances come under scrutiny - $1.1m  Nixon unworried initially income but only $80k in taxes, home Reasons for break-in improvements funded by public purse  Nixon deeply cynical about politics - robbed of  Nixon under strain-> many commented on his presidency in 1960 because of dubious electoral stability practices in Chicago, suffered under Kennedy (had Issues with tapes been subject to an IRS investigation), phone  One tape surrendered contained 18.5 min gap in a bugged Nixon-Haldeman conversation. Secretary said it as  Expose Democrat links to radical groups her error.  Obtain list of DNC prostitutes and expose DNC use  Experts said tape had been tampered with of prostitution ring  Nixon refuses to admit existence of other tapes  Information on Nixon’s involvement with Castro’s Indictments and more tapes assassination and dealings with billionaire Howard  March 1974- 7 of Nixon’s aides indicted for cover- Hughes up  Get Nixon an advantage over Democrat front-  President named as co-conspirator runner Edmund Muskie in 1972 polls  Nixon surrenders edited transcripts of other tapes- Did Nixon know? other than swearing nothing found  Still controversial issue- but definitely was involved  Jaworski wants actual tapes-> United States Vs in cover-up Richard M. Nixon July 1974 tapes must be Getting caught released, one tape called the ‘smoking gun’ proved  FBI traced laundered money found on ‘plumbers’ Nixon had ordered cover-up to CREEP  House Judiciary Meeting approve 3 articles of  Nixon and Haldeman discuss using CIA to stop FBI impeachment: abuse of congress (ignoring (obstruction of justice) demands [subpoenas] for tapes), misuse of gov.  Nixon pays $430,000 to burglars to keep quiet agencies and obstruction of justice (obstruction of justice)  75% of Americans believed Nixon was guilty, 66%  Burglars convicted in Jan 1973 ranged from 20-40 favoured impeachment years Abuse of Congress  Press worked hard to uncover plot  Nixon was uncooperative (tapes) but also:  300 hours of TV devoted to hearings  Delayed, ignored (27 times) and evaded requests  ‘Deep Throat’ (identity revealed in 2005 to be for info on executive actions Mark Felt) administration leaker who famously  Circumvented congressional power through passed on stories to Bob Woodward and Carl appointment of directors of gov. agencies Bernstein (Washington Post Reporters)  Impounded money congress had allocated to Role of Congress spend (only wanted to spend about 25% of what congress had allocated)- mixed views on whether this was ok  Accused congress of discrediting fed. Gov. by  Trial would take a long time opposing his programmes.  Did not want to set precedent for prosecuting a  Aid of Gerald Ford ‘Nixon couldn’t hide his disdain president for the Congress and he treated some individuals  Christian to show mercy in Congress very badly’  Worries over Nixon’s mental health  Explanations for behaviour: Exception strain of his  Resignation from office was admission of guilt presidency (threats even made against Nixon’s  Ford wanted to protect Republican party in 1976 daughter), only President to get caught (Kennedy elections and Johnson had wiretapped), Democrat majority  Alleged deal of pardon for presidency in congress -> ‘us versus them’ mentality, Nixon’s THE USA AFTER NIXON REVISION GUIDE methods were commonplace, hostility of the press Summary: Vietnam War in decline, deteriorating economy, Resignation of President disappointing presidents  If Nixon resigned he would get $60k pension, $100k staff expenses Ford and Carter as Presidents  If Nixon was impeached he’d lose this and have to Both wanted to differentiate and distance themselves from pay legal fees and $500k for unpaid taxes + would Nixon and his ‘imperial presidency’ but were unlucky in face criminal hearings that:  House Judiciary Committee promises Nixon on 6  Economic problems Aug 1973 he would face no further charges if he  International Crises resigned  Congressional determination to limit president’s  Nixon also lost Republican support- could not power guarantee that 2/3 of congress would not vote for  Decreased respect for presidency him to face impeachment  Increased social divisions Nixon’s Political Legacy

 1st President to resign in office Gerald Ford President 1974-1976  Legacy: Damage to gov., Republican party and the  President incumbent after Nixon resigns presidency  1. Damage to gov. Respected and popular congressman 1948-73 o Popular distrust of gov.  ‘Ford not a Lincoln’-relatable character unlike o Press believed role in exposing cover- Nixon up made them guardians of  Loses support after pardoning Nixon democracy  Victim of disrespectful media coverage- playing o Inspired investigative reporting football too often, falling own stairs (once shown o Decreased electoral turnout in 1970s 11 times in one newscast) 2. Damage to Republican Party Jimmy Carter President 1976-1980 o Suffered in 1974 congressional  Rejected formality elections  From Georgia o 4 republicans on House Judiciary Response to social divisions Committee who voted against  Ford: clemency for draft dodgers-> criticism on impeachment lost seats both sides o Many Republicans blamed moderate  By 1970s 2/3 of college students agreed that ‘the policies-> shift to right idea that a woman’s place is in the home is o Ford’s decision to pardon Nixon lost nonsense’ him 1976 elections  More women entering high status professions but: 3. Damaged presidency women only earned 73% of male salaries, and o Congress enacted several laws to were 66% of those classified as poor limit presidential power  Women wanted to achieve an Equal Rights o Nixon chose Gerald Ford as VP after Amendment to the Constitution which would Agnew’s resignation. guarantee equal rights but failed to get support o Ford becomes president after Nixon’s from 75% of states resignation declaring ‘our long o Reasons for failure: national nightmare is over’ o Opponents said it would lead to break o Decision to pardon Nixon led down of nuclear family, women in approval rating to drop from 71% to combat, unisex toilets and gay marriage. 49% as it allowed Nixon to escape o Catholic lawyer Phyllis Schlafly criminal prosecution ‘Sweetheart of Silent Majority’ - Why did Ford pardon Nixon? opponent of women’s rights and  End American tragedy abortions and established stop ERA  Trial of former president would degrade organisation in 1972- conservative states presidency agreed with her  Difficult to find unbiased jury for Nixon’s court o Although Betty Ford championed ERA, case husband did not help  Carter more open to women’s rights- appointed 2  Increased use of crack cocaine -> users could female cabinet members, supported ERA but let not afford accommodation his wife speak for him and opposed funding for  AAs disproportionate no. of poor abortion except in the case of rape, incest or African-Americans endangerment of the mother’s life  By 1970s 35-45% of AAs classified as middle class Abortion  AAs in congress: 1959 (4) - 1980 (18)  Before 1973 - a crime in 30 states, legal in 20  AA mayors 1960 (0)- 1970- many states in the case of rape, incest or endangerment  % of black families earning over $10k- 1947 (3%) 1960 of the mother’s life (13%) 1971 (31%)  In states where it was a crime-> backstreet  However abortions  Black youth unemployment 50%  By 1960s some safe abortions by sympathetic  ‘White flight’ doctors  50% of black teenagers in NYC dropped out of high  Feminists believed right to abortion meant that school they could own their own flesh  Black child 2x as likely to die before the age of 1, drop  1971 National Abortion Rights Action League out of school and 4x as likely to be murdered lobbied state legislators for abortion rights  Liberals- integrated education is how to improve  Roe vs Wade 1973 - Abortion legalised in first 13  1969 Supreme Court - segregated schools no longer weeks - Case of Texas woman who did not want to permissible, segregated schools in south down from bring a child into poverty- both presidents stayed 68% to 8% but de facto segregation continued in North quiet  Boston Public schools separate and unequal Conservative backlash  1965 25% of students AAs, 0.5% teachers  National Right to Life Committee 1967 -  Educational material inferior and racist Catholic organisation opposed Roe vs Wade  June 1974 Federal Court found Boston guilty  Fundraising, protests campaigned in courts of segregation (NAACP) and elections  Busing ordered, but authorities refused to  1979 Concerned for Women America (CWA) comply founded by housewife and author Beverly  Anti-busing organisation Restore Our LaHaye- fought against ERA and abortion and Alienated Rights (ROAR) encouraged by Ford for tradition - 500,000 members by mid 1980s disagreeing with order  Conservatism associated with Republicans-  1st desegregated day - black parents greeted 1976 Republican successfully banned use of white children, but AAs were jeered at by federal funds for abortion parents and staff objects also thrown at  Social conservatism revitalised Republican pupils- 9 injured + 18 buses damaged. party support  Riots erupt Dec 1974- white student stabbed, Poverty white parents surrounded school black  1978 Senator Edward Kennedy (younger brother students had to escape through back of JFK and Bobby Kennedy) “permanent underclass  Sporadic violence continue- white students in our society” enrol at schools outside of Boston public  Ford believer in self-help -> no impact on welfare schools or poverty  Carter and Affirmative Action  Carter expected to do more but:  One minority candidate considered for each  Could not balance budget with growing cabinet post elderly population who needed Social Security  AA Patricia Harris as Secretary of Housing and to pay out Urban Development  ‘White flight’-> ghettoization  Appointed more black federal judges than any  Public did not want to subsidise poor other president  Economic recession 1973-5-> growing poverty  Made MLK’s associate Andrew Young US rose from 11.2% in 1974 to 12.5% in 1976 ambassador to UN (50% of all black female head of household  Channelled gov. contracts to minority firms were in poverty). USA suffered another  Strengthened enforcement of voting rights recession.  Made EEOC more effective Carter allocated $4b for public works in 1977  Supported 1977 Public Works Act- minority increased federal aid to poor contractors get 10% of federal grants for  No. of homeless Americans up - total number from public works 200k to 1m due to:  Socially divisive  Number of institutions of mentally ill o Bakke Case - Allan Bakke 33 yr. old decreased white male wanted to be medical  ‘Skid row’ hotels demolished student, claimed Uni. of California  Rising unemployment had rejected him due to affirmative  Increase in no. of single mothers action and had accepted minority students with lower grades- changed  1973-1980 - unprecedented inflation nothing. (double figures)  AAs believed Carter was not committed to  Made mortgages, loans, food and busing, the 1977 Community Reinvestment energy more expensive - July 2974 Act (assisted minorities), Humphrey Hawkins prices +3.7%, 63% of Americans Bill (give minorities more opportunities), inflation is biggest concern expansion of social welfare  Cost of living rose by 8.2% (’73-’83)  AAs suffered disproportionately during  Hardest hit: rust belt - traditional recession manufacturing areas of East coast +  1979 Washington DC +Baltimore- hundreds Midwest where old industries had of black teenage AAs showed up for snow- declined shovelling jobs to be turned away as posts  Minimum wage failed to keep up were filled-> looting, 1980 summer of with cost of living violence since 1960s, in Florida an all-white  Unemployment 6.5% (Dec 1974) - jury acquitted 4 white policemen charged 8.9% (May 1975) with beating a black salesman to death- o Reasons for- mechanisation three days of looting, shooting, arson and replaced jobs, Japan and destruction occurred - $100m damage Germany produced goods for Political Corruption and the Loss of Self-Confidence less, difficult to find alternative Ford’s pardon of Nixon jobs due to skills  Damaged relations with congress o Growth of service industry (60%  Republicans blamed pardon for loss of 43 HoR of employment opportunities in seats in 1974 1970, 70% by 1980). Jobs low  Gerald Ford’ Jerry the jerk’ paid.  Republican Governor Ronald Reagan called Ford a ‘caretaker’ + challenged him for presidential  Oil Crisis and the end of cheap energy nomination. Ford won but had been weakened. o Cheap oil vital to post-war 1976 Presidential Election prosperity  Low turnout - 54% (lowest since 1948) o Moved from self-sufficiency to  Carter 49.9%, Ford 47.9% energy deficit  ¾ of Americans did not believe in either candidate o 6% of world’s population- 1/3 of  Half of the electorate continued to not vote during world’s oil production Carter’s presidency -> disillusion o 30% oil imported from Middle Reasons for Carter’s victory East- US vulnerable o  Ford was seen as weak and had lost to Soviets Arab-Israeli War-> OPEC-> oil embargo on USA-> price hike  Economic problems 387%-> damage to US industry-  Reagan’s divisive and exhausting challenge to Ford >1/3 of price rises due to oil  Ford’s administration was corrupt (rumours of o Seriousness of energy crisis: deal over Nixon’s pardon, that Ford’s golf friends . 1974 100k truckers received favours strike for lower fuel  Carter not seen as part of corrupt Washington prices-> blocked roads scene and empty shelves President Carter and corruption . 1976-7 cold winter->  Promised to ‘never tell a lie’ gas shortage forced  Billygate - Carter’s brother Billy who tried to closure of schools and develop business with Libya who gave him a ‘loan’ factories, long queues of $220k (part of an FBI sting operation which fake at pumps and fuel wealthy Arabs would offer money for political stations cut hours to favour). Media speculated on Carter’s involvement conserve supplies but Carter was acquitted . Energy riots in ECONOMIC POLICY Levittown when  Expense of Vietnam war + Great Society truckers barricaded increased deficit from $1.6bn in 1965 to expressways-> 100 $25.3bn in 1968-> inflation and weakened injured, 170 arrested in dollar 2 nights of violence  Japan and Germany competing . 1977 165,000 United  Balance of trade deficit (when the value of Mine Workers 3 month goods imported exceed the value of good strike-> coal shortage -> exported) school closure and  Americans could no longer afford to maintain shorter working week consumer lifestyle . 1979 ½ USA’s petrol  Inflation and unemployment stations without fuel  Politicians and energy crisis Responses to crisis in Middle East o Congress did not increase taxes  Pre-existing issues: oil weaknesses + creation on fuel to cut consumption of Arab enemies through support of Israel o Feeling USA was in decline  US supplies Israel with weapons through Foreign Policy NATO bases in Western Europe-> oil embargo Final withdrawal from Vietnam  Japan and Western Europe increasingly pro-  Paris Peace Accords had no provision for Arab communist resumption of war in Vietnam  Carter brilliant negotiator at Israeli-Egyptian  America had protected S.Vietnam through détente at Camp David in 1978 - following financial aid but congress cut aid by 50% in 1973 Yom Kippur war Israel was occupying Egyptian then again in 1974 (taxpayers thought $150bn territory -> historic agreement between spent on Vietnam was a waste) leaders at Camp David both won Nobel Peace  Winter 1974-5 Communists started offensive Prize (but not Carter) against South  Iran and Afghanistan- ‘Can Carter cope?’  Although US had said they would support Thieu Iran- biggest crisis congress and public did not support, Thieu fled on  1978 Islamic fundamentalists led a revolution 21st April accusing USA of selling out- Ford put on a against pro-American + repressive Shah brave face (leader)-> Shah flees  Evacuate 6,000 US personnel in S.Vietnam with  Anti-US Iranians storm US embassy in Tehran Vietnamese wives and children and in laws (40,000 for several hours-> U.S weak in total). Ford arranged exodus- some via  4 Nov 1973 Iranian militants seize embassy helicopters on the US embassy roof (embarrassing again and take 60 US hostages in protest to scenes). US navy rescued 32,000 boat people. Ford Carter allowing Shah into USA for cancer welcomed people to US but public did not. treatment. Relations with USSR and China  Carter attempts to negotiate by stopping China Americans buying Iranian oil and froze Iranian  Carter recognises China as communist state assets (approval ratings up to 61%)  This requires severing ties with Taiwan but  Carter attempts military rescue in 1981 - due Carter did attempt to resolve relations to risky and complicated plan rescue is between China and Taiwan through the disaster Taiwan Relations Act and creating an  Hostages finally released after Carter has left American Institute in Taiwan White House USSR Afghanistan Why Americans turned against détente  Muslim state south of USSR  Détente reminded Americans of Nixon  1979 pro-Soviet government weak and (Kissinger said in 1976 détente was ‘a word I divided would like to forget’  27th Dec 1979 Soviets invade Afghanistan with  Conservatives saw Helsinki Agreement as 100,000 troops in support of moderate groups appeasement (1975- recognises boundaries of in government against Muslin guerrillas who Europe, human rights record to public oppose pro-Soviet gov. scrutiny, more trade and cooperation NATO  USSR intervened because they did not want and Warsaw Pact to have observers at each anti-Soviet state on their northern border and other’s military exercises) did not want unrest spreading to Muslims in  USA thought Soviets had taken advantage of USSR détente to build up arms and increase  USA sees move as expansionist- congress influence in African and Vietnam refuses to ratify SALT II, stopped exports to  Americans dissatisfied with SALT I as Soviets USSR, boycotted Moscow 1980 Olympics, had attained parity on multiple warheads increase US defence expenditure, pledged US Why Soviets turned against détente intervention if Soviets threated US oil  Resented Carter’s criticisms of USSR’s human interests in Persian Golf rights record  Soviets resented not being included in Carter’s 1979- 41% of Americans believed their country was in Middle East Process( see next headings) ‘deep and serious trouble’ by 1980 it was 64%. U.S. power  USA too friendly with China (full diplomatic appeared to be in decline. relations Jan 1979) African-Americans in the North and South  Détente had not improved Soviet economy via  Civil rights legislation had improved the social, decreased defence spending political and economic status of AAs by 1980.  Helsinki Agreement-> unrest + criticisms of  Dream of equality still not yet achieved: USSR  1970, 31% of AAs (55% of whites) aged  Congress refused to ratify SALT II (to slow over 25 yrs. completed 4 or more years of down arms race) which Carter and Brezhnev high school ( by 1980: 51% of AAs and had agreed to in 1979 69% of whites)  % of AAs in segregated schools from 68%  Greater presence of AAs in Hollywood- Sidney to 8% during Nixon’s presidency Poitier in Watermelon Man(story of a white man  Political Status who wakes up black), and Richard Ward in Starsky o Although more were appointed and Hutch (black supervisor of white detectives)- to government positions (see  Growth of Blaxploitation films - black actors for previous data)- only 1% of those black audience elected in 1980 were black  Black History Month founded 1976 o Beer vs United States along with  Alex Haley publishes Roots (origins of a family certain states had tried to from Africa through to slavery) -> TV series in 1977 encourage more black officials which won nine Emmy awards. o However, City of Mobile vs  Breakthrough music artists: Barry White, Sly and Bolden said discriminatory effect the Family Stone, Stevie Wonder, Jackson 5 had to be accompanied by  1979 Rappers Delight by Sugarhill Gang 1st discriminatory intent- made it successful hip hop selling 500,000 copies harder to challenge status-quo Change and continuity in the New South  Economic status  Civil Rights changes had led to substantial changes o Gov. had focused on affirmative  By 1970s South led school desegregation action + anti-discrimination  Southern governors like Jimmy Carter no longer measures in HE and employment used racist rhetoric o EEOC pressured to decrease  1974 George Wallace claimed himself ‘born again’ discrimination in employment apologised to Selma marchers o By 1980 1/3 of AAs were middle  Economic growth in South due to lower wages and class less powerful unions o However affirmative action led  Change in Atlanta to a white back lash - e.g. federal  1973-81 Maynard Jackson became judge’s 1975 ruling against Atlanta’s and Georgia’s first black mayor. Detroit Police Department’s ‘last Hired first affirmative action officer hired, first fired’ rule which  Jesse Hill first black officer in Atlanta protected recently employed AA Chamber of Commerce, became its policemen led to police riots in president in 1977 which several white police  % of black employees in professional officers attacked one AA officer. positions rose from 19.2% to 42.2% o 1980 median black household between 1973-83 (helped by EEOC) income was 60% of whites.  Jackson increased % of contracts awarded White median household to black firms by 25% earnings increased AAs did not  Jackson’s grandfather ‘ eventually, and o AAs in poverty 33% ultimately, most of our problems will be 1/3 of black Americans had low- solved and settled at the ballot box’ status jobs  Continuity: % of black officials not high o Black life expectancy in 68.1, enough- AAs 27% of voters in Georgia in white 74.4 in 1980 1980 only 3.7%of state officials o AAs 12% of population but 43%  Only 5% of elected officials were black in of rapists, 55% of murderers, South 69% of burglars  1/3 of Atlantans below poverty line in  De facto segregation harder to combat: 1980 o Swann vs. Mecklenburg 1971 ->  1980 black unemployment 3x whites full desegregation of schools +

busing The USA by 1980 o Milliken v. Bradley 1974 -> white  In 1945 USA was victorious, prosperous and moral suburbs had no obligation to  merge with black cities to By 1980 pride, confidence and strength had been facilitate integration somewhat tarnished o 1974 and 1975- anti-busing Position as a superpower  legislation USA humiliated by Vietnam  o 1971 KKK bombed 10 buses in Iranian hostage taking 1979  Michigan Increasingly unfavourable perceptions of the USA o Private school numbers rose (6% abroad  of population moved to suburbs Seen as aggressive in the non-communist world in 1970s, Boston’s public schools due to Vietnam, and role in Latin America  contained 45,000 whites in 1974 Soviets had gained nuclear and naval parity  but only 16,000 by 1987) 1980 54% of Americans believed US position was Cultural gains by Black Americans only ‘fair’ or ‘poor’  Still wealthiest and most powerful-> just less in the liberal agenda for ‘moral decline’ of the USA lead than in 1945 evidenced in the Jonestown Massacre 1978 ( 918 Economy inhabitants in a commune set up by cult leader Jim  Economic boom over due to: cost of Vietnam, Jones died of cyanide poisoning (mixed with Kool energy crisis, foreign competition Aid by Jones) - single greatest loss of American  USA still world’s most affluent society with a far civilian lives till 9/11). They also believed moral higher GNP than rivals decline led to the murder of Harvey Milk- 1st  Example - Car industry - Foreign competition openly gay person in public office -> martyr of from Japanese (cars were cheaper, used less homosexual community (although murder was not fuel and well-made) by 1981 Japan had 23% of motivated by homophobic sentiments) American car market. America slow to react- Reagan’s Victory in 1980 Chrysler lost billions gov. paid out $1.5bn in a Reasons for victory bailout. American companies moved abroad  ‘Can Carter cope?’ for cheaper labour.  Weakened by challenge from Edward Kennedy  Decline of manufacturing work, increased  18% rated Carter as a strong leader 1980 dependence on low-paid service industry AFL-  Economic problems CIO (American Federation of Labour and the  Poor turnout at voting (47% of voters didn’t vote) Congress of Industrial Organisation) called the due to disillusion with politics USA ‘a country of hamburger stands’  Ronald Reagan as broadcaster and film star was a Social Change good orator Prior to 1960s  ‘Won’ TV debates with Carter- seemed warm and  2/3 of society affluent optimistic  Segregation - AAs under control  Support of social conservatives (New Right/  Protests rare Religious Right) who rejected liberal social  Gender inequality considered the norm attitudes of the 1980s, Reagan wanted a return to By 1980s ‘traditional family values’ ( despite being his  Great Society had made poverty more visible divorce in 1952, supported the school prayer  More welfare (Social Security/ Free medical care (ruled against by S C in 1952- but Reagan did not programmes expanded) go to church), claimed he was an evangelical  Civil Rights Act ended de jure segregation and Christian- there were 5m at the time disenfranchisement Results and Significance of 1980 elections  Growth of black middle class  Reagan took control of Congress and White House  New attitudes to work, sex, family and freedom (Reagan had long coat tails- own popularity led to for women popularity of others in the party) - Divorce rate +40%  Only 28% of electoral vote for Reagan (25% for - Growth of religious right (against reproductive Carter) rights) which helped Reagan come to power  Traditional Democrat voters (poor/ unemployed)  Failed to solve inner-city ghettos did not vote -> disillusion particularly with  Women remained inferior to men (62% of men’s Democrats + resurgent social conservatism wages in 1980, few in high-status jobs,  By 1980 fewer Americans believed in the American underrepresented in politics- 16 women in HoR, 0 Dream in Senate)  Efforts to solve de facto segregation had diminished by 1980  Conservative + white backlash  Right wing Republicans like Barry Goldwater aligned themselves with New Right who blamed