Edrs Prig Abstract

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 151 148 , .SE 023 095

$ AUTHOR Caldwell, Lytton Ka; Siddigi;.Toutiq A. TITLE Science, Technology, and Public Policy. A Guide to Advanced /Study. INSTITUTION Indiana Univ., Bloomington. School of Public and

En'Sronmental Affairs. i . ,/ SPONS AGENCY Sati6nal Science Foundation, -WashtAgton,rD.C. PUB DATE Apr 72 NOTE 487p.; For related documehts, see SE 023 093=094 allnd ED 045-366

EDRS PRIG NF-$1.00 ,HC-$26.11 Plus Postage. -DESCRIPTORS Bibliographies; Curriculum Guides; Policy Formation; *Public Policy; Science Education; *Sciences; Social Development; Study Guides; *Teaching Guides; *Technology ABSTRACT Fresented are study guides fcr selected aspects of public poliCy for science and technolo0, and their impact upon society and public affairs. Each guide includes a topic outline, .bibliography, and leading questions. The topics include:(1) Science and Technology as Social Forces;(2) The Organization of Science and Technolcgy; and (3) Policy Problems of Science and Technology. (SL)

. . _ r- . **********************,************************************************ * Reproductj.on* supplied 4y EDRS are the best that can be made * * from the original documen't. * *********************************41************************************

a3s 5 6b 1D--0336a SCIENCE A GUIDE, TO ADVANCED STUDY

TECHNOLOGY PREPARED

NDANA UNIYERSITY . PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS U.S DEPARTMENT.OF HEALTH MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY EDUCATION & WELFARE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO D,CED EXACTLY AS RECEI ./ED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGANZATON ORIGIN TO THE EDUCATIONAL (RESOURCES% Al NG IT POINTS OF .1E44 OR OPN'ONS sTArEp DO NOT NECE,SARrLY REPRE P,1FORMATION CENTER (ERIC) AND SENT OF F iCiAL NA'T ONAL INSTITUTE OF USERS OF THE ERIC SYSTEM EDUCATION POSITION OR POLCY

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, A SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND PUBLIC POKY t 4 A GUIDE TO ADVANCED STUDY

Prepared by Lyntan K. Caldwell 0

and

.I. . Toufiq A. Siddiqi

S 4

With l.he Assistance of A Giant. atom the National Science Foundation I i

r. School of Public and Environmental Affairs ... Indiana University. l , Blooreirigt., Indiana 47401,

r April, 1972

re. ti ,41

THE STUDY OF PUBLIC POLICY FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

A Prellminaty Statement

1 The following outlines of topics, quesilons,and readings are intended as guides to the study of selected aspects of public policy forscience and technologyk and their impactupon.society and public affairs.This material is organizedas a -course appropriate to graduate or upper-division undergraduate instruction.Its scope is comprehensive and implies a,high level of generality if the O course were offered in a two- semester or three-quarter academic year. Rut each of the fifteen main topics into'which the subject matter has been dividedmay be studied indepth- and detail, and contains sufficient material forintensive study .vherte desired. 2 The study guide was developedover a two year period, with assistance from the, National Science Foundation, and has beenrevised following.three years of experience. Thecourse of study which it represents initially warexperignental, the field of study being relativelynew to universities in America or abroad. Outlines of similar or relotedcourses offered in Other universities were examined, not necessarily for the purpose of borrowing fromor improving upon theme but rather to re how other institutionswere dealing with the instructional problems of-the field.If ther% is a one best way,to study publicpolicy `forscience and technology, the -authors and revisers of thi,s- studyguids-have,not found it. There.' are many approaches to the field of study'.The advantages of some over others e appear to depend in large measure upon the chardeter of-the institution-'Offering the instruction and upon theneeds and backgroundsof the students. 3 The objective has therefore been to dev'elop thisstudy guide ,as a basic instructional facility rather than dsa model course.The fifteen topics are, in 'effect, 'building blocks andcan be put together in many different combidations. Individual topics can be taken apart and recombined, the keyedreferences pro- vidifeg reading lists for thenew combinations. Th& study guide is 'easily adaptable to self-instruction; the topical abstracts, outlines, questions, andkeyed references enable the student tolollowa systernatid course of learkrtg without the.dired- assistance of textbooks or instructors. 4 An outgrowth of this development' in curriculfmconstruction has been a selective but comprehensive annotated bibliography inSc ie'hce, Technology, and Public Policy prepared undera contract with the National Scierice Foundation: This three - volume compilation ofjeferences, distributedby the Foundation, covers material published' in English -between .and includingthe years 1945 and 1970. Its use can assist further specialization in the field of study.

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5 The field and focus of the study of public policy for science and technology have often been misconshved.Students in this field are cohcernedprirvily with. publ is pol icy and Secondarily with the subject matter of sc ience and technol'ogy... They must, to the extent of their interest; become students of social or political science even though ,Their prioutraining,rney*ave been in some other acadeinic field.The study of public policy for science and technOlogy is not intendedas an answer to the need for an enlarged and improved public and rstanding of the substanbeand methods of the sciences.Efforts to bringunderstdingsof science to college undergradocites or tocitizens genercqly could- contritoto better' public policy for science and' technology. :BO this task involves a different subject matter and focus and, ideally should be undertaken by the scientists themselvei where the subject matter of their own ines is taught. In the field of policy ,studies, the scientists ore social scientists, fthough the .assistance of ,profession011'-in the physital and biologic'al sciences, Medicine, and'engineering is also required.As this volume indicates, scientjsts-have been extensively involved in' the shaping and criticism oif, science 'policy and in .the application -I of science and technology.Scientists do, therefore, contribute tothe study of publicPpolicy for science and technology even though relatively few of them may ever. become actively involved in it as ,teachers or researchers. 6 One may concede that the process through which public policy is formulated and appliedis an appropriate focus for study and yet question whether there is anything so distinctive about public pol icy for science and technologyas to warrant special attention'.It might be argued ?hat the policy processmdy be studied by political scientists, but thatstudy of the substance- of policy belongs to the discipline primarily concerned with the subjpct matter of policy.' For example, this reasoning would leave the study of-the substance of weather modificationto meteorologists, and of water pollution control largely to'chemists. There can be no objection tothis approach, provided that the natural scientist is willing toiler. come a student of the social and political implications of his discipline. But the . ) highly specializedcharacter of rpodem science makes this interdisciplinary approach difficu 7 Understanding of the problems of public policy* in any substantive field requires a synthesis of knowledge of both the substance and professes of policy.This synthesis cen be achieved in several ways.It ispossible to achieve it largely because there isiavailable1, to,the student extensive policy-oriented writings by scientists themselves and bynonscientists well-grounded in the scientific, aspects of policy issues.,Synthesis may further result from the various forms of intellectual inter- change between students of the processes of public policy-making and admitvistra- tion, and students of the social implications of science and technology.

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. 8 The intrinsic importahce of science and technology as subjects for policy studies depends upon their significance in the shaping of human societies.The- tremendous impact of science and scientific technology on the'modern world is' now generally tecognized.Buf, until recently, the effects have been widely 1, assumed to be beneficial and to require no special attention; Since 1945, however, the hitherto small stream of critical comment on the uses and effects of science and technology has swollen to Amazonian proportions..Science and technology have become majot topics for policy consideration in all industrial %societies,in all modern governments, and in international affairs,- Dpngersof The overuse, uoderuse, and misuse of science are becoming patters of public

concern.And_at long last, the universities have begun to recognize their own- responsibilities not orily.for advancing understanding of science itself, but also for advancing publia-Understanding.of its impact upon society.It, is not easy to *fit the study of public policy for science and technology into the conventional disciplinary structure of universities.But the great importance of the,issues with which this aspect of policy study is concerned gives hope that this task, which implies new relationships among the disciplines, will somehow be accomplished.

rf : 174-, A NOTE ON THE REVISEDVOLUME

. 4O. 1 Fol lowing the printinvf 500 copies of Volume I of Science, Technology, and Public Policy in 1968', requests for copies rapidly reduced the supply. Approxi- mately 250 copies were distributed from Indiana University to colleges and universities, government agencies, and individu'als teaching or organizing bourses in sCierke,' technology, and publ io policy.An additional 100 copies were distributed by the National Science Foundation, and tile baslanc. were used at Indiana University and Purdue University for instructional purposes. Wifhin two, yeah, the Volume was out of print, except for a small supply for classroom use. 2 Three years' experience with Volume Isuggested the following changes in its argarlization and contient.A new Topic-13i Technological Forecasting and. Assessment, has been added, and former TopicsD9,_International Technoscientific Organization, and 12, International Technoscientific Cooperation, have been combined under the latter heading.The fifteen 'togas are now equally divided' among the three principal sections.ffibii6graphical material has beeralmost doubled, and the selectjons for basic readings have been extensively revised. The wording of the title has been revised;study guide being substituted for syllabus,as mare descriiveof the Volume.This volume is 1 revision and expansion of the first of a two volume syllabus_ onScience, Technology and Public-Policy prepared with the assistance of :a grant from the National Science Foundation. This publication, in its revised farm, will appear as two separate but related study guides with the volume numbers dropped.The original Volumes I sand II were published by the Department of Politica Science at Indiana University: 3 The authors gratefully, acknowledge the helpfyl suggestions of users in the revision of this work.Appreciation is also expressed to the National Science

. Foundation for a grant of funds to assist revision and repriptingi. The authors also express- their gratitude to Hal Xibbey, Jan Lundy, May Lee, Mary Celenko, and staff 'of the 'Indiana University Liktraries and the Indiana UniVersity PHnting Plant for their assistance in the project:

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PRELIMINARIES PACES

The Study of Public Policy, for Science and Technology:' A Preliminary Statement A Note on the Revised Volume I . v Table of Content; . . . . vii

SECTIONS

-t I. Science and Technology as Social Forces...... 1 01. The Meanings Of Science and Technology 3 02. Science as an Aspect of Modern Culture... ; 27 03. Social Impact of Science and Technology . 45 04. Scientific Work' in Technological Societies. .. . . 67 05. Science, Technology, and Higher Education 10.I.

II.The Organizationof Science and Technology 139

06. Science and Gbvernment: t11e United States... .. 141 _ 07. Science and Government: the Soviet Union. 181 08. The Organization of Science in Western Europe 205 09. international Technoscientifictooperation. 251 10. Technoscience An the Developing Countries. 291

Policy Problems of Science and Jechnology 329

11. The Politics of Science and Technology 331 12., Management of Research and Development ... .. 375 13. Technological Forecastingand Assessment. . . 405 14. Science,Humant ighti, and the Role of Law 451 15. Govern ing the Technosc.ientif is Superculture. 479

vii 5

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYS SOCIAL FORCES

The five topics of this section introduce the student to the study of the effects of science and technology in modern society 4`. and afford background for the remainder of the cousie.t is hardly feasible to consider publ ic policy for science and technblogy out some knowledge of what the terms "science" and "technology" mean, how they are related, and Now they are different.' This defining or clarifying of concepts is the substance of Topic 01. Science is exploredsin Tocacdt as an historical aspect of Western culture that hcss4volve.d into an autonomous universal culture d it6 d'wn..Topic 03 is concerned with the ways in which science-and science-b ed-technology reshape traditional culture and give rise toprobles that society attempts to solve by bringing science and technology--under some form of publiAontrol, and by reshaping domestic, economic, educatiOnp I, and legal institutions to conform to the impact of science and technology. Topic 04 describes science as tin 'occupation, examines the characteristics of science-based fields, such cis englIneering anckmedicine, and analyzes the way in which scientific skills are utilized for technological purposes. Topic 05 outlines the impact of science on general education. and on the preparation of scientific workers,' and considers means to enlarge the public understanding of science. The concept "publ policy" isnot analized in this section.It may be sufficient to state here that public policy in the context of this syllabus means the choices that the public really makes thrbugh the action inaction of government.*Pub,lit policy as used in these topitt is what government does, not necessarily what the/law is presumed to imply, or what presifilents, legislators, or cii generally assert to be public policy .Public policy is therefore,on imprecise concept and must receive a more rigorous assd penetrating'analysis fore it can be given a clearer definition. t

TOPIC 01 THE MEANINGS OFISCIEl\a AND TECHNOLOGY

Gr - 4r' This topic provides an examination of science as an intellectual and social endeavor.Science changes man's view of reality and enlarges.his ability to cope with this reality through, technology.It thus becomes a social force capable of permeating all, aspects of human [if:.Social institutions and formalized expres- sions of human experience in religion, art, philosophy, and law, have been unset- tled, modified, and sometimes destroyed by force of scientific knowledge*: Sci- ence as a way of thinking and of perceiving is therefore a continuing challenge to established beliefs, traditions, and authorities.It affects the conceptual and institutional bases of society and government, and inevitably becomes a factor in poi- itics, notably in the shaping of public Ipw and administration.

Although technology is as old as the arts of tool-making, rituat, and warfare, it has now become the major means for transferring scientific thought into social action.But technologys not merely a vehicle for science-based innoxation;.,it is also a 'powerful force for the advancement of science 4instrumentationand refined research techniques are essential to the development of modern sciences Radio .tel escopes, d I e c tron microscopes, and gap chromatogra phy illustrate the dependence MI6 of advances in science upon advances in technology. Although separable in prin-* ciple, science and technology in the more advanced industrial societies of the modern *orldare merged into a technoscientific complexof unprecedented power. Control of the' transforming power of science-based technologyfthus becomes the object of competition among groupsand individuals representing differing interests, / values, and assumptions.The consequences of this political pr policy-shaping competition are of great.sociel importance, especially because of the destrUctive potential of tethnoscientific power and the need for organized social effort to maximize its beneficial effects.

The culture of advanced science and technology that is emerging in the late 20th century require's, for its management widespread understanding of science and technology. Technoscientific society is structured by complex interdependent systems.Informed and intelligent cooperation is necessary to make these systems work.To direct and control the po'wers of science and technology it is necessary to understand their natures, reqUirementst and relationships.To manage these powers for human welfare also requires uncrehtnding Of humanneeds and values./ And so examination of the meanings of science and technology, and of the signif- icapce of these meanings for society is a logical point of departure for the study of public policy for science and technology.

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it to 4 Science and `technology as,Social Forces , ti

TOPIC-01.THE MEANINGS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Selected Basic Readings:

Brooks, Harvey:"Applied' Science and technological- PrOgress," Science, /I (June 30, 1967), 1706-1712.

Kranzberg, Melvin. "The Unity of Science-Technology," American Scientist, LV (March, 1967), 48-66. Ii

McLachlan, Dan, Jr."A Guess as to Wt at Is Science," Physics Today, XIV (June, 1961), 22-27.

Morison, Robert S ."Science and Social Attitudes,"Sciepce, Sc, ANV(July 11,1969.4 1507156.

Price,Derek J. de Solla. The Differences between Science and Technology. a, Detroit, Michigan: Thomas Alva Edison Foundation, 1968, 16.

Supplementary and Substitute Readings: . it

Caldwell, Lynton K., ed.Science and Public Policy in the American University. Bloomington:Indiana University Program in the Public Administration of Spi- v Bence and Technology, 1969, 55.

9 Conant, James B."Scientific Principles and Moral Conduct,"Aterican Scientist, LV (September, 1967), bi 1-328 .

Impact of Science-on Society."Non-Scientists Dissect. Science," Impact of Science on Society, XIX (October-December,1949), 305-404.

Malik, Cliarfes H."The Limitations of Natural Science," Impact of Science On So' cipty, XIX (October-December,1 969), 377-386.

Po1anyi, Michael ("The Growth of Science jn Society," Minerva, V (Summer,, 1967), 533-545. . 11111

Z).man, John M. Public'Knowledge: The Social Dimension of Science.London: d Cambridge University Press, 1968, 154.

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: - I . 4 ,TOPIC 01 THE /1EANIK9S QF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 5- - -; :- , ; . TOPICALOUTC.J.NE '' REFE' EN KEY 0.4 , .. -tV S The Meaning s cle.n.e*), A,137, 149, 163,175,176,, 179 4 A Science as4uicwledge 158,1 63/176,

., 178 171 1. What kno"Wledge.is scientific? 4 53, 2; efinitirs of "the sciencetv , 129.48, 113 , a. Hard and soft science, . : b. Natural and social science, 11, 58, 64, 91,

, ...... 96, 107, 133. c. -Physical and life science 50, 166- A _d. Pure and applied science 21; 26; 129 , e. Theoretical and ;mental science f. True and false science 13. Cultemil basis of definitions

(cf. Topic 02) 136.. 3 ,4. Changing.configurations , of science -97, 159- -- a. ConCept 61 the unity of science. -170 b. Relationships among the sciences c. Emergence of new sciences 77°1*

B. Science as method of thought .32, .108, 109, 169, 175,,178, 179 - 1. Is therea scientific meth 7, 12, 86, 113 157, 161, 163 a . Method as a general concept 86, 104 b. Differences among methods, theories, and tecipiques c . Reductionism and synthesis -97 I d. "Strong inference" as a general method 167 'at. Limitations ofiscientific'ethod 106, 144,164 . 174, a. Limits.of contemporarytechAique b. Intrinsic limitations "of sciefice 7, 5 3,95,127 c. Is,science fi,41Iy definedbyeethod? 401.

, o 4 4 . # , . 6 Sciende and Technology as Social 'Forces 111

. 3. .Relationsp to. philosophy 74, 114 a. Independence of science frbm - philosophical dogma t1.54 b Science and.Ohiiosophical values 27, 34,129

1,1: ihe Meanie of Technology e 1. A. Technology as knowledge of "how,' .1. Scope and varieties of technique 2. Technique and skill 3'. Pre-scientific 'technique 4.: Limitations of technique without science

B. Technology as an operating system (cf. Topic 03) 136;141; 149". 1,63 1. Ev'elluation'of technological interrelatedness 49;59, 62 2. Technology and the economy 43,54, 110 3. Science as a generatarpf technology 4. Advent.. of "the thnological society': ' ' 45,.84, 148,177,

111.' Interrelations getweep.Science and Technologjk 16,54, 671,1168, 99, 145, .4-5° A. Conceptually distinct; but often ) _practically related 1, 48, $6, 115, 137 r 011 1. Relationships inncincient societiei. 43,165 a. Moctrn definitiohs are not applicable

b. ;Priestly "tlithnoscience of Egypt 43 , c. Science in' Greece and China 89 drRoman science and technology 2. Relationships in Vgestern Europe 42,136,137 a.ega&y of Aristotelianism influ?nce. of alchemy I c. Scienceend technology in the 41Slamic world d. Renaissance and'Reformation e. Explosive fusion of science and ,fee'hnology- 66,119,154

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The Meanings of Science and Technology 7

:B. 41,Syrni)iotiC relationship of-modern scigce

anaitechnoogy. . '42, 44, 48, 67, 68,140 or -I. Dependenceof scienceupon technology 46, 123 a . Instrumentation b. Procedures of verification c._Preparation of materials Organization and recording of information e. StoFage and dissemination of

information, f. Stimulation of scientific research. 2. Dependence of technologyupon science -6, 21, 23,24, 53, 85 a. Knowledge of properties of materials b. Knowledge of sources and properties of energy c. PretliCting the behavior of natural forces d. Opening the way to new technologies 49, 124 .e. Legitimizing technological innovation f`. 'Translating science into technology-- the of invention and innovation (cf. ciiirc- 15)

C.Relationships of science and technologyto" engineering i21

IV. Public Understanding of Science and.Technology '31, 33, 57,82, 90, 100, 102, 179 A. Need for public understanding 19,.81, 126, 128, 131, 132 1. Fu articiption in modern society 25, NI" 2. Intelligent exercise of citizenship* . 4, 83 t . 3. Realism in personal and social decisions 73 4. Protection against organized irrationality 14, 55 5. Maximizing the benefits of science 23, 79

B. Distorted or erroneous opinions- 18, 111,1512` ]. Science and technology as magic 41, 130 a. Undue reliance on science to co Jett rather than to 'prevent humanerrors

14 8- 'Science and Technolbgy as Social Forces

b. Ignorance of conditions needed for advancement of science c. Failure to respect the rationality of science 2. Science as servant of technology a . Science valuecnot es teacher, but as servant of desires b. Bask research devalued c. Emphasis on problerrf-solving, technological applications. 124 d. Scientific creativity distorted 3. Science as theology -- scientism 41, 156 a. Science as absolute truth b. Mystique of science and scientists 106 c.-Optimistic rejection of tradition d. Pessimistic acceptance-of diabolism r

C;Dangers of misunderstood 20, 75, 151, 174 1. Ideological exploitation of popular naivete .151 a. Theological --Otionalizations b. Moralist distortions. c. Political scientific myths 0 d. Democratic biases 11,7 2. UnAtical acceptance of allegedly science- .,based technology 84, 148, 174 a. Technological determinism b. Science used to rationalize techno-political choice 71, 117 c. Insufficient examination of consequences 118 d. Neglect of criteria for scientific and technological choicb 147, 151 e. Failure to provides safeguards for use of science and technology (cf. Topic 03) Y'j D.Efforts toward public understanding -'-the United States M2, 152 1. Educational institutions (cf. Topic 05) 5, 10, 13, 35, 44 a. Science in the com nschools b: Understanding ofscillnceand technology as tasks of higher education c. Science policy as a field of study 28, 39, 70, 91, 98 lt 4-`

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The Meanings of Science and Technology 9 4

2. Mass niedia 22,69,125 a. The role of the science writers '29,30,51,72,

-116, 120 1PP b, Opporlunities and limitations 40, 122 c. Dangers of over-popularization. 37,87 3. Direct communication between the scientist and the Oblic ... 6,17,80,134 a. Through' newspapers, popular journals,,, . and books . 9,52,75,94 b. Lectures .60 ... , . c. Use of radio and telvision. 101 . . / 4. Governmental agencies \ (cf. Topics 06 and H)- O. Lineare"misSion6-oriented role of most government:information services 63 b. rolicy'reAew as a function of the Congress. 63 c. Fact finding and policy review ()fad hoc executivkitommitlees and commissions d. Roles of National Science Foundation and the National Academies of Sciences and Engineering 5. Professional organizations (cf.: Topic 04) a. Public information as a secondary fUnctiOn of scientific anprofessional societies: e-tg.,American.Chemical Society, American

Medical,Association A 1Q2 b. Organizations for public information: e Atomic Scientists, Scien/isis_Institute for Publid information 36 16,. Associations of interested individuals for the, purpose of Filanning.or publicizing science - based remedies for such problems as overpop- ulation, radioactive fallout, wildlife collier.-- vaticin; and disease prevention

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The Meanings of Science and Technology 11

BIBLIOGRAPHY

General References: Articles

Agassi, Joseph. "The Confusion between Science and Technology in the Standard Philosophies of Science," Technology and Culture, VII (Suns- mer,.1966), 348-366.

2. Albrecht-Carrie, Rene. "Of Science, Its History,and the Teaching There- of," Scientific Monthly, LXXIII (July, 1951), 16-24.

Almond, Gabriel. "Public Opinion and Space Technology,"*Public. 0- pirvionQuarterly, XXIV (Winter, 1960), 553-572.

Aron, Raymond. "The 'Education of the Citizen in Induitrial,Society," Daedalus, XCI (Spring: 1962), ,249-263.

5. Ashby, Eric.,"Dons or Crooners," Science, CXXXI (April22,1960), H65-H70.

6. Asimov, Isaac."-View from a Height;" Chemical and Engineering News, XLIII (May 3, 1965), 90-93.

7 Auger, Pierre."Limits to Scienc.e,"Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXI (November, 1965), 21-22.

8. Barnes, Carl E."To Promote Invention," International Science.and Tech- nology, Number 60 (December, 1966), 67-73. r;- 9. Bates, Marston."The Criticism of Scientific Books," Science, CXV (April 18, 1952),-41111-409. SA a

O. Baum, Werner A. "Education fortheEmerging Scientific Culture," Edu-. cational Record, XLIII (January, 1962), 44-47.

H. Beck, Lewis W. "The 'Natural Science Ideal' in the Social Sciences," Scientific Monthly, LXVIII (June, 1949), 386-394.

12.' lenjamin, A. Cornelius."On Defining 'Science'," SOtific Monthly, LXVIII (March, 1949), 192-198.

r 17 ' 12' Science and Technology as Social Forces

13. Bertalanffy, Ludwig von."Philosophy of Science iri Scientific Education," Scientific Monthly, LXXVII (November, 1953), 23C-239.

14. Bibby, Cyril. "Science as an Instrument of Culture," Nature, CCII (April 25, 1 964), 331-333 . ._

15. Born, Max.."The Concept. of Reality in' Physics,"Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XIV (October, 1 958), 313-32.,

16: Boxer, L. W."latraction of Technologies)" Nature, CCVII (September 11, 1965), 1121-1125., "1

17. Braggchawrence."The Art of Talking about,Science," Science, CLIV (December 30, 1966), 161 ? -161 6.

-18. Brain, Walter R."Sciende and Antiscience," Science, XLVIll (April 9, 965),1 92 -1 98 : '

19. Bronowski, Jacob: "The EducOtedMariin 1984, " Advancement of Science, XII (December, 1959, 301-306. u. 4

."'" . 'The Logic of Nature," -Political Quarterly, XXVI (July- 04, September, 1 955), 258-266.

9e- 21. Brooks, Harvey,.. "Applied Science and Technological Progress," Science, CLVI (June 30, 1967), 1706-171.2. - 7

22. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists."American Society of Newspaper Edi- tors Reports on Atomic InformationProblem4" Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, IV (July,'1 949), 211-212; 217.,

Bunge, Mario ."TeehnoJogy as Applied Science;" Technology and Culture, VII (Summer, 1966), 329-347.

Cgioe; Sydney."Education for.Develop;rientr Advancement of Science, XIV (December, 1:957), 191 -200. ,

25. Calder, Ritchie."Common Undektanding of Science," Impact ofScience. on Society, XIV (Number, 1964), 179 -195:

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CI TheMeanings-,of Science and Technology. 13

. 26. "Science in Society: The Fundamehtals,"Endeavour, iillo, Caldin,Edwarif. F. V Word, 1 946), 70-73: , ,

27. , . "The Values ofcience," Ehdeavour, V (October, 1946),

160-163. 4 , . . . 28. 'Caldwell,kyntony. sK. "SAe. Problems ot Corilculuni Developthent,". in ; . . Science and PUblic,Policy in the, American Universify,.ed. by Lynton , K. Caldwell,- .Bloomihgton: iridiatia University Program tn.the NI:Mc

$ Administration of.Science a'nd Technology,-1969, 36-44. 1. ' . , . 4 I ., -. , ' '

... OA 29.: CareyFrank.'1Reportnig Sctene;" S'cice, CXV (APrtl .13, 1952); 409- . 412,,,, , I.. A ,1 I i, ).'.. 1 a , '). a. . , . . . J . .1 . ' , 30, Cohn, Victor. '''Ar-e Wei Reaj I,'y fetjrtig the yeop,le about StlenCe?" SciL ix eice, CXLVtil (May 7r1 9'654;750-753. 7. , .., _ - , .. -, < : ; '' 31 ". .'Conant, James lg.',"Tlie.:SiotitifilkEducation'4 the' COy ' Yale Re-

,, 4. view, XXX.Vr (5ppipmbOr, .1 94:6), 15-46,,. . ' - . , ' ..' 0 - - ,, t / ':' I ' . k: 32. -.' "Scieritific'Prin'Cipletand Moral Condutt," Ameritan Saien-,.

:ist, ''.:, t V (5.effAntbeit4 1 967)'311r32W. - . ../ ' . 4 / . : . , * it , ' 7 I, 33. Coucierc,-,Patif.; :"An Antidr4e--fOi=,AntilScience,"1.MpaCt ,of Scie4e on , . . 971 ) 1 Society,,XX1 °(Apr11-Jun 1173;3 79:., id- i': ' .. . ' .. , , '-.: -.: V *. . ., .0 34'. Critrian,.Paul. "COusation, Chance, r.l eterrhinism, -.4and'Freedam in Na- tvre;," SeifintifichikinVily '001 1,(Dee4ribir,-'1 p5y, 155-464...... ge.I 'Nt f

'35.\ Dart, ,Francis't :' anct Pfirtria Lai- Prarthah. "CresseColti.tral Teaching of.

' Science," 'Skeience,ti..V (rebivary1"Q,1?67;, 649 -656,' , r . , . - , .e% 4: t ' i 36. Davis,-Watson. "ScieOcil 'ServicandtheDissterAinatiO4 Of 'Science, '',.

"AlBS-Bul loin (BioSclerice); C/ 11 (November; 1955),. , 21-23. .., . . , ...... Improved," 37. Decker, 'fred W"."Saientific CommuniCptions., Should Be SCience,, CXXV (January 16,- 1 957) 1 01.=T 05. - . _ -,--...-.-6-... 6 / i_ 38. Dedijer, Stevan.... "TiceScietice .of Scrence: A Programme, and'o 'Plea," Minerva, IV `(Surnmer_il 90),.46-5.041, , .2 , . i

41116 ' 1

4 1 4 .Science and Technology a's Social Forces *

39. Dennyt, Brewster C. "Science and Pyblic.Policy: A literature in Search ofa Field,"Public Administration Review, XXV (September, 1965), 239248.

40. Dick,William E."Science'and the Press," Impact. of S'cience on Society., V (September, 1954), 143 -173.

41. Dooley, D. J."Science as tlfche; Fable, and Faith," Bulletin of the A- f tomic Scientists, XV (Novembey, 1959, 372-375..

42. kicker,Peter F. "The First Technological Volt;tion and Its Lessons," Technology 'and Culture, VII (Spring, 196,143-151.

. "The Technological Revolution:Notes on the Relation-' a ship of Techncr(logyeScience, and CksIture," Technology and Culture, II (Fall, 1961), 342-351. ) Dupree, A. Hunter. "Public Education for Science and Technol g y , Science, CXXXIV -(September 15, 1 961), 716-T8.

45. Ellul, Jacques. tlechnicitle, Institutions, and Aware,ness," American, Be-' havioral Scientist, XI (July-August, 1'968), 38-42.

46. FeibIeman, James.K."Importance of Technology," Nature, CCIX (Janu- ary 8, 1966), 122,125. , 47. "The Philosophy of Tools;" Social Forces,4.XLV (March, 1967), 329 -337.

48. "Pure Science, Applied Science, Technology, Engineering: . An Attempt at Defnitions," Technology and Culture, II '(Fel I, 1961) 305-317.

. 49. litshlock, David."The 'Fal I-Out.'.from the Space Race," ,New Scientist,. XVIII (May, 30, 1963), 480-481.

50; Fitzgerald, John'.1."Physical 'Science .and the Objectives of the Scien- tist," Physics Today, V (October,*1 952), 17-22.

51. .Fraley, Pierre C. and fail Ubell. "Science Writing: A Growing" Pr

fession," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XVIII (June, 1962), 32 -33. 0

.2 0

ye 'I

. , . . The Meanings of Science bnd Technology ..15

, .. .P. FriendlyiAlfred. "Scientists Meet the Press," Bulletin of the Atomic Sci- . entists, XII (November, 1456), 338-340:

La 43. Gerard, Ralph W."The Scope of Science," Scientific Monthly,LXIV

(Jupe, 1 947), 496 -512.0 ,

AllittlAhi.Gibbons, M..and C. Johnson."Relationship between Science and Tech- nology," .Nature, CCMVII (Jury 11.,1 970), 125-127.

55.7 Gomel-, Robert.. 'Vox Populi," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XVIII i (June, 1962), 32-.33.

56. Hall, A. Rupert."Historical Relations of Science and Technology,4 Na- ture, CC (December 21, 1963), 1141 -1145.

57. Handlin, Oxcar. "Science andeclinology in Popular Culture,",Daedal-us, XCIV (Winter, 1965),.156-170.

1- 58. Haring, Douglas G."Science and Social Phenomena," American Scien- tist, XXXV (July, 1947), 349-363..

59. Hearle, J. W. S "Internation of Technologies," Nature, CCVII (Septem- . ber 18, 1965), 1229-1232:

I rg 60. Hill, John W. and JamesE E. Payne."SCientists Can Talk to the aymon," Science, CXVII (April 17, 1953), 403405.

61. ',14inshelwood, Cyril. "The Internal and -the External' World1/4" 'Nature,

. . CLX)41V (December 1 2,1 95 9), 1834-1B38. 4 62. Holliday, L."Interaction of Technologies'," Nature, CXCV.I1 (January 19, 1.963), 222-226.

, . -, 63. -Flughes, Donpld J. "Positive Aspects of the Release of 'Secret Information," Bulletin of tile_ Atomic.Scientists, XII (May, 1 956), J69-172.

64. 'Plulf, Clark 'L."A Primary Social Science Law," Scientific Monthly,

LXXI (October, 195Q), 221-228. . . e .., A 65. Impact of Science on Society. "No.n-Scientists Disseci. Science," Impact of Science on Society, XIX (October-December, 1969), 305-404. \ V 16. Science and Technology as Social Forces

66. Kantrowitz, Arthur."The.Tesi: Meeting the Challenge of New Technol- ogy," Bulletin of tlieAtomic Scientists, XXV (November, 1969), 20-24.

67. Kranzberg, Melvin. "The 'Disunity of Science-Technology," American Scientist, LVI (Spring, 1968), 21,34. / 68. "The Unity of SCience-Technology," American Scientist, LV March, 1 967), 48-66.

.69. Krieghbaum,_Hillie4r. "Public Interest in Science News," Science, CXXIX (April 24, 1 95 9), T092-1 095.

70. Lasswel I, Harold D. "Must ScienceS4vePolitical Power?" American Psy- chologist, XXV (February, 1970), 117-123.

71. . "The Political Science of Science," American Political Sci- ence Review, L (December, 1956), 961-979.

72. Lessing, Lawrence."The Three Ages of Science Writing," Chemical and Engineering News, Xti (May 6, 1963), 88-92., 1, I 73. Lilienthal, David E."Science and Man," Chemical and Engineering News, XXXVI (September 29, 1958), 114-124.

74. Lindsay, Robert B."PhysicsTo What Extent Is It Deterministic?" Amer- ican Scientist, LVI (Summer, 1968), 93-111.

75. Lynch, Russell G."Linguistic Barriers in Science Writing," AlBulletin -4 t (BioScience), XVI (November, 1966), 802-804.

76. McCurdy, Richard C. "Public Must' Be Literate in Science," Chemical and Engineering News, XXXVI (November 3,1 958), 62-67; 99.

McLachlan, Dan, Jr."A Guess as to What Is Science," Physics Today, XIV (June, 1961), 22 -27.

78. Malik, Charles H."The Limitations of Natural Science," Impact of Sci- ence on Society, XIX (October-December, 1969), 377-386.

79. Mathewson, James H. "Science for the Cithen: An Educational Prob- ( . lem," Science, CXXXVIII .(December 28, 1962), 1375 -1379.

, 22 s

t The Meanings of Science and Technology 17.

. . 80. Mead, Margaret."Closing the Gap between the Scientists and the Oth- ers,; Daedalus, LXXXVIII (Winter, 1959), 139-146.

81. Michael, Donald N. "The Space, Age and. American Public Opinion," Public Opinion Quarterly, XXIV (Winter, 190), 573 -582. ,---

, k , 82. Morison, Robert S. "Science and Social Attitudes," Science, CLXV (July 1.1, 1969), 150-156.*

83. Muller, Hermann-J. "The Role of Biology inGenercfilducation,"'AIBS Bulletin (BioScience), XIII (August, 1 963), 22-30.. 1 84. Mumford, Lewis. "Technics and the Nature of Man," Nature, CCVIII (December 4, 1 965), '923-928.

85. . 'Technics and Science,1!ImpacrofScience on Society,II (January-March, 1 951), 10-11 .

86. Nagel, Ernest. "The Methods of Science: What Are They?" Can They Be Taught?" Scientific. Monthly, LXX ,(January, 1950), 19-23.

87. Nelson, Norman E. "Science and the Irresponsible Imagifiation," Yale---ss Review, XLIII (September, 1 953); 71-88.

88. Novak, Alfred."Scientific Inquiry," AIBS Bulletin (BioScience), XIV -: (October, 1964), 25-28. A 89. Oldham, C. H. G."Science in China's Development7"7Advancement of ' Science, XXIV (June, 1968), 481-487.

90. Oppenheimer, J. Robert."The Age of Science:1 900-1 950," Scientific American, CLXXXIII (September, 1 95 0), 20-23.

91. Orlans, H."Social Science Research Policies in the'Unitedates,"14-1'. s' \ nerva, IX (January, 1 971), 7-31.

92. Parsons, Talcott. "The Institutionalization of Scientific Investigation," in The Sociology of Science, ed. by Bernard Barber-and Walter Hirsch., New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1962, 7-15. A s.

. Science and Technology as Social Forces

93. Piel,Ge4. "Need for PulOic Understanding of Science,' Science, CXXI (March 4, 1955), 317022. `,

94, Pigman, War.d."Science at Bay," Chemical and Engineering News, XXXI (February 16, 1 953), 652-657. .

95. Planck, Max."The Meaning and Limits of Exact-Science," ScienceCXr (September 36, 1 949), 319 -327.

96. Polanyi, Michael."The Growth of Science in.Society," Minerva, V (Sum- mer, 1967), 533-545.,.

97. . "Scientific Outlook:Its Sickness andCare, " Science, CXXV (March 15, 1957),480 -484.

98. Price, Derek J, de Sol la. Thq Diferenfes between Science and Technology . Detroit; Michigan: Thomas Alva Edison Foundation, 1968, 16.

'99. . "Educating for the Scientific Age,"Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXIV (October, 1968), 26-32.

. "The Science of Science," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXI (October, 1965), 2-8..

101. Reid, Robert W."Television Producer and Scientist,' Nature, CCXXIII (August 2, 1969), 455-458.

102. de Reuck, Anthony V. S."Popularizing Science," Nature, CCIII (July 25, 1 964), 340-341..

103, Rickover, Hyman G."A Humanisticechnology," Nature, CCVIII (No- vember 20, 1965), 721-726.

1 04. Robinson, Robert."Science and the Scientists" Advanrent of Science, XII (September, 1955), 137-147.

105. Sarton, George. "Introductory Essays," in A Guide to the History of Sci- - ence.- Waltham, Massachusetts: Chronica Bontanica, 1952, 3-71.

106. Sayre, Anne."The Scientific Method in Human Affairs," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XI (October, 1955), 295-296.

24 The Meanings Of Science and Technokgys 19

1 07. Scates, aDouglas E."The Parallel Rotes of Physical and Social Science,' 'Scientific Monthly, LXIV (January, 1947), 14-20:

,108. 'Salmit, Paul F. "Models of Scientific Thought,"American Scientist, XLV ( 1 957), 1`37 -149. L,

109. . "Some Merits and Misinterpretations of Scientific Method, "' Scientiott, Monthly, LXXXII (January, 1 956), 20-24.

110. Schon, Donald A. "The Fear.of Innovation," International Science and Technology, Number 59 (November, 1 966), 70-78.

111. Seaborg, Glenn T."The New Optimism," Futurist, III (December, 1 96 9), 157-160.

112: Seeger, Raymond J. "On the History and Philosophy of Science," Ameri- can Scientist, LIV (April, 1956), 151 -157.

113. Sever, Raymond."Science: Observational, Experimental, Historical," .1 American Scientist, LVI (Spring; 1968),,70 -79.

114. Simpson,`George G."The Problem of Plan and Purpose in Najjre," Sci- entific Monthly, LXIV (June, 1947), 481495.

115. SkOlimowski, Henryk."The Structure of thinking in Technology," Tech- bology ancrCulture, VII (Summer, 1966), 371-383. ',

116. Skrotsky, Nicolas."The Role of Sciehtifidournalists in Intermediaries between Science and the Non-Specialist: The Task of the Press-in Pop- ularizing Sciehce in an Era of Rapid Scientific Growth," in Conference on the Comniunication of Scientific and Technical Knowledge toIndus \ try, 1963.Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Devel- opment, Directorate for Scientific Affairs, 1965, 16)-166.

"Smytg, Henry D."From X-Rays to Nuclear Fission," American Scientist, XXXV (October, 1 947), 485-501.

118. Starr, Chauncey."Social Benefit versus Technological Risk," Science, CLXV (September 19, 1969), 1232-1238.

119. Stevenson, Earl P. "Creative Technology," Scientific Monthly, ,LXXVI ((April, 1953), 203-206.

25 .0 114

20 Science and Technology as Social Forces

. ' 120. Sullivan, Walter.'Writing Science for the Public,".131zsics Today, XXIII (August, 1970), 51-53.

121. Swann, William F. G."Engineering and Are Science," Physics Today, IV (June, 1951), 9-17. ) 122. Thistle, M. W."Popularizing Science," ScienceCXXVII (April 25, 1958), 951 -955.

123. Thompson, Peter. "Traces: Basic Research Links to Technology Appraised,'" Science, CLXIII (January 24, 1969), 374-375.

124. Townes,. Charles S. "Quantum Electronics, and Suprise in the Development of Technology," Science, CLIX (February 16, 1968), 699-703.

125. Libel, Earl.l'Covdring the News of Science," American Scientist, XLV (December, 1957), 330A-350A.

2 126. Weaver, \Wren."The Imperfections of Science," American Scientist, XLIX (March, 1961), 99-,113.

. 127. "Science and' the Citizen," Science, CXXVI-(December 13, 1957); 1225-1229.

128. . "Why Is Science Important?" Chemical and Engineering News, XXXIX (February 13, 1961), 144-148.

129. Weinberg, Alvin M."The A *iology of 'Science," American Scientist, LVIII (November-December, 1.970) 12-61 7. A

130. . "In Defense of Science;" Science, CLXVII (January 9, 1970), 141-145.

131. Wolfle, Dael. "The Royal Science," $cience Journal, IV '(March, 1968), 80-84.

132. . "Science anciPubliC Understanding," Science, CXXV (Feb- ruary 1, 1957), 179-1 82.

133. Working, Holbrook."Research in the Social Sciences," Science,ay (August 30, 1946), 1 93-1 97. .he Mesnings of Scienceancrcechnology 21

134. Wylie, Philip.."A Layman Looks at Biology," AIBS Bulletin(BioScience), IX (June, 1959), 12-15,

135. Ziman, John. M. ."Informatiori, Communication,Knowledg" Nature, CCX)(IV (October 25, 1969), 318-324.

General References: Bobks

136. Allen FranOis, Hornell- Hoei, Delbert4. Miller, William F.Ogburn; and Meyer F. Nimkoff.'Techniibgyand Social Change. New York: Ap- pleton-Century-Crofts,.. 1957-, 529.

American Foundation for Continuing Education.Science and Public Pol- 137.., ice.Dobbs' Ferry, New York: Oceana, 1970, 650.

138. Barber, Bernard.Science and the Social Order. Glencoe, Illinois:Free Press, 1952, 288.

.139. Bernal, J. D.Science in History .Cambridge, Massachusetts: M. I, T. Press, 1971, 362.

`1.40. Beveqdge, William I. B.Th,e Art of ScientifiF investigation.Rey. Ed. York: Norton, 1957, 171.

141.0 Bond, Floyd A.., ed.Technological ,Change and .Economic Growth.Ann Arbor: Graduate School,of Busihess Administration, Universityof Mich-. igan (Michigan Business Papers, Number 41),1965, 59.

142 Bri,ckrtioni.Williarn H. and Stanley Lehrer, eds.Automation, Education, and Human Values. New York:School.and ebciety BoOks,ivision.of the Society for the Advancement ofEilucOn'on, 1 966,.41 "4 0 143. Science in, Our Lives. New York: New AmericanLi- beary,.1 9541 9. .

1444k. .Coldn, EdWard F.The Power and Limits of "Scferice: A PhilosciphiCal, Sud . London: e'hapmarf and HalfAtl 9491'196.

, , 145. C mOton, Walter D., ed,The InteraAen of Science andTechnology:- Urbana% University of Illinois Pres 969 137. .

, , 2 . or, ; V cm

. "' r- . ...WI . ,j ,;of - *14)** 4 * 22 Science and Technology as Social Forces'

146. Cornelius, Benjamin A. Science, Technology, grid HumbnValues. Colum- r bia: University of MissOuri Press, 1965, 296.

147. DeGrazia, Alfred,,ecl. The Velikovsky Affair: The Warfare of Science and Scientism. New Hyde Park, New York: University Books, 1966, 264.

148. Ellul, Jacques.The-Technological Society: Irons by John Wilkinson. New York: Knopf, 1964, 449. ". f

M9. Encyclopedia Brtannica Conference on the Technological Order, Santa Barbara, California, 1962.The Technological Order:Proceedings. Ed. by Carl F. Stover.Detroit: Wayne State University Press,. 1963, 280.

150. Fischer, R. B. Science, Man and Society. 'Philadelphia: W. B. Saun- ders, 1971,' 130. .`e 151. gardner, Martin. Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science. New York:. Dover, 1957, 363. ,

152. .bouldner;.Arvin W. and Richard A.Peterson .,i Notes on Technology and the 'Moral Order.Indianapolis:Bobbs-Merri I I, 1962, 96.

153. H4itlebrand; toe! H.. Science in theMaking. New York: Columbia Uni- v.erky Piss, W57, 116.,

154. Iltiriois Institute of Technology Research Institute.lechnology in Retro- Sped &nd Critical Events in Scienig.Vol. k *rider Contract NSF- . 'C535, for the National Science Foundation, December 15, 1968, 104.

155."Johnson, Martin C.Science and the Meaning of Truth.London: Faber and Faber, 1946, 179.

156. JUnge,r, Friedrich G. The Failure of Technology.Trans.. from German. Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1956, 204.

157. Kaiser,= Charles H.An Essay on Method. New Brunswick:New .tgley: Rutgers University Priss, 1952, 163. . I

158. Kantor, Jacob R.The Lo is of Modern Science. Bloomington, Indiana: Principia Press, 1 953;159.

. Or 28 I The Meanings of Science and Technology 23

159. Kohn, Thomas S. The Structire of Scient'c Revolutions. Chicago: Uni- versity of Chicago Press, 1962, 172 S 160. Lachman, Sheldon J.'The Fou6ndations of Science.Detroit:Hamilton Press, 1956, 130.

161. Medawar, Peter B. The Art of the Soluble. London: Methuen, 1967, 160.

162. Meier, Richard L. Science and Economic Qevelopment: New Patterns of Of Living.CArolaidge_Massachusetts: MI. T. Press; 1956, 266.

163. Nagel, Ernest.The Structure of Science: Problems in the Logic of Sct- entific Explanation. New York:Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1961, _618._

.firp 164. Nash, Leonard K.The Nature of the Natural Sciences.Boston:Little, Brown, 1963, 406.

165. Needham, Joseph. The Grand Titration: Science artd Society in East an West. London: Allen and 1.1 win, 1969, 350.

166. Pantin, Car-I F. A. The Relations between the-Sciences. London: Cam- bridge University Press, 1968, 206. ,, 167. Platt, John R:Tli-e-.Step to Man. New York: Wiley, 1966, 216.

4.168. Pokrov'sky, Major Gen. G. Science and Technology in Contem ary War. Translated by Raymond L. Garthoff. New York:. Praeger, 59,, 180.

169: Rapport, Samuel and HelenWright. Science: Meth,od ancleaning. New York: Washington Square Press, 1963,.248..

170. Reiser, Oliver L.The Integration of Human Knowledge: A Study of the Formal Foundations and the Social Implications of Unified Science. Boston:Rorter Sargent, T958, 478. .10

171. Rickert, Heintich. Science ancl History: A Critique of Positivist Epistem-

ology. Translated by Georg. Reisman.Ed. by Arthur Goddard. , Princeton, New Jersey: Van Nostrand, 1962, 161.

1 72. Schon, Iiionald A. Technology and Change. New York: Dell, 1967, ,248.

Os/ w.

.I , 24 Safence and Technology as Social Forces ow

173, Spicer,, Edward H., ed.Human Problems in Technological Change. A Case Book. New York: Russell Stip FoundatiOn, 1952, 301.

174. Standen, Anthony.Science Is a Sacred Cow. 'New York: Dutton, 1950, 221. (New edition 1950.

175. Toulmin, Stephen E.Foresight and Understanding: An Inquiry into the Aims of Science.Bloomington:Indiana University Press, 1961, 115.

176. The Philosophy of Sctance: An Introduction. New York: Harper, 1960, 176.

177. Wal kerf Char,les, R.,assisted by Ade la ido G Wa I ker .Modern Technology and Civilizatiqp: An' Introduction, to Human Problems in the Machine

Age. , New York: McGrOw-Hill, 1962, 469.

178. Walker, Marshall 3.The. Nature of.Scientific Thought . Englewood Cliffs, New Jerseys,' Prentict-l-lall, 1963, 184.

179. Ziman, John M.Public Knowledge: The Social Dimension of Science. 00. London: Cambridge University Press, 190, 154.

30 4

0 The Meanings of Science and Technology . 25 ,, IP , . r LEADING QUESTIONS

1. What is the meaning of "the scientific_method"? What criteria are used, and by whom, to determine what methods are "scientific"?-

2. Is advOnced technology synonyMous with "alied science" or are there differences between these terms? If differences, what are their implications?

3. What are, some of the more important instances of the dependence of "Ore" science upon technological innovation?(For example, in astronomy, physics, . neurology, and microbiology.) . - , S. 4. Do you agree that the interaction between science and technology is more the exception than the rule, and that the achievertnerits of the last two centuries owe more to the advance oftechnology than to the progress of .science?

5.Under present and prospective conditions of societies with highly developed technology, is there 'justification or utility in anintellectual attitude that separates ,scientific discovery fr,om technologicalapplication?Should the two processes be view'as ci single continuum, or as interacting variable-s?, - ,-, ,. . 6.What is meant by the "science of sciencV; 'by the"so ciology of science"; by . the "political science of science? How do they, differ from the study of-the "history and philosophy of science"? How does.each of these fields differ .., from the study of "science; technology, and public policy"? / 7 If you could reorganize a 'university upon the basis of the present stateof knowledge would you change the present formal organization of the sciences and technical studies?If so, upon ,what basis orcriteria would you act?

8.What are some of the more common popular misconceptions of scienceand technology? Why may, these misconceptions pro;/e to be sociallyhaimful?

9. Is the "mystique of science" solea consequence of unsophisticatedpopular attitudes? Has it been cbltiva ed or resisted by scientists? . .

, . 10.Stephen Toulmin writes: "Our lives'arehanged by its (science's) handiwork, 44 but the population of the West is as far from understanding thenotureof the strange power as a remote peasant of the MiddleAges may.have-been 'from understa'ndingihrlheology of Thomas Aquinas:" Do you agree?

I 3

-1

Ap TOPIC 02,SCIENCE-AS AN ASPECT OF 'MODERN CULTURE

Every major aspect of modern culture or technologyhas been influenced by science; the perceptions, assumptions, themes, and techniques of, the arts qnd humani,.:- ties have been profoundly affected.Science may be said to have crested a universal culture of its own--the fechnostientific superculture--which overlays traditional societies and to which individuals, regardless Orparticular nationcility;may equally belong as.comrhon members. 4 There is, nevertheless, in all modern nationsa substratu-rn'of 'pre-scie unscientific attitude did belief that greatly complicates the shapi'ngiof4u Ficopol-L.fn6 ;4 for science and technology.Nonscientific attitudes tend to be's*trort domestic, politicaland religious affairs. Where-strongly held, nonscientific values conflict with scientific judgment (as with family planning anpopulation control), the task of Fwblic Policy forrhulation is complicated.

Unlike fraditiondl cultures, that may relate-to all aspects of an individual's ex- a- istence, We technoscipntific superculture is,incomplete.There are many aspects

of life' to which science and technology contribute only findirectly or not at all. No person can.live wholly in the technoscientific suaerculture The greater number of people in the world as yet live almost wholly in jiaditionalor at least in nonscientific cultures.But persons who belong to the superculture of science and tectinologyeeive in two culturesthe orin which they were born and reared, and the one in which they work as scientisti, engineers,, or physicians, with attitudes and techniques shaped through advanced technoscientific education. Where these two culturis are inconsistent with one another and are contradictory, conflict be- andithin groups grid individuals arises. A notable instance of this conflict -has been described by C. P. Snow in The Two Culture's.

. Although it is possible to distinguish technoscientific culture from traditional culture, they are not manifest as clear-cut distinctions in most individuals. In any individual -there may be g complex miXture of traditional attitudes and behavior Alb' patterns With' beliefs and methods attributable to science. Modern science is, indeed, an outgrowth of historical Western civilization and in one sense is more truly an advanced phase of this traditional culture t(tan an alien overlay.In this od- . vance, however, the ties of modern science to historical Western culture have became increasingly attenuated and in non-Western societies to which it is alien, science has often been a disruptive force. The wise use of science and its reconciliation wjth elements of traditional culture have novt, become challenges to thee integrity of all human societies. Thus public policy for science is linked to social policy generally, and requires a high level of synthesis in conceptualizing,/ and a alarming for society's fUture.

3;r) 4.0 ' 4.

Science and Technology as Social Forces'.

. TOPIC 02 SC1ENOE AS AN ASPECT OF MODERN CULTURE

Selected Basic Readings;

Ashmore,Jerome. "Some Reflections on 'Science and the Humanities," Physics today, XVI (November, 1963), 46-54. . . I, Boulding, Kenneth E. 'The Scientific Revelation," Bulletin of the Atomic Scien- tists, XXVI (September, 1970), 13-18. , . .-- . , r - ,;* . Dubos, Rene. "Science and tAa n's Nature," in Science and Culture: A Study of /Cohesive and Disjunctive Forces, ed. by Gerald J. 'Holton:-Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965, 251-272.

Holub, Miroslav "Science in the Unity of Culture," Impact of Science on Soci- !ty, XX (Apr -June, 1970), 151 -158.

Toulmin, Steen E. "The Evolutionary Development of Natural Science,"Amer- icon Scientist4,LV (December,.1 967), 456-471.

- Supplementary and Substitute Readings:

Bronowslei, Jacob. "Science as "a-Humanistic DisciOline,"'Bulletin of the Atomic L Scientists, XXV (April, 1969), 27-30.

BrOoks, Harvey. "Scientific concepts and Cultural Change,"in Science and Cul- ture: A Study.of Cohesive and Disjunctive 'Forces, ed. by Gerald J. Holton. ' Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965, 70-87.

'Gillespie, Charles C.."Remara'on Social Selectionas a Factor in the Progress- ivism of Science," AmericariScientist, LVI (Winter, 1968), 439-450.

Snow, Charles P. The Two Cultures:Illnd_aSecond Look. New York: Cambridge Itiversity Press, 1963, 107.

Stegeman, Beatrice. "Science as Art," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientist's, XXIV (October, 1968), 33-38. . A

33 4 , b

Ma TOPIC 02 SCIENCE AS AN ASPECT OF MODERN CULTURE. 29

TOPICAL OUTLINE ,I / REFERENCE KEY e. . t 4. I. Science as an Aspect of Western, Civilization 59,83 go- A.Historical and philosophical roots of modern science in ancient Greece and Rome ' Scientific thought a distinguishing chara terisfic of Western civilization? 28,43,67,88 1. "Scientific epistemology: a dual process of arriving at and judging. knowledge. Application of such , criteria, e.g., by Artistotle, to tht totality of4human knowledge 21,84 2. The concept of action, by the individual . or the society, as ruled by reason, i.e., . denial of tradition or authority as'the .necessary guides to action. Consequences in ethics, law, science, and technology- 82,85,86 3. The concept of man and the universe'cis "transparent" to the knowledge-seeker-- epistemological' optimism versus epistemological pessimism 48,96 4. Concepts of the value ofknowleigefor its I own sake 74 I/ B. Development of intimate connections betweitri science and technology (Review concepts' ' develeoped in Topic Cl) 38,42 1. Ancient and oriental views' a. Little or no connection betWeen, science and technology 28 'b. Early links of scientific thought, with religion, mysticism, medicine 87,88 2. Three current views . a. Classical: emphasizes the ptirsuit of L. knowledge)x its intellectual and entertainment values. The "pure science" argument: science can progress best by

following its own inner directions 1

34 r 4.. /

. i t 4

30, Science and Technology as Social Forces ,

b. Proctier Baconian: while admitting its intellectual -values, science can be methodically directed toward goals having social value, toward technology 52 c.. Technological: science is or should . be related to the unfolding of technological evolution which, in the long run, is self-augmenting; the direction of scientific progress is shaped by technological as well as by historical and economic fortes 67 3. Contrast and change: importation of modern concepts of science, via technology, into semi- or non-Western cult`ures (See Topics 07, 09, 10) 4, 40, 44 e 7 B , . H.Pervasive Influences of Scientific Concepts on Man's --\ Images of Himself and the World (See also Topics.03, 16, and0) 27, 58

A.' The increasing status of "scientificfiknowledge" in atechnoscientifit culture, as contrasted with mysticism, revelation, and conventional wisdom 3, 10, '23 1. Histofical relationships to the diminishing hold of traditional philosophical and religious beliefs 47, 72 a. The destructionof the comprehensive Aristotelian stem by such influences / as the new astronomy of Copernicus

and Galilee; , 9, 88 . b. Beginning of The age of epistemological optimism been in the work of Descartes, 1,. Newton, and others--reaching its height in the 19th century 13,47, c. The new geology of Lyell and theevolu- tionary biology of Darwin placed the history of life on earth, and man himself, in new perspectives 17,76,77 2. Extensions (sometimes naive) of scientific concepts into other areasof thought (See also Topics 16, 21, 29, and 30) 16,23,50,51, 66 35 4

1 Science as an Aspect of Modern Culture 31 -

a. The Copernican Revolution: a cosmo- logical' about-face s 9 b. Darwin's Theory of EvolutiOn; man's place in nature; social Darwinism 1,9 c. Pavlov's psychology:"brainwashing"; -the control ofciety;. concepts of human nature d. The new physics deriving from Einstein's relativity, Planck's quantum theory, Heise berg's 'uncertainty theory: attempts to extrapolate to thesocial sciences and the humanities 32,37

B. ,Identification of "modernity"with scjentific and 66 science-derived progress it 1. Impingement of scientific and scietice- derived concepts on the Westernivorld-view 17,23,54;6.1 a. Develorerrt ofthe view of a historical, evolving, noncyclical world which is 4 open to study by .themethodology of science b. Growing identification of scientific hought as the model for all kinds of nvestigation 6 2. Histoiical linkages of the-concepts ofsocial and huinan progress with developing scientific thought (See Topic 25) 24,30,31,66, 73,96 a. The utopianliterature of progress typified by the writings of Bacon, Owen, and Wells relied heavily on th5 rationality of science and on the fruits of science'-based technology 58 6:The literature of the Enlightenment, which greatly influenced future developments in politital structures,. ethics, and religionmade appeals to scientific rationality and independence of thought . c. Numeroussocioeconomic theories e.g., Cameralism, Technocracyj, Marxism:have relied on technoscientificingredientsin the social systems proposed 64, 65, 67

3G .4

32 Science and Technology as Social For Ces

3. Factors aiding in the reinforcement of the connection of scientific with social progr'ess 46, 65, 86,88 a. Continuing success of the scientific -method as a tool for increasing knowledge of the physical world, b. The demonstrated power of science as a generator of technology c. The power of science-derived technologyas an agent of social change (See Topic 03) 29,34

Ill.Emergence of a Universal Technoscientific Culture 8, 57, 65, 72, 80, 90

0 A.Cultural self - consciousness and cultural conflict in modern society 3, 5 1. Science and technology create awareness of cultural differences and cultural relativism 17 2. Culture becomes a tool of politics, e.g., .German Kulturkampf, Pan-Slaivism, Aniericanism ' 75

B. Emergence of a distinctively technoscientific aspecf or "layer" of Western culture, 1860-P960 9, 25, 52, 79, 85 Growth of technoscientific occupations 2 Increasing prominence of science in uni-, versities, displacing classics, humanities, .,end theZiogy 20, .66 3. Transmission of technoscientific culture to non-Western world, via religious missionaries, business enterprise, rgiiitary action) and philanthropic, educational, and technical assistance 4, 43, 44 4: Growth of an international technoscien tific intelligentsia, partially detached from traditional cultures 5

1 37 Science as an Aspect of Modern Culture 33

C.The' "Two Culturesconflict (See also Topic 05) 14,55,60,63, 91,92 1. C.P. Snow's thesis - -th4 English aspect of the general issue 18,49,56,71 2. Extent of separability of scientific from Western culture -3, 5, 37, 62, 90 3. The complementary aspects of science and the humanities 9, 11, 22, 95 4. Bridging the "scientist- humanist gap". 12, 27, 41, - 5. Is a "third" culture really feasible? 2, 39, 61 a. Would its bale be traditional or

,scientific? b. To what extent do we have evidence. of the ability of existing traditional cultures to find an accomodation with science? 53, 66,, 70, 73 6. Is a single universal culture the possible outcome of technoscientific influence? Would such a culture be'benefickal, harmful, preventable, or self-renewable? (See Topi9 20, 25, and 30) a5, 36

33 . -Science as an Asfect of-Modern Culture .

t, BIBLIOGRAPHY

General References,: Articles

1. Appleton, Edward. "Selene; for Its Own Sake,14dvantement of Science, X (September, 1953), 103-112. A 2. Ashmore; Jerome-. "Some Reflections on Science and the Humanities," Physics Today, XVI (November, 196a), 46-54.

3. Barbel, Berpard."Tensions and Accommodations between Science and Hu- manisrnerican Behavioral Scientist, VII (NOvember, 1963); 3-8. I-4'r

4. Basalld, George."The Spread of Western Science," Science, CLVI (May 5, 1 967), 611-622.

5. Bernard, Jessie."tan Science Trdnscend Culcure?".Sciintific Monthly; LXXI (October, 1 950), 268-273.

6. Blackman, Allan. "Scientism and Planning," American Behavioral Scien List, X (September, 1966), 74-28.

7. Boulding, Kenneth E. "The Diminishing Returns of Science," New Scien- tist and Science Jburnal, XLIX (March-25; 1971), 6132-684.

8. . The Scientific Revelation," Bulletin of the Atomic Scien- tists, XXVI (September, 1970), 13-18. f

9. Bronowski, Jacob.. "Science as a Humanistic Discipline," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXV (April, 1969), 27-30.'\

-, 10. 'Brooks, Harvey."Scientific Concepts and Cultural Change," in Science and Culture: to Study of Cohesive and Disjunctive Forces, ed. by Gerald J. Holton.Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965, 70-87.

11. Cassidy, Harold G."The Muse and the Axiom," Arnfrican Scientist, LI (September, 1963), 315-326.

12. ."The.Problem,of the Sciences and the Hun inities:' A Diag- nosis and a Prescription,"American Scientist, XLVIII (September, 1 960), 383-398.

3 9

f 1

Science and Technology as Social Forces-

o -

1 . Crombie, A. C."Historians and the Scientific Revolution," Endeavour, XIX (January, 1960), 9-13.

14. Crowe, Beryl L. "The Tragedy of the Comritons Revisited,"Science CLXVI (November 28, 1969), 1103 -1107.

, . 15. Cummings, Sherwood..?Science in Fiction and Belles-Letters," iri The Challenge of Science Education, ed. by Joseph Skoaek. New York: Philosophical-Library, 1959; 411-423.

16. Daniels, George H."The Pure-Science Ideal and Democratic. Culture," Science, CLVI (June 30, 1967), 169 -1705.

17. Dubos, Rene."Science and Man's Nature,' in Science and Culture: A Study of Cohesive and Disjunctive Forces, ed. by Gerald J. Rolion. go .Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965, 251-272.

18. Eisley, Loren. "Illusionof Two Cultures," American Scholar, XXXIII -(Summe'r, 1964), 387-399. . ( 151. Ellegard, Alvar. "Darwinian Theory. and Nineteenth- Century Philoso- phies of Science," journal 6f the History of Ideas,V III (June, 1957), 362 -393. - , 0 1 20. Farrington; Benjamin."Science. and the Clussics," Nature; CXCI (Sept ,ember 30, 1.961), 1337-1342.. , - . .c-' . 21., Feigl, Herbert.. "The Scientific Outlook: Naturc:Tism'and Humanisal,"0 6 eadings* in the Philosophy of Science,d. by ,He?rbert Feigl and May Brodbeck. New York: Appleton-Centu y.-Crofts 1953, 8-18...... - , , .... 22.. Fleck, Alexander,."Science and the Humanities:...Their Basic Unity," New Scientist, I (Jana 24, 195) 10-12 .', .

...._,' is,' . 4 . 23. Frank,. Philipp. "Contemporary Science and the, Contemporary World -- View," in Science and Culture: A Studs Of Cohesivelind Disjunctive Forces, ed. by Gerald J. Holton. Boston:HoughtoMifflin,1965, 57:Ti. , lib . i . .

24. Gillispie, Charles C.°"Remarks on Social Selection as a Factor in the -. Progressivism of Science," AmericanScientist, WI (Winter, 1968),

, 439-450.

40 t .

'Scienceas an Aspecf of MOdern Culture -37 %

It NM. -25:- Gould,rtqwrenceM."Science and the Culture of Our Tirnei," UNESCO Courier, XXI (February, 1968), 4-10. i4' 4 a . 2(4. Graubard, Mark. "The FrankensteinSyndrome: Man's Ambivalent Atti- tude to Knowledge and Power," Persettivesin Biology and Medicine, Alo X' (Spring, 1967), 419 -443.

/. ,? IP 24. G50 mes. "The Proper StudyofMankind 16'Man," Kdv_ancemenr of .Sc ce, XVI (Septeinber, 1959), 3-12. -4,,,, r.

4.,...... 28. Hacker, Barton "Greek Catapults anil Catapult` Technology: Science,. Technology, d Wqr in the Ancient World," Technologrand culture, LX (..Ionuary,968), 34-50. , )10.1140 , . '. -N. V .., 29. Hafstad;-Lawrence R. "Science, Technologyond Society," American Sci- entist, XLV (Mach, 1957), 157-168

f 30.. Handl in, Oscar. "Science antiTechnology .in Popuiat Culture,' in Science and Culture: A Study of Cohesive and Disjunctive Forces, ed. by.Qr- . bald J. HoltOn. Boston: Houghton Mifflio,1.965, 184-198. , 31. 'HOrris, Britton."A Technology-of Social, Pr.Ogress," Arerican Behavioral Scientist, Xi/July- August, 1968), 7-10.

-32. Heisenberg, Werner.. ' "The Representation of Nature in ContempOrary 4 ,, Physics,'" Daedalust LXXXVII (Svrntner, 19jIiii 95-108. s . ,3. 0lieNcgtohn.."The*In'fruence ofIcienceon the,Well-Being and Pro- . egressof Society," in his Discourse orthe Study ofNaturn1 Philsophy.

Land*: Longman, Rees,Orme, Bryn, and Greene, 1831. , .. . Alp , 34. Ho4land, Hudson . "ScienCe and the New Humanism," Acience.,Oall

-(Jdnuary .1 0, 4.964), 1117114. . . ti . , . . it 35. Hogg,-Qpintfin M. (Lord Hailsham)! ''Specific Present and Foreseeable IrnPacts of Science on,Political life/ Nature, CCIII (July.11, 1964), 9 -i 23. . . 'e 36., Halub,'Miroslay. "Scienc %, in the Unity of Culture,'rrniact of Science

*,on Society, XX (April:-June, 1970), 151.158. , 40r

38 Science and TAchnology as ial Forces ^' r 37. -'Jaki, Stanley L."The Role of Faith in Physics, " argon, II (June, 1967), 187-202. , `-'"

38. Jones, R. V.* "Science, TechnolOgy, and Civilization," Nature, CXCIV (June 30, 19.52), 1211-1214.

. . 39. Levin, Harry."Semantics of Culture," in Science and Culture: A Study of C esive and Disjuntive Forces, ed. by Gerald J. Holton. Boston: .---..../ Hougon Mifflin, 1.965, 1,,-13. . . \i g . .. 40. Male I I. oemcki, Problems Concerningrganiiaticin of Scientific Re- search in Developing Countries," tm of Science on Societe ,` XlIl (Number 3, 1963), 181-2004 ,: 4.41. 0 ` 41,.. Malher, Kirtley F. "The Scientist4 Re'spon ty foe:the interpretation of a Concepts to `Laymen," ',Main Currents in Modern Tho X (4iarc1 , 1954), 81-83. . . - . , ' -'' 42. Multleuf, Robert P. "Thet.Scientis,t anti the 'Improv'e Technology," ' A \- Technology and Culture{Winter, 1 959); 38-47. $

..... -40 '; .,` .. 43.. Needham, Joseph. The Roles of Europe and China in the Evolttion of 'Oecument6a1 Science," Advancement of, Science, :X,V (Septenbemn. . i . 4967), 83---98. 11 A °

44.` . "Science'' and, Soiety in EastAnclWes*ScIence.a`nd Soqi- ' er , XXVIII (Fall; 1 964), 385-408._ ,. .7 .. t 45. .Parrod-, Jaccues. "Chemistry and SOcjety," Impact of Science on Sociefy, XV (Number. 2, 1965), 1,19-129'. .I If !'1.6\''': 46, Perrot)) ! "Science as a liberal StudyAdvancement of Science, X'XVII , .. 2 . h,J9X0), 233;238. . ,*W \ W%-', e 111L 44.41.A . ' Of 47. Popper, Karl R. "Humanism and Reason, " in his cowl cturesand Refuta- tions: The Growth of Scientific 'Knowledge. Ne 'YOrk:Basi,c, Books, . l t. 11962, 377-384. . t

48. . "On the Sources of Knowledge and of Ignorance," in his Gekeciures and Refutations:The Growth of Scie tific ,Knowledge. New York: Basic Books, 1962, 3-30. .S. Science as an Aspect of Modern Culture 39 4 t .49. Roberts, Catherine."Nightingales, Hawks, and the Two Cultures," anti- .och Review,. XXV (Summer, 1965)i 221-238.

(50. Sargent, Frederick, II, anctiDemitri Shirrikin."Biology, Society, and Cul- ture in Human Society," AIBS Bulletin (BioScience), XV (August, 1965), 512-516.

51. Sayre, Anne."The ScientificMethod in Human Affairs," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XI (October, 1955), 295 -296.

52. Seaborg, Glenn T."Science and the Humanities: A Nei, Level of ym- biosis," Science, CXLIV (June5, 1964), 1199 -1203. ., ( s. . 53. .."A 9c-lentific Society--The Beginnings,' Science, CXXXV (February) ¢x196622), 505-509.

54. Seitz,yrederict. ."Science and Modern Man," American Scientist, LIV (Septimber, 1966), 227-243. . * 4

55. Simon, Walter M."The 'Two Cultures' in Nineteenth-Century France: ' Victor Cousin and Auguste Comte," Journal of the History of Ideas, XXVI (January-March, 1965), 45-58. 4 56. Stegeman, Beatrice -.- -"Science as Art," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXIV. (Qc,tober, 1968), 33-38. 4 57. Stratton, Julius A."Changing Role of Science and Technology," Nature, CCIII (August 1, 1964), 455-4571. I .5R_ Thomson, David. fScientific Thought and Revolutionary Movements," Impactdof Science on Society, VI (March, 1i55), 3-29.

59. Toulmin; Stephen E. "The Evolutionary Development of Natural Science," American Scientist;LV (December, 1 967), 456-471.

60. Walker, E. A."A Call to Arms," ,Scientific Research, IV(MarCh 31, 1969); 35 -36. I 61. Weil, fric "'Science in Modern Culture," in Science and Culture: A Study of Cohesive and Disjunctive Forces, ed. by Gerald J. Holton. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965, 1 99-21 7: 40 - Science andTechnology as SOCiOr-FOrCeS

62. Whitehead; Alfred N. -"Humanism in a Scientific Age," American Scien- tist, xtm (September, 1958), 309-322.

63. Violfle, Dael. "The Royal Science," Science Journal, ly (March, 1968), 80-84.

64. Zvorikine, A. A."Technology and the Laws of Its Development," Tech- nology and Culture, III (Fall, 1962), 433 -458.

General References: Books

65. Barber, Bernard.. S'tce and the Social, Order. Glencoe, Illinois:Free Press, 1V2, 288.,

. New York: 66. Barzu-n, Jacques, Sciena: The Glariaus,y 'Entertainment Harper and RoW, 1964, xr 322.

`t- 67. Bernal, John D. Science in Histpry,., Mew YOrk: Hawthorn, 1965, 1039.

68. Boyko,' Hugo. eth Science and.,-th;e FuturPof Ma9kind..Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1964, viii 38.6,,, . `0 69. Bronowski, Jacob.Science an0Humanyalues.Rev. Ed.geTry York: ., . Harper and Row; 1965, H 9.", , -,

70. Bush, Douglas. 'Science and4ilialisFTPoetry; 4_1-listorical Ski:tch,1 590-

1 950: New York: 6;tord University Press, 1950, vii, 166. . /-- . i " 71. Cornelius, David K.tapd Edwin St. Vincent:Cultures in Conflict: Per- spectives on the Snow-Leavistontroversy. Chicag,i_Scatt, Foreman, 10 , " :4 ,. 1964, 179. - dt - i. s 72. Cournand, A. F.andH. A*. ZuSterinan.The ce 2f Science: Analysis and Reflectionslan Its Future.Niew York: Irtititute for the Study of Science in H-Noot Affairs, Columbia University,-1970, 43.

.,-.'. . 73. Dillenberger, John.Protestdrit Thou ht and Natural Science: A'Histor- ical-Inte4pretation.London: Coilins,T961, 320. - , lit le VIP; r

44. $

Science as an Aspect of Modern Culture - 41

74. Dubos, Rene. The Cultural Roots and the Social Fruits of ScienceEugene: University of.Oregon Press, 1963, 38.

75. Gardner, Martin. Fads and Fallacies,in the Name of Science. New York: Dover, 1957, x, 363..

76. Gillispie, Charles C.Genesis and Geology: The Impact of Scientific 'Discoveries upon RelVous Beliefs'in the Decades before Darwin. NeW York: Harper, 19594. xiv, 306.

77. Greene, John Cit. The Death of Adam: Evolution and Its Impact on Western Thought. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1961, 141.

78. Habgood, John S.' Religion and Science.Ed. by J. Goodier.London: Mills and Boon, 1964, viii, 159. Biblio. ( 79, Harrison, George R.The Rot# d Scie4ce in Our Modern World. New York: Morrow, 1956, 278.

80. Holton, Gerald J., ed.Science and Culture:. A Study of Coheskie and Disjunctive Forces.Bostort:.., Houghton Mifflin, 1965, xxxii, 348.

81. Kaplan, Norman, ed.Science and Society.Chicago::Rand McNally, 4111 1965, ix,,595.

82. King, James E.Science and Rationalism icy the Government of Louis XIV. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins ,Press; 1949; 377.

ranzberg, Melvin and Carroll W. Pursell, eds.Technology in West- ern Civilizatiot. Vol .I: The Emergence of Modern Industrial Society, Earliest Times to 1900, xii, 802. Vol. Technology in the Twentieth Century, xii, 7i2. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967.

84. Kuhn, Thomas S.The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: Uni- ./ versity of Chicago Press, 19624 xv, 172. Ch. X: "Revolutions as Clithiges of World View."

85. Lindsay, Robert B. The Role of Science in Civilization. New YOrk: per,and.Row, 1963, 318.

63 Marsak, Leonard M., ed.The Rise of Science in Relation to Society. New York: Macmillan, 1c64, ix, 150. . 0

42 'Science and Technolog I Forcel

87. Pa wels,-Louis anclikicques Bergier.The' Morning of the Magicians. Trans. y Rollo Meyers. New Yet4t:Stein and Day, 1,64, xii, 300.

88. Prig, Derek J. de Sono. , Science since Babylon. New Haven, Connec- tilput: Yale University Press, 1 961,, 149. .fir

89. Priori Moody*.Science andthe Humanities.Evanston, Illinois:North- w stern University Press, 1962, xii, 124. ., 90. Rabi, sidor I.Science: The Center of Culture. New York:' New Ameri-, . canLibrary, 1970, 155. . .d. ( 91. Ross,,!Ian S. C., ed.Arts v. Science.New York: Barnes and Noble, 197(, 158. 0 , ,

1 Snow, Charles P.The Two Cultures: And 9 Second Look.New York: Cambridge University Press, 1963, 107;

93. Stauffer) Robert C., ed.Science and Civilization. Madison: University of Wi consin Press, 1949,, xiii, 212.

94. Vavoulis)A1exander and A. Wayne Col., eds. Science and Societyr Select d Essays. -San Francisco: Holden-Day, 1966, v, 153-.

95-. Waddingto,Conrad H.Behind Appearance: A Study of Relations be- .. ween intingand Natural Science in This Century. Cambridge, Mass- rachuselt :M. 1. .Press, 1970, 256.

96. Westfa II, Ridid S.Science and Religion in Seventeenth Century Eng- ., land., NeHaven,,Connecticut: Yale University Preis,1 958, ix, 235.

6 k 4

_ Sience as an Aspect of Modern Culture 43

LEADING.QUESTIONS

1. ,eorge Sarton once observed that the properfrocusof history should be on the development of science and technology,rather than on diplomatic relations and wars between nations. To whatextent was his view valid?

2..What is the "fit" of science in modernWestern culture?Is it indeed,pn inte- gral part of this culture? Has its relationshipto traditional culture changed? '4. 3. Canliweexplain sit of the characteristic differencesbetween past and pre,., sent Western culturesas consequences of the roles played in the cultuysby""S . science?If so, could,we 'extend this analysis Ilt to other cultures? 4.What explanations have been advanced forthe growth Of scientific thought in the West, in contrast to its delayedor-arrested development in Chiha, In- dia, the Isfamic world, and Africa? , ,

5.You may recall a conviction-- common a few yearsago--that science can only develop in a "free"society. How wouldyou evaluate this view? What kinds of societies do you think would be favorableor unfavorable to science?

6.Jacques Barzun argues that science has takenup a rale in this culture anal0,- gous in many ways to that of religion in medieval times.Does this analogy 4 seem reasonable? In what ways might it be misleading?

7.Is there evidence that the amount of superstitionin society (beliefs in things that are not so)has remained relativelyconstant throughout historic time,and that science has merely changed the things aboutwhich people are supersti- tious? Would the G.N.p.as indicator ofeconomic health be a superstition?

8.Do the following statements illustrate "scientism"?(a) science is the likely source of technological answers to all the prablynrofsociety; (b) science is the model for all types of investigationor problem- solving.Are these views reasonable, or should tgly be qualifiedor denied? r-- 9.. Science in the abstract has sometimes been*scribed as anti-cultufal.Why? How does this view of science relate to'the "two cultures" controversy? .

10. i What significance do the followingterms have in relation to science? a . Planned Parenthood c. Relativism e. Hurnah Engineering . PsyChoanalySiS d. Technocraq f. aristian Science

4 it A

TOPIC 03 SOCIAL t'OPAC...1 OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Unti1thelliPth century, the impact of scienceon society was largely distinguish-, able from the impact.of technology. Since prehistoric time, technologyi.ather than science has shard man's behavior and his institutions. Technological innovation, as illustrated by such events as the beginning of agliculture, the discovery of the wheel,and the working of metals, has repeat(dly revolutionized social conditions. But throughout most of historic time the influence of sciepce has been confined to the beliefs of small numbers of highly literateor inquisitive individuals, and its effects have been slow and accumulative.

During the latter half of the 19th century, scientific .discov and technologi-1 'cal innovation increasingly became interdependent.Sin 1900,it has become difficult to distinguish precisely between scientific and 'technological forces for social change. The revolutionary developments of the presentera, in atomic 'en-. ergy, ipcommunications, iritmedicine, in automation, are technoscientific. They are alicatidns of advanced scientific thought and sophisticated technologies. Al thou 'r impact uport.society may or may not be asdecisive as 'those eatliest techrraogical innovations that enabled man to pass from prehistory into historic times, their combined power'to change institutions, Irliefs, end practices is very great.

In the technoscientifit society of the 20th-century, technology appears to dom- inate science.. Explanatigo-lies in the direct applicability of technology to practical affairs.Technology directly serves economic, military, and civic purposes. Science informs the mind, but ustfatly must be translatedinto, technology beforwit can change the external characteristics of society.

The influence of technology on society, has been the subjest of an extensive and critical literature. A major theme is the automatic and'se*augmenting character of technology; dealt with most explicitly in The Technological Society by the French sociologist, Jacques Ellul.The inevitability of technological development under favorable conditions is widely accepted and vigorously disputed. The issue is the extent to which societies of.men can control and direct their scientific and technological development. -A strong trend toward technowientific determinism characterizes contemporary thinking and is especially prominent in technological forecasting and irrscience fiction.

But reaction against the doctrine of technoscientific inevi tabi I ity has been grow-, ing, especially in advanced industrial societies. In its more constructive 'phase this movement is towards more selective use of science and technology to shape a desired future instead of acquiescing in a future shaped by their uncritical applica- d tions.

43 46 Science and Technology as Social Forcef I TOPIC 03 SOCIAL IMPACT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY I ,

Selected Bask Readings:

Branscomb, Lewis M."Taming Technology,". Science CLXXI (March 12, 1971), 97.2-977. . BroOks, Harvey. "Can Science Survive in the Modern Age?" Science, CLXXIV (October 1, 1971), 21-30. 4 C Carroll, James D."Participatory Technology," Science, CLXXI (February 19, -- 1971), 647-658.

Mesthene, Emmanuel G. "How Technology.Will Shape the Future," Science,CLXI (July 12, 1968), 135-143.

'Weinberg, Alvin M..4In Defense of`Science," Science, CLXVII (January 9, 1970), I 141 -J45. . .*

Supplementary and Substitute Readings:

Daddario, Emilio Q."Technology and the Democratic Process," Technology Re- view, LXXIII (July-August, 1971), 18 -23.

DuBridge, Lee A. "The Social Control of Science," Bulletin of the Atomic Scien- Lists, XXV (May, 1969), 26-28; 35.

ElluJ, Jacques."Technique, Institutions, and Awareness," American Behavioral scientist, XI (JK: August, 1 968), 38-42. .. t

Glass, H.Bentley."Science: Endless Horizons or Golden Age?" Science, CLXXI --(January 8; 1 971), 23-29. .

Hugh-Jones, Edward M."The Impact of Iechnslogical Change," Advancement of Science, XXV (September, 1 968), 23-29.

Wolff, Harold."The Impact of SOciety o%Sciencc," American Beflavioral Scien- tistX (May, 1 967), 2-7: --.1

49 4 i 40 ... N 1

ailliK 1. TOPIC 03 SOCIAL IMPACT OF SCIENCE ANDTECHNOLOGY 47

TOPICAL OUTLINE REFERENCE KEY

I Distinctions between the Effects of Science and Technology, and Their Significance 16, 173, 182

A. Common effects 8 1. Initial effects not necessari,ly,sameas ultimcite effects 99, 182 a. Darwinian evolution b. Internal combustion engine c. Antibiotics in tropical countries d. Outer-space exploration 134, 178 2. Individual effects: not always predictive of synergistic effects 16,.139 3. TechnoscientificODovations frequently incur unforeseen Pacts owing to: 23, 44, 78, 138, , 139 a. Preoccupation of innovators with the target to the neglect of side effects 28 b. Lack of adequate testing and analysis of possible consequences (Cf.Topic 13) 4. Influence of science and technology may be changed as readily by emergent forces in the environment (e. g.;competing forces, theories, or technologies)as by intrinsic properties of scientific ideas or techniques themselves 173

B. Differences in the effects' f science and technology 1. Science tends initially to affect the mind, e .g., attitudes, beliefs, perceptions of people; and afterward indirectly to influence their behavior. Examples:

,Feeudiall psychology:paychiatry; , iMendelian genetics: plant breeding 37 48 Science and Technology as Social Forces

,21 Technology tends initially to influence behavior, and later indirectly to affect the explanations for the behavior through theory 12, 34, 162, 76, 87, 139 a. Birth control devices: "new morality" 8 b. Television: "the medium is the message" 34, 157

II'.Emergence of a Technoscientific Society 5, 81_,_82, 137, 142, 155, 157, 176 A. Conditions conducive to the dominance of technique losociety (after J. Ellul) 32, 43, 86, 118, 155, 167 1. Facilities for communication and transportation 153 2. Widespread literacy and information .127° 3. Development of artisan or mechanic skills 4. Economic margin beyond subsistence 5. Concentrations of wealth and population 127 6. Innovative or entreprenurial motivation 7. Growth of a middle class 3. Breakdown of social barliers and corn:moat integrity 9. Social and intellectual fluidity 10. Complex orgeoizational techniques 11. Tolerance for cOmplexity and uncertainty 12. Cooperattm for non-personal ends 136 13 e om of inquiry 89, 116, 127

B. The emergence of the technoscientific society as a ph menorkof "critical mass" or chain reaction 155 1. lui's concept of "technological" a .'Atiifomatisr o b. Self-augmentation a.. Monism d. Technical universa ism 2. Technology as an aspect of the explosion of knowledge and a factor in the emergence of a world society 58 3. Factors affecting the transfer of technology (Cf. Topic13)

4A Social Impact of Science and Technology . 49

C.Effects of accelerated and unbalanced technological change 57,114,115,153, 155,180;182 1. "Unbalance" or "imbalance" in technology and normative concepts 173 a. Fact of imbalance does not necessarily imply adVerse effects b. Imbalance sometimes sought as a change . agent, especially in developing countries (cf. Topic 10) 158 _c. Political institutions need t, be re- structured to cope with technological change 32, 52, 151 2. Adverse effects of technological imbalance are frecitently 42, 145, 164, 173 a. Environinental 41, 49, 54, 78, 150,154 b. Esthetic 56, 182 c. Psychological /1'03, 131, 182 d. Economic 27, 44,56,163 3. PoVility of leveling-off of scientific growth 40,124

III. Implications of Technoscience for Society 15,16,29,77, 79,83,125, 126, 128, 160, 166, 174, 176, 181 A.Social trends iilduced by technoscienoe 39, 45, 72, 119 1. Power, wealth, and knowledge tend to become inter-convertible 60, 107,150, 172 2. Physical means for communication increase, but specialization complicates mutual understanding 53, 149,159 3. Acceleration of the giowth of knowledge: 169, 183 a., Increase's obsolescence of knowledge- and skill b. Enlarges the frontiers of ignorance c. Necessitates continuing reeducation 4. Distribution of knowledge becomes more specialized and uneven, necessitatingcooper- ative or systems approach to problem solving 4, 120

52 50 Science and Technology as Social Forces

5. Through government and research, means are sought to cope with the social instabilities induced by technoscientific change a . Ccopensation for technological displacement of workers .27, 44 b. Technologioal forecaiting to prepare for technological change (Cf. Topic 13) 18, 59, 62, 66, 99, 113, 133 c. Biotechnology and human engineering to accommodate technology to man and man to technology 2, 68, 160,179, - 184 'B. Requisites for control of science and technology in behalf of human welfare 10, 30, 71, 75, S. 85* 93, 101, 106, 1.33, 135, 148, 173 1. High level of public rationality 17, 108, 2. Acne in scientific literacy 132 3. effective syntheses of knowledge 171, 177 4. Lifetime duration ofeducotion and training' 177 -- 5. Improved system for making policy choices 36, 66, 69, 91, 96, 102, 109 6. Clarification of ethical guidelines consistent with scientific knowledge 145, 15.1" 7. Meani,of assessing and forecasting the effects of technological change (cf. Topic 13) 38, 61, 79, 135. C.Reasons for increasing disenchantment of the public with science and technology 3, 7, 9, 20, 26, 63, 70, 7.3,80, 90; 100, 1 , 110, 111, 121,2 155, 156 1. Development of powerful nuclear, biological, and cheinical weapons based on the latest science and technology 13 2. Apparent inability to solve social problems such as the plight of,the cities, crime, and r. the use of hard drugs 21, 51, 67' 3. .Pollution of the seen as a necessary resultofof the use of technology 74, 95, 154 4. Feeling that the benefits of science and and technology have not been commensurate with the vast sums spent on them in the last two decodes98, 130 53

41, Social, Impact of Science and Technology 51 sot

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169.E Morison,,Elting E. Men', Machines, and.Modern Times. Cambridge, ss- - achusetts: M. I.T. Press, 1966, ix, 235.

170. Mumford; Lewis: The Mytk..of the Machine: Technics and Human Devel- opment. New YOrk: Harcourt, Broce, and World, 1967, 342.

. 171. National Research Councils.Study Group onan Institute forApplied Sci- ence and Social Change in 'a Rural Area, Division of Behavioral Sci- ences. A National Rural Center: Applying Science to Improve the Quali1ty of Rural Life. Washington, D.,.: National Research Coun- 41 cil, 1970, 51. s I 172# PiCcard, Paul J., ed.Science and policy issues: 'Lectures in GoVern-

4 ment and Science.' Itasca, Illinois: F. E. Peacock, 1 96 9, 156. J

173. Platt, John R: The Step to Man. New York: Wi ley, 1966,40,.1

,174. Reich, Charles.A. The Greening of America. New York: Random House,

. 1970, 399.,

175. Rostand, Jean. 'Can Map Be Modified.Trans. byJanathanlpriffin. New York: BasiltBzoks,. 1 0,59, 105. I

1 4

64 Science and Technology as Social Forces

I 176. Stover, Carl F., ed.The Technological Order:Detroit:WayneaState Unlversity.Press, 1963, xii, 280. , 177.. Stratton, Julius A.Science and the Educated Man. Cambridge, Massa- chusetts: M. 1.3. Press, 1966; 186.-

178. Taubenfield, Howard J., ed.Space and Society. Dobbs Ferry, New-York: Oceana, 1964, 196.

X179. Tayl'or,Gordon R. The Biological Time Bomb,. London: Thames and Hud- son, 1968, 240.

180. Toffler, Alvin. Future Shock.Neel, York: Random House, 1970, *155.` J

181. Vickers, G. Science and the Regulation of Society. NeW Vol*: Insti- tute for the Study of Science in Human Affairs, Columbia University, 1970, 56.

182. Walker, Charles R., assisted by Adelaide G. Walker, eds. Modern Tech- nology and Civilization: An Introduction to Human Problems in the Machine Age.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962, xi, 469.Biblio.

183. Warner, Aaron W., Dean Morse, and Alfred S. Eichner, eds.The Impact of Science onechnology. Edited for the Columbia University Semin- ar on Technology'and Social Change.New York: Columbia Univer- sity Press, 1945, 221.

184 71 Wiener, Norbert. The Human Ute of Human Beings =- Cybernetics and So- ciety.Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950, 24:1.

1-'67 .

Social Impact of Science 'and Technology'

LRD1NG QUESTIONS

Gti

k 1.,Must a "technological society" erge from:the uncontrolled advance of technology? Are there faptors comonto modern induitrialism, collectivism, democratic centralism, and utilitaricinism' that result primarilr from the influence of technology?

2. "Tec Niue," says Jacques Ellul, "is opposed to nature ...technique as art is creation of an artificial system."Is this an invincible thesis? Are there .ofher interprItations of compardble validity?

3.Whaf factors determine the Course of technological innovation? Why ore some technological possibillties neglected and why have some been suppressed? t 4.What is meant by "technocracy"? Who are its prophets? What are its promises? What are its prospects? Who are the "tochnocrats"?

5:Do you think thairthe current disenchantment with science and technology is a temporary $henomenon, or does it represent a fundamental change in outlook? What could be the consequences for society of sucha change? . Is "imbctlance",a meaningful concept in relation to science and technology? .17 What would be the criteria for ascertaining a proper balance? 4 \

7.What are the principal social trends induced by science-based technology? Whtit are the implicatrons of\these trend for higher education, for scientific research, and for human social organization?

r S 116 8.Why do perceptive students of technolpgy (e.g., John Diebold, Cybernetica, V111,150-156; or Robert Boguslaw, The New Utopians) urge the need for socr ial innovation to match the pace of technological innovation?If Ellulis correct in asserting that technology shapis society,is it feasible to seek a non-technological countervailing force?

9. 15 it possik to introduce techrticil change/without desetroying cherished beliefs and, patterns of life?

10. IsdellberCite and considered control over the direction of scientific and technological growth possible or desirable?What would be the principal dangers? What would be the necessary conditions for effective sogial control? For control that is also socially beneficial? ti

7'451P.'7 7 do `r.

rtIPIC 04 SCIENTIFIC WORK IN TECHNOLOGICAL SOiET1 E'S

4 s 4 , ..--.., -' it - . In technological societies, *kork is increasingly planned'and. directed by '' y.sons with - special' competerice in,science o;, technology.In these societies g - ing",numbers-of people are emploird in scientific and technical actiflities .. . largebnumbes of new science- related occupations have arisen. . ! . , ,4- It is difficu cribe scientific work byelassifyingtotworkers.. bistirictions, among the several typekof scientific workers are much cultyrat as functional.. 6 Historical. usage has differed among countries, so that we cannot use the Eoglish word "scientist", or its nearest counterparts in other languagewfo-classify a group %. of'scientific workers that informed people' eyetywhere would recognize as an iden- tical occupational grouping.For example, the Russian nearest equivalent. to the ' word ;'scientist" is applied to a wide range of Scholars,.engineers., acid advanced bio edical d technical Personnel who are not customarily classified as scientists . .1111 .-- 0 thenite totes or WeSternEurbpe. The Americon teedency has been to restrict the des nation :!scientist" to the physicasciences and,to those fields of biology most closely related to FT-wires aika cheMistrir Witlyhe. poss!ble exception ophys- -. ical anthropology, which-,uses exact measupements,,social and.behaviaral science professionakare classed as scient*s only in a lualified sense.But regardless of. designation, fhe!ltnowted6e and competeope of technosilentifi'c manpower tras now A a become a major economic resodtce for national governments. ,In millabrn national .-' states;- *ills expehditures for education:and training isAience and technology .. .. are iliveasingl y viewed as publ is investments .lr'the tecbscierttific superculture,_...... wealili and power are inseparol;lefreirri knowledge and perfonence effectiveness.. , 9 . . Fro s very beginnings modernwience has 'been an enterprise of associations wellf individuals. ScientifieVi, cl"teChnical work is today highly organized, faiods means for professional communication'In the Thousands of.scientific.and technical journals, coAgresses, symposia, and proCeedings of scholarly meetings. ./.. The dissemination, storagd, and retrieval of scientific and technical infoomiolion °.1-ids Necopie- One'of-bthe most distinCtive and essential tasks of modern society.-.1 . "4r i Scirentific .work is increasingly carriedon throiighinstitutionsfo,research and de- '..." ! velopmentand through lorgelCale'cooperative-Firobrams'.or we:detail _on iri-`-----...--' stitutional aspects,uf science t-ie Topics 09, 12, and 15. . -3 . . , a 'As organised fortes-of, information and respected opinion, t)le scienfistmd eir related professional -essociates influence pfiblic policy'for science and,timh-, .ology.Accustomed,eevaluating evidenceon abasisotolemonstrable fact rather ._.' . -than on the basis of popular preference; they sometimes find Themselves-in conflict 4 with pojitical values. The proper role of scientists inthe politics of modern societies-, has-aroused special interest, for it seems dertaimiliat science will be involved in.

many ways with the politics of the future. - ( G t

1 r

'sos'44

68, " Science and Technoloa dsSocial Forces

`2r TOP!04 SCIENTIFIC WORK IN TECHNOLOGICAL SOCIETIES

Se 4iected Basic Readings: -. ° 1

Beer, John'J. and W. David Lewis."Aspects of the Eft fessignalization of Sci- ence," Daedalus, YCII (Fall, 1963), 764-784. 9 111110

Cortter, Allan M."Scientific X4anpower for 1 970-1 985," Science, CLXXII "pull 9, 1971), 132 -140. . . . , . . . . . Joseph.'Politics and the Community of Sciere,"American BeKavioral 'A Scientist, X (May, r967), 10-12; 21-23.

111 Polorini, Michael-."The Republic of Science: Its Political and Economic Tteor;," Minerva, I (Autumn, 1962)L 54-73.

man, John M."Social Responsibility (I): The Impact orSocial Responsibility on Science," Impact of Scienceon Society, XXI (April-June, 1971), 113 - 122,.E

tt Supplementarjf and Substitute Readings:

Aitison,D6vid. ."1;e Industrial Scientist," International Science and Technologx, dr NuMber 62 (February, 1 967)020-31. :, . : ..N, 4 . A Florey4ard."Role of the Scientiscin''Modern Society: The First Three Hundred/ Years,": Perspectives in Biology and Medicine,, VIII (Spridag,) 965),. 279 -288. 7.,.., .. ' Merton, Robert.K. Riehard Lewis."The Competitive Pressurets(1): 'The Race for Priority," Impact of on Society,'XXI (April-June,,140/1), 15171 61 1. ) Pigamiol, Pierre."The COmpetitive Pressures (II):he Effects of Publish orei,J ish;",Impatt,of Science on Society, XXI (April-June, 197.1), 163-171. q. ,it . . f . Price, Derek de Solla. Little.Science, Big3eience.New York:' Columbia University Press, 1963+ 11 9.

cu. 4 ,

I Jib , TOfat 04 SCIENTIFIC WORK,INTECHNOLOGICAL SOCIETIES 69

TOPICAL OUTLINE REFERENCE KEY

I. Scientific and Technical Manpower in Modern Society 38, 68, 251, 260, 277, 307 A. Growing number and importance of scientific and technical occupations

1 Science-based technology supersedes art, licraft's and tradition a. Industry, from the Industrial Revolution' b. Warfare and defense c. Agriculture d. Transportation e. Consumer services and goocis 2. Increasing social and economic dependence on new dad highly interdependent science= based technologies

411.Scientific and technical manpower as "capital" .. assest - 171; 200, 232, . e. 264, 265 . 1. Increasing identification orscienci-derived .. technology as. the basis of economic growth Ai and "progress" 41, 125,251, 281 2: Problems of developing and maintaining scientific and technical rrsiotrpower 22, 23, 15$, 196 a: Identification of talent°II 192, 193, 197 a b. Incentive 5 1It .:.Special education( proyisionsi 20, 119, 164 1 d. The "Brain Drain" 8, 54, 69, 86, 132, 1.35 e. Women in scientific professions 145,- 148, 169, '254 3. Unemployment among scientists'andengineers caused by 38,14 191,

, 210, 268, 269 a . Cut-back ini aerospace and defense- related r4searcb' A. b. Highly specialized trainingof thee .unemployed 5 ;. . c. "Over - qualification" for rrictrlyjobs

0 6* j A 44 I. a. ,,11164 71 4' ' .

It. \

Science and Technology as Social Foy * . o -44 1 Scienite andProfessionalirn ir 11, 15, 221; *14 240, 247 A.Characteriitics of a profession 150, 166, 253 1. Example:, old idea of .the "Three Prafessions":', . theologyjawetafid medicine 2.Stanciards of prepStion and work 3. Professional ethics 4. Contrast with amateurism \ B. Science-based occupations,and professions 0 : -1. Medit'ine and biomedical technologies Ti 9 2; Engineering sriecializations 223 3., Education and training (Cf. Topic 05) 4. Social - psychological, specialization

c.ProfessiOnalici ists 151, -V, 168; 240, 24110` 1. Whatbissa scuntist and who are sciaptists? 80,1 65, 177; 201, 203, 306 2. Popular images of scientists, 10, 1 34, 1 95 43.From adipteur to professiona 181,286 4. Ode, profession or many? 242 5.'Techniciansin the sciences 200\

IIIScientific and. Professional Societies - -Organized J.416 Scientistsan:illustrative sqrvey 30, 56, 161, 219, 240, 257 A.Societies of Scieritists aAd other Scholars --

Protofypes: , 273 1. Accademia SecietorumNatural--Naples, 1560 16" 2 Accademia dei Lincei-orne, 1 603. . 3. Accadria del cimento--Florence, 1651. 4, 4 ,Royal Society--London, 1662 5. Academie des Sciencesn-Paris, 1666 6. Russian Academy .of Scierces--St. Petersburg; .1724 7.. American Philosophical Society--1743 , * 4 , -B.-Typesvel-Cientific and Professional Societies 259- - . , .1. Societies of science specialists--,- 2°T .- ci. -Physical (1% AmericanAstrAmicalSociety, - .. (2) American Chemical Society -. ill 72 4r. Scientific Work in Technological Societies' 71 .

(4-American Physical Society . (4) Geo logioSI Society.of America b. Biological (1) AORLIfican Physioldgical Society (2) American Society for Microbiology (3) Arrierican Society of. Zoologists (4) Ecological Society of America - a., Behavioral and social (1) AmeriCan Anthrsto6logica I Associatilm t (2) American PsychologiCal Association (3).American Economic Association (4) Americana olitical Science Association (5) America Sociological Associdtio9 d. Science -te aped technical cind prOfetsional (1) American Association of Petroleum, Geologist(. (2) American Forestry Association (3) American. Medical Association (4) American Society of Civil Engineers (*. (5) Institute of Electrical- wed Electronics

. Engineers, 2. Federations of scientificsocieties- 1 I i :a'. National 1-, -USA . ,... - _., .. 11) AmericanAsSoCiation for thetAdvarice7 . .,' MenT of;SOien V ' . . . , 14, 142, 146 \: (2) Amel-ican Instiute of Biological Sciences 47, 212

(3) American Institute of Physili , 9, 109 (4) Engineers Joint. Council # , 'bilinternati I unions and a iations '42, 289 . .' (1) Internatnal Council of Scientific .it Unions - . , . , '.7, 21, 27, 292 ..- (2) Lnternational Union for'Conser- .; ,. vation of Nphire and Ndhltal Resources 12, 245 . (3) Intei'rtationar Sooidi Science Council,.... s , . t, 3..Honoiary societies and academies . 1 a. National Academy of Science -.4.- 43, 176 la. NatiOnal Academy of Engineering

* 4141 . ..J : t .

a Q.

, -

Science cads Technology as Social Forces

4.Science )Srofess*als and occupational unionism-r-Fedel-ation of American Scientists 36,8", 179, 305 5. Politically oriented societies-- 159- Scientists and Eiigineevs for Social and Political Action (SESPA) i 78

IV. ;Scientific Pubpcations: Professional, Technical, Philosophical,,and Historical 234:308 an A.Prototypes:. Journal des SavantsI:Idris, 1665 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal SOCiseti-- London, 1665

'B. Purposes .152, 2r7

1,To disseminate information

2. To establish priority in research , 3. To establish communication between workers in a particular specialty 4,e Sometimes to relatespecialties to larger fields of interest

C.Types of journal publications n 161

. 1. General professional publications, e.g., Science, Nature, Advancement of Science, Scientific American, American Scientist 139 .2. Specialized publications (various levels), e .g t Journal of the AmericanChgmical Society, ' Analytic.Clkemistry, Chemical Revies, Chemical and.Engineering NeWs, Arrierican Behavioral Spientist, Bioscience, Ph meal Review ;I" osophical and historical; e.g.; C berne- tical Isis, Minerva, Journal of the Philosophy of Science, Technology and Culture, Peospec- tives 'n Biology and Medicine I

0, Scientific Work in Technological Societies 73

4. Palk issues ani policiei in science, e.g., Science and Public Affairs: Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Impact of Science of: So- ciety, Minerva, Environment, New Scientist .and Science Journal

D., Other scientific. publicatioris 37 1. Transactions of learned societies and of scientific' meetings--symposia, colloquia, pro-s- ceedings \, 2. 'Reports andoinvestigations by srofessional scientific groups asindividuals--including - government documents, e.g., repogivof panels of the' President's Science Advisory Committee, National, Academy of Sciences, arrcl Congres- sional inquiriend hearings '1'7 Abstracting and itation-systems and services, e.g., Biological Abstracts, Chemical Abstracts, Current Contents, Nuclear Science Abstracts, ti Science Citation Index 49, 73, 140, 144, 225 4 . Monographs and systematic ,works Single - author w'orks, b. Multi -author, works c; Textbooks, Dissertations--published and uneUblished .54 Encyclopedic world, e.g., Encyclopedia of the 5°6-al Sciences, Handbook of Physiorogy '6. Manufacturers' technical publications a. House orgQns b. Brbchures and pamphlets

Some growing problems oilitcientific publication a means of communication and,information 29, 115, 14,.. 206, 208,212,,' I. 213, 258 1. The quantitative problem 128, 194,266,. 293 4 14 Increase in the numbers of specialties clad specializedb'publications I/. Volume of researcrilieed publications

: 1

I. --

.r' 74 -cience and Technology as Social Forces

V 2. Timeliness--the importance of correspondence and word-of-rnbuth in rapidly develipping fields '270 3. The referee system 4. Semantic difficulties growingout of specialization in research and in languages 5. Information search, collation, and retrieval systernse-aids in the management bf knowledge 1,6;17,21, 27, 37, 44, 57, 73,

108,'109,110, - 143,163,184, 291

'V.Institutionalization of Scientific ,(See Topics under Section II- - "T Organization of 'cience and Technology'') 234,266 4 tit A. Typesof institutional structures (USA) 1. Non:governmental institutions established by scie.ntists

a. Institute of Ecology. 235' -

bSalk Institute tt .'Hudson Institute t-for-profit'research and development porations °53, 187 .Battdlle Memorial' Institute b.,Rand Corporation 202 . c: Brookings Institution 3. Industrial laboratories a. BekTeOphone Laboratories' b. General Ele.ctric Knolls Laboratory IBM Watson Research Center 4. Government buredus and laboratories (Cf. Topic 06) 261,,297, 301 a. NationalBureau of Standards b. National Oceanic 'and Atmospheric Ad- . ministration (NOAA) 40, 45, 795, Ar 294, 297, 299' c. Argonne, Brookhaven, Los Alamos, and Oak Ridge National Laboratories 290 5. Ad hoc and cooperativeprograms (CfTopiC 09).

k 4761 S , 4

a Scientific Work in Technological Socreties - 75

. Problems of institutionalized work . .

(Cf Topics 11 and 12) 25, 240. . 40 1. Facilitating scientific creativity (cf. Topic 15) , 300. a. Fostering a climate for creativity '275 b. Promoting multi- disciplinary synthesis 302 2. Protecting integrity and objectivity of . science from 39, 87, 2264, 241,79 a .Political interference b. Bias or kr sponsibility ofscientists 3. Maintaining ontinuing viabilityof research ' institutions 1. 290 a. Prrarrobsolescence in missions-oriented

itutions g 1 37, 164 b. Personnelbsol,escence in scirtific work . %,(Cf`. c 05) 52 t. 4. Obtaining adequate financialsupport a. Effects of government appropriations po. licies On continuity and quality of scientific work 256 b. Effects of recourse to private funding t (1) Industrial (2) Philanthropic c. Problems of e;dowed research , ,,....---

VI. Science Professionals in Technological Societies 19,33,60,61, _68,75,91,153, 186, 218, 220, 229,"230, 282, 284, 307 A. The status of science professionals 70_1_94, 97, 101, V4,-263, 267 1. Elitism_ -recil problemor subjective phobia: 228 a . The "New Priesthood"--concept and criticism , 247, 249 b. The technocrats c. Distinguishing characteristics of a :r scientific elite group 240, 286 d: The contrast; status of sci1sntists, physici ,engineers, an.d technicians ,59, 62, 107, 13f, 189, 231, 250

41. -to I 76 Science and Technology,as Social Forces

2. Relation of science professionals to 287 a.-Other occupational groups b. Public.officials-legislators and judges 25, 51, 216, 239 oc. The news media (Cf. Topic 01) d. The public at large (Cf. Topic 01) 14, 205 Each other 32, 150, 243, 306 B. Contrasts in organizational and professional orientation and values (See also Topic 15) 13, 89, 113, 190, 231, 274,275

4m 1. 'Professional-managerial confVot in 44, '14 Q Government laboratories 137, 244, 300, .1? 301 b. InduStriCilresearch and development 118, 248 c . Hospitdls d. Military organizations 2. Varied roles of the scientist in -' a . Academia 6 48,77, 92,188

' b. Government 28,127, 262,,, 267 F . Industry 46,100, 188 3. The scifintist as administrator 26,76, 95

4. Scienckrofessionals in public affairs 411 (See also Topic H: The Politics of and nd Technology) 31,87, 120,14, 204,226,228, 239,241,304 a . The scientist as politician. 116,130,147,

288 1 .(1`) In partisan affairs 114 #r (24 As consultant and advisor 2, 26, 246 b. The social responsibility of scientists 24, 39, 64, 79, 93,98, 102, % 112, 167, 182,. 214, 222 (1) Role, in international' affairs 50, 70, 83, 84, (See, also Topic 09 t 103, 104, 106, 123, 174, 185,

(2) The "Pugwash" syndrome, t,63, 67,126, 156, 170,172,f . t 173, 180; 280 (3) Defense-oriented research 16, 66, 71, 88, 117,121;142, : . 162, 279

,'. 4 Scientific Work in Technological Societies' 77

(4) Politically "sensitive" topics,e.g., crime, intelligence, poverty, race (Cf. Topic 14) (4Guidance for public dnd official opinion provided by scientific . societies and institutions 159,183,219,- 241,282 (i) Center for Science in the Public interest 99 (ii) Institute of Society, Ethics and the .Life. Sciences .35 4. C.5omt problems of science professionals in A . :\ technoscientific societies 133,149,227 1. Dependence for financial support on a e, source (the state7 which is frequently Jr \ changing its patterns of funding 90,"299 2.'Excessivesecrecy in many governmental

and industrialorganizations 34 . 3. Prestige and remunerationln some fields, ), and not in others 250 /

4. Acceptability of political views of . scientists for many top jobs in goC/ernment _ / 5. Conflicts of loyalty, and ethical problems e .g., in "defense' - oriented research 131,199 6:Race for priority in important fields of research 74, 133 7. The pressure of "Publish (*.Per ish" 18 8. Keeping up with new knowledge in fields ofrintereit- 96'4 270

or'

. o

a Scientific Work in Jechnological Societies . 79

BIBLIOGRAPHY

General References: Articles

4V. AbreurJean

2. /Alison, David."The Affluent Consultants," International Science and

Technology, Number 10 (October, 1962), 50-54: 1

3. -. "Educating the Engineer," International Science and Tech- nology, Number 18 ( June, 1463), 26-38. , ! 4 4. .."The Industrial Scientist," Inter:Rational Science-and Tech- nology, Number 62 (February, 1967), 20-31.

5. Appleton, Edward. "Shor of Scieme Applicants to Universities," Nature, CCV (January it, 1 965), 232-233..

6. Arnett, Edward M. "Computer-liOsed Chemical InformationServices," .Science, CLXX (December 25, 1470),. 1370-1376.

A 7. Atwood, Wallace W. "International Council of ScientificUnions," Science, CXXVIH (December 19, 1958), 1558-1561t

8. Baldwin, George-B.,'Brain Drain or Overflow? " Foreign Affairs, XLVIII .(January, 1970), 358 -372. 1 Nk 9. 8apt94, H. A. "The Story of the American tnstitute of Physics;" Physics Today: IX (January, 195¢), 56-'edr.

10. Beardslee, David C. and Donald p. O'DoWd*the C414ege $fudelit Image of the Scientist'," in The'Socioldgy of Science, ed. balpernaed Barber and Walter Winch. New York: Free Press of .Glencoe, 1962, 247=258. . 1.1 Beer, iihri J end David.W. Lewis "Aspects of:the' Professional ization of Science," Daedalus, XCII 1-963) 764-784.

1 2. lerwick, E. J. H."The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Res8urces: Current Abliyitlies and Situations," Biological Conse rv6ti on-,I(A pri I,1969); 191 -1 99.

4o. 4 I

gb Science and Tichnology as-Social Forces

13. Best,Robert D."The Scientific Mind vs. the-Manogement'Mind," Indus- trial Research, V (October, 1 963), 50,-52i

'14. Bevan, W."The General Scientific Association: A Bridge to Societyat Large," Science;` I, (April 23, 1971), 3491352. I

15., Beveridge( William I:B."Scientists,," in his The Art of Scientific Inves- tigption. 'Revised Ed,ition;New. York: Norton,1 957, 139 -159., ..\

16. elackett, Patrick M. S. "Tizard and the Science of War," Nature, CLXXXV (March 5, 1960), 647 -653.

17. Boulding, KennetlfE. "A Data -ollectingNetwork tor: the Sociosphere," Impact of Science on Society, XVIII (April-June,,1 968), 97-101.

Boutry, G A. "Quantity 'versus Quality y in 'Scientific Research (II): The Pdper.Explosion," Impact of Science on Society, XX (July-September, 197th, 1.95-206.

19. Bovet, Dtinfel. "Role of theScitistin Modern Society - -A Symposium: °Part I," Perspectives in -Biology and Medicine, VIII\.(Summer, 1965), 533-545.

20. Boyle,,Edward."Technical Education in Brita?n," Nature;ICXCVNI (A- pril 27, 1963), 334336.. .

21. Brabyn, H. -"UNISIST for \Arida Science," New Scientist and Science r ,Journal, XLIX (March 11, 19,1), 568,469...... , . r ,. ... 22. Brodi,Wal lace R. "Noproachingtel I hags in the Supply .of Scientific Mart- i, 'power," Science, CXLIII (January 24r1 964), 313-324: . . . 23. . "Manpower in Science and Engineering, Based on a Satur-, ation Mode," Science, CIXXIII (July 16,-1 97.1), 206 -213. -- .

t) . 24. Brodine, Virginia. "Crisis in the Environment: The Scientists!.Responsii- bility,"Scientist and Citizen, IX (October, 1967), 188-1 90:

25: Bronk,'DetlevW."The Role-of Scientists ,in the Fu'rtheiance of ScienCe," , . Science, CXIX '(February 19, 1954), 2237227: : 1- .- . ,. . 2,6. - Brown, Harold. 1!1onfessions ofan Ex-Phyticist,"- PhysicsToday,Xl* (June, 1966), -4550. * 81 a

Scientific Work in Technojogical Societiesit 81

27. Brdtm, Harrison. VInternakcm5PCooperation: The New ICSIIPrograrnon Critical Data," Science, CL VI Nay 12, 1967), "I

28. BroWn, Paula."Bureaucracja in a GovernmentLaboratory,"Social Forces, XXXII (March, 1954), 259-268.

2 9.. Brown, W. S., John R. Pierce, andJoe F. Traub."The Future of Scien- , tifidjlournals," Science, CLVIII(December 1; 1967), 1153 -1159.

30. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists:"The Scientists' Organizations in 1950," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientis.tr, VII(January, 1951), , 31. Bundy, McGeorge. "he Scientist and"NationalPolicy," in Knowledge and 'Power:Essays, on Science and Government,ed. by Sanford A. Lakoff. New York: Free Press, 1966, 420-431. .AL 32. Vannevar."Professional Collaborafion," Science,CXXV,' (January- 11, 11957), 49-54.- ' 33. . Scientists and Their Dreams," American Scientist,LIX (No- vember-December, 1971), 674-677.

34. Cade, Joseph A."AspeciVof Secrec/insScience," Impactof-Science on4t . Society, 1X1 (April,-June,ir 1971),I. 1181-190.. 35. Cal lahan,.D."Profile: Institute ofSociety, Ethics,andthe Life Sci es'," BioScience, XXI (July 1,.1971), 735-737.

.4 . . 36. Carpenter, Morris. T: "Unionization of Professional Personnel': A Case , 99 s History," Research Management, II Viinter,. 1959), 221-230.

37.: Carter; Launor, F. *NationalDocument-Handling Systems in S'cience and Technology," Science; CLIf (becember 9, 1966),1299-1304. a .0 38. Cartter, Allan M."Scientific Manpower for 197 0-1'985, ''science, CLXX II (Apill 9, 1971), 132-140. , 39. Chain, Ernst B."Social Responsibility and the Scientist,"New Scientist, XLVIII (October 22, 1970), 1'68-170. o' 40.. .Chase, J."NOAH and OceanographicResearch- -Wet SA Idea Dries 'Up," Science, CLXXIII .(July 16, 1971), 216-217; 2 221.

#. I

8 O r- Or. 4

82 . , Science and Technologyas Social Forces \ . .0 -, * .. .. '' \*)". 41g. Chastain, Clctfic-E. "Science? Technology jand EconomicGrowth," Im- pactff kience on Society, XIV 4., . .. o. (Number 4, 1 964), 239448.. ' 4, . 42.- Cleland,Roiph E."The 14ernotiOnal Ltnion'of Biological . SCiences," AIBS Bulletin -(BioSciencs,), VI (Jwe,' 1956),10-11:

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66. Feld, Berlard T."Scientist's Role in Aims Control,' Oulletin of torn-

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4 ' 70. France, Boyd. "Science at State: A Crisis'of Saatus," Scientific Researcfi, 4 II (April,, 1967), 47 -50. gt.- '

71. Frisch, David H."Scientists and the Decision to Bomb Japon,". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVI (June, 19701 107-115.

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80. -Goodrich, Hubert R., RObert,HiKnapp, and George 4W. BoehM. "The i Origins of U. ,;.Scientists,"Scientific' 1/4erican, CLXXXV (July,v s 0 19515-17.0 .

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85. Gross, Paul M. "The Fifth Estate in the Seventh Decade=-The Status of. Science end Scientists in the 1960'sReviewed," Science, CXLII(Jan- ' 'uary 3;9164), 13 -20,, . s1 86. . Grubel, Herbert G."Foreign Scientists in -the United Stiites,"iiillet\in of tile Atomic,,ScientistIXXY1 (April, 1970), 9-12. ..\ , . 87. .-, ..0. Haber;r, Joseph."Politics and theCommunity of Science," American Behavioral Scientist, X (May, 1967),10-12; 2T-13.

88. ..Halsted,Thomas A,."Lobbyfrig against the ABM," .1k Bulletin of the Atomic %. .Scientists,-.XXVII (April,: 1971,),-23 -2'8.

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:91., "Seience's'COntinuingliale," 'NIBSBulletin (BioScience), XX (October 15, 1970), ,IVOI-1106. . a 921 , Haworth, Leland J."Scientists and Society,"'.Physics , Today, XVI (July, .t. .,. 1 963), 19-22. ', ' .. . . Ilk < --, . . . . . , . ? 3. ' °. Hayes, John R. .. "Reseagch, TeOching,nd Faculty Fate,,5ciegce,CLX.X111,, a. It .(April 16, 1 971), 227-230. . , . , . , _ . , . 94. Healey,frank H. "job StOKAfor. ttie Research Scient-ist,"ResealitMan- .. ,.- .agement, III Mintlbr, 1960), 239.-244.1 .- .. . a

= I # ,

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122 Lerner, Danierand Albert H. Teich."Internationalism and-World PolitIcs among CERN Scientists," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists! XXVI (Feb- .9 ruary, 1970), 4-10. III 123. Long, Franklin*. '"Scientists in Foreign Affairs: Wheie Do We Go Now'?," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXIII (March, 1 967), 14 -18.0 124. Lonsdale; Kathleen:r'Sciehtiits and the People," Bulletin of the Atomic k Scientists, XIV (September,.1 958);42-245. . f O. 4

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129. Mather,. Kirtleif F, ."Geology, Geologitts, and the AAAS,"Science, . giliamiApril 24, 1959), 1106-1111. . 1 , .. . .. ,1 . ,. 130.r,Meeker, D. plan. "Doctors and Politics," urnal of thi Americon:Med-' ----,k I. 'Lad Assolprion, CLXVI (March 15,.19511); 1313- 1315. - - 7, . . ) -, 131. MellOhbf, K Terence Price, and J. R. Ravetz."Confliebt of Loyalty in Science,P Niature, CCXXXIV (November 5, 1971), 1 7-21. wo . 132. -_'Meraier,Alvin. }'Brains for Sale," Bulletin of the AtomicScientists,XXIV 1 . -,' (March, 1 968), 38 -46. 1, , . : \ ; - 133. Merton, Robert K . and Richard Lewis."The Compefit ve Pressures (I): ,The Race forte Priority," Impact or Science on Society, XXI.' (April-June, 1971); 1151-461. . . ,

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153. Price, Dom K. "Purists aiPoiiticions," Science., CLXI It (January 3,.1 969), 25-31.

154.. "The Scientific Establishment," Science,CXXXVI (June29, 1962), 1006-1009.

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156. Pupwash Newsletter."Role of Science and Sientists in National and 'Warld'Affairs,"'Pu.gwash Newsletter, VII (July,.1969), 4 -15.

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169. Rossi,',Alice S."Womer) in SCience: Why So Few?" Science, CXLVII 44' (May 28,1965), 11 96-12 02.

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2.:. ' 1 . 1B1`.--_ Shits,fithlvard A., ed."Amer Vi;Ptilicy and Foreign Scientists,'

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gis 1 91. .Strassenburg, Arnold A. "Supply and Demand for Physicists," Physics To-. day, XXIII (April, 1970), 23-28. r

192. Subarsky, iachariaht "What Is Science -Ta Ien ' ScientifickAonthlx; , ,LXVI (May; 19';48), 377-382. ,el 1 93. Taylor, Calvin W. and Robe0 L. Ellison."Biographical PredictAss of Scientific Performance," Science, CLV (Mari 3, 1967), 1071W080.

48, = 1194. Taylor, Robert.S. ,"*Planning a Colloige Library for the SeventieS," Educa- tional Record; L 1969), 426-431, 44

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1 96 Termon, F ..E. "Supply of,Scientific and, Engineering Manpower: Surplus or Shortage ?" Science; CLXXIII (July 30, 1971), 399-405. . . ;197. Terman, Lewis M."Are. Scientists Differ& " Scientific American, CXCII (January,1 965), 25-29.I 1 98. fhiinan'n, Kenneth V. and Robert W. Krause. . "The AIBS: Crises in Ret- "ospect, and the Outlook," Science, CLIII (July 2 9,1 966.), 507.

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1.. PA

I--

94 -Science.o.nclTechnologYas Social Forces ,oiss

r 24o.,Tr)itten, Merrioml. ..). "Soviet and U .5.f'rofession'al and Techrricol Man- , power," Scielitce, CXXVI (July 5, 1957), 131 -15. , ) ., 'I' , - , . 201. Waki-man,,Sel.man A. "Searhers and Researchers,"Peryiectives in Biology

and Medicine, V11 (Spring,1 964), 309 -320. . ,.- . 4 ; IrP 202. Walsh, John.' "RAND: R&D NonprofitPioneered a New Kinof Oroan- iiatiok :S.ed as a MOcterforOthers,Science.,-CXLIVAair 29,1964), 1112:1414; .1164; *AND: After NearlyTwo Decades of'Success-, g&D, Nonprofit Faces Newlasks,- New RiVals," Ibid. (June,5,.1 964), 1205'' . , 1207.: . z- *. . Is .. . . 203. %del.W.-. "ScientificResearch as a Career,," Nature, CXCVI I (February

23, 1 963), 737-740.. : . ; .. Z04. 'Waterman, Alan T. . "So1,tenttsts and the Making of Notional Policy," Sci- ence, CX1. V (June 19 1964), 1438 -1439. 4444... f 44, ''. k t . . . 4 t . 205.: Wheeler, F.. -",,The Sholw Must Go-On," Mew SciewistandScience journal,

,L (April 22,4971 ),-204-205, . ., .

206. WienereNorbert... "tritel lectualTt Honesfy:and theContemporary dentist," ---,

American Behavioral Scientist, VIII (November, OA,15111 8. . . ,.., . ; , . t 207. Wigodsky, Herman S. "Scientists, Scientific Societies, andoheArmed Forces,"AScience, OX (August 1 5,.1 949), 135-13;..:, .- , ... ' ill*- -. 208.Wilson, John FI,.;:jr."Better Written"Journ0 Papers--Who Wants Them?"4,

' SCi'e'tri'CICLXV (September 5;1 96§,),. 986-987. . . s ' , , . . so . 209:,,.Wilson, Robeit R. "TheCionscience Ofa Physicist, " Bulletin Onke Atomic. nientistS, XXiil (June, 1970),&30 -34. , , -, : . '.*V 1 r 210.: WO.,.tt.Le, 1..).'and Xis:Wile% 1/..10 "the Future Market for' Ph.,D's," 1Science, , . CLX X I 11, (Augusi271 9704;184-793. . s 1 .

. . 1 , 14 1. . Zhmutislgy.f.t "The Scientist's Res,p6nsibilitytowardsSociety,"tm:pact . - .. of, Science on.., SoCietVirl XIII (Numfier 4, i 063), qoi-310, dl .., I - 12,Ziman, Jkhn M.-`, "InfOrmatiOn, coinmunrcbtion; Knowled6e""' 'Nature;

COOUV(,October 28.1969) '318-326.' : t .s, . ! , .*:. . S' , .. I ' t ' 3

:/' .1, .. *. 4; ..

" ,

; . I .S - s't ti 1/4. _Ay

41. 4

Scientific.Work.ln Technological Societies 95`'

213. ,Ziman., John M. "New Knowledge for Old," Mature, CCXXVW(August 29, 1970), 890-894.,it - .

;41' . . . . ., . 2:fl( . "Soial Responsibility (I): The Impact ciftSocial Responsi.,7 bility on'Sctence,"(pctof Science on Socie-ty, XXV11 (April-June, . 11-2-122. . 197)), 14 2155 .Zuckerman,. Harriet and R2bert K. Merton."Patterns of Evaluation in Science: `Institutionalisation, Structure, andFunctions of the Referee System," Minetrvbq, IX (January, 1971), 66-100.

Generll References: Books

216.Also.p, Joseph and-Stewart Alsop. We Accusyi TheStory of the 'Miscar- . ,-riage ofmericanJustice in the Case of .14obert Oppenheimer. New

'York:Sionand Schus'Per, 1954, 811. . . . , -,, . , , ,,,--, 217.. Baker, John R. icAcientifie Publicatidn.. Oxford: , - _ ., -, Socigy for Freedom in Science, 1 951i 14. . . ,ur,ri . ., 218. Barber, Bernard and Walter Hirsch, e4s. .74 Sociology of Science. .J\lew York: FreePre-ss of GlenCoe; 1942, a---2

. . 219. Bates, Ralph S.Scienrif(c Sociities in,,,he United States. Third Edition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: M. I. T. Press, 4965, 826. . :go c 220. Ben-Davis, J. The Scientist's 'Role in Sbicietj,,a COFnparative.Studi. Er -' .. glew bod Cliffs; New Jersey:. PrenticeL-Hall, 1971, 20F. .* 6.; . .

I, 221. Beardsley, Edward H.The Rise' of the American ,Ch.emistry.1-ofession, 1850-1900. Gainesville: University of FloridarPress, 1967,6. * 4 .. , 222. ' Brown, 'Martin, ed.' The Social Responsibilityo7.1:he-Scientist:London: - ..- Coll ier-Macmillian, 1971, 282: . 0 ,

..* 223. ,Calhoun, D,Sniel H.The American Civil Engineer. ,Cambridge, Massa- . . churtts: -Te:hnology Press, 1960, iiv,4295.1 - . , i- . .- -.. n, 224. Carter,i Launor F :; et al..:National DocumenfeRandling Systems for Sci: ence and Technology. New.York: Wiley, 1967, 344. .... 4

ab . 96 Science arki.Technolgy as Social 'Npr'ees

225. Collison,"Robert.Abstracts and Abstracting Services. Santa Barbara, California: Clio, 1971, 122.' 7 226. Commoner, Barry. Science and Survival. New York: Viking Press, 1'964, 150.

, 227.. otgrover.Stephenand Steven Box. Science, Industry,and Society. Lon- don:. Allen and Unwin,970,-211.

228. Cox, Donald W. ,America's New Policy-Makers: The Scientist's Rise to Power New York and Philadelphia: Chilton, 1964,, xiv, 298.

229. Crane, D Sociotogy of Science : Bibliography. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Masiac usetts Institute of Technology; 1 97127. ."

230. Dalenius, T., A. Karlsson,and S. Malmquist.Scientists at Work. Stock- holm . Almquist and Wiksell, 1970, 259.

231. Danielson, Lee E..Characteristics of Emginegrs and Scientists:Signifi- cance for Their Motivation and Utilization.Ann Arbor: Bureau of In- dustrial Relations, University of Michigan, 10, viii, 136.

232. Dedijer, Stevan and L. Svennington)eds.Brai Drain and Brain Gain: A Bibliography on Migiation of Scientists, Engi eers, Doctors, and Students. Lund, Sweden: Research Policy Program, 196,48.

233. DeReuck, Anthony and Julie Knight, edl.Communication in Science: Documentation and Automation.Boston:Little, "Brown 1967, 274.

234. Dickson, Paul.Think Tanks. New York: Atheneum,1971, 370:

235. Ecological Society of Amerita.National Instituteof Ecology: Ah Oper- ational Plan.New London, Connecticut: EcolOgical.Szycietyof Amer- ica, 1970, 42.

236. Eisner, Henry, Jr. The Technocrats: Prophets of Automation. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1967, 252. I

237. Feuer, Lewis F. "The Scientific intellectual: The Psycholpgital and Socio- logical Origins of Modern Science. New York: Basic Bocts,1963, xii, .441.

9" O

Scientific Work in Technological Societies 97

238. Fowler, Maureen J.Guides to Scientific Periodicals: Annotated Bibli- / ography.London: Library Association, 1966, xvi, 318.

239. Gilpin, Robert and Christopher Wright, eds.Scientists'and National Pol- icy-Making. New York: Columbia University Press, 1964, viii, 408.

240. Glaser, Barney G..Organizational Scientists: Their Professional Careers. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1964, xix, 140.

241. Hctberer, foseph. Politics and the Community of Science.NewYorlsi, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1969, 337.

242. Hagstrom, War4en 0. The Scientific Community. New York: Basic Books, 1965, 320.

243. Heifenberg, Werner. Physic,s and, Beyond: ,Encounters and Conversations. New York: Harper and Row, 1.970, 247. '0 :244. Hill, Karl, ed.The Management of Scientists.Boston: Beacon Phss, 1964, xv, 143.

,, r Q245. Internationau, for Conservation ofNatureand Natwal Resources. 'IUCNYeorbook 1970._, Ed.by Robert I .Standish. Morges, Switzer- land: IUCN, V71,98.

246. .Jacobson, Harold K. and Eric Stein.Di plomats,,Scientists, andPoliticians: The United States and the Nuclear Test Ban Negotiations. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1966, 5,38.

247. Klaw, Spenceg.The New Brahmins:Scientific Life in America. New Yorls: Morrow, 1968, xiv, 315.

248. Kcirpliauser, William. Scientists in Industry: Cdnflict and ACcommodation Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962, xii, 230;

249. Lapp, Ralph E.The New Priesthood. New York: liarper and Row; 1%5, 244.

250. LaYtot?c Edwin T.The Revolt of the Engineers, Cleveland, Ohio: Press of Case Western Reserve University, 1971, 286.

251, Led*, Leonard A.Manpower Needs for National Goals in the 1970's. New York: Praeger, 1969, 183. 4

QS 'S'cienceand Technorogy ps Social Forces

1 252. Lindveif, Earl W.Scientists in Government'. Washington, q. . :Pub- lic Affairs Press, 1960, 85.

\253. 'Lynn, Kenneth S. and the Editors of Daedalus. TheProfessions in Amer- ica. New York:Houghton, 1965, 273.Includes:"Aspects of the Professionkization of Science"by John J. Beer and W.' David Lewis; and "The,Amirican ggineer" by C. Richard Soderberg.

254. Mattfield, Jacquelyn A. and Cavol E. VaniAken.Womenand th Scien- tific' Professions: The M.I.T. Symposiumon American Womein Sci- enceand Engineering. Cambridge, Massachusetts:M.I.T: Press, 1965, 272.

255. Michelmore, Peter.The Swift Years: The Robert OppenheimerStory. Newrork: Dodd, Mead, 1969, 273:

256, -Mottur; E. . Cohv.ersion of Economic and Technical Resources:Eco- nomic gal I engeSocial Opportunity.Washington, D.,C Program of PoliCy Studies.in Science and Technology, GedrgeWa ingtorf U- 'niversity, 1971, 201.(GWPS-Mon a)

257.'Natio na I Academy of Sciehces.Scientific, Technical, and:Related So- cietPes of the United States. NinthEdition. Washington, D.C.: Na- tional Academy.of Sciences, 1971, 213.(ISBN 0- 309 - 01860 -9)

258. . Committee on Scientific and Technical Communicbtion. Scientific and Technical Communication: A Pressing NatidhalProblem and RecommendatiQns for Its Solution.Washington, D.C.: Notionalta Academy or Sciences, 1969, 322. )

259. National Academy of Sciences-Nbtional Research Cour3Fil.Scientific and Technical 'Societies of the U.S. and Cartla.Seventh Edition. Washinton, D.C.: Notional Academy of Sciences-NationalResearch COuncil,'1961, 413, 54,(Publication No. 900)

1 200.,National. 'Science Foundation. American Stience Manpow'er, 1968. Re-

port of the National Register of Scientific and Technical Personnel. Washington, b .0. : U . S. Goultrnment Printing Office,1969, 277. (NSF 69-38)

261. . Directory of Federal R&D Installations. Washington, D.0 U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970, 1044. C. Scientific Work ina Technological Society 99

262. National Science dation. .Emeloyment of Scientific and Technical Personnel in St Government Agencies. ( Report on 'a 1959 Survey Washington, D. C US.. Government Printing Office, 1961, 67. (NSF 61-17)

263. . Salaries and Selected Characteristics of U.S. Scientists; 1970. Reviews of Data on Science Resources". Washington,-D.0 U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970, 8.(NSF 7b-50)

O 264. Science and Engineering Doctorate Supply and Utilization,..

1969 -1980.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Priling Office, .- 1969, 33., (NSF 69-37)

265.' . Science and Engineering DoctoriateSupply and Utilization, 1969 -1980. Washington, _D.C.: U .5. Government Printing Office, 1971.(NSF 71 -20)

266. . Activitiesof Independent Nonprofit Institutions, 1970. Report of a Survey of 1970 Employment and 1 969,Expenditures. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Goverriment Printing Office, 1971, 63. lip

287.. . Scientific, Technical, and Health Personnel in the Federal'.

Government, r969. Washington'? D.C.: U.S. Government Printing, , Office, 1970, 40.(NtSF 70-44)

268. . Unemployment Rate for Engineers, June-July, 1 971.Science Resources Studies Highlights.Wckshington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971, 4.(NSF 71-33

269. . Unemployment Rates.for Scientists, Spring 1971. Science. 3 ResoUrces Studies Highlights.Washington; D.C.: U.S. Goveinment Printing Office, 1971, 4.(NSF 71-20

270. Nelson, Camot E. and Donald K. PolloCk, eds. Communication among Scientists and Engineers. Lexington, Massachusetts: Heath Lexington, 1970, 346.

271. Nelson, William R., ed.The Politics of Science: Readings in Science, 6°169y, and Government. London: Oxford University Press, 1968, oir 495. , at

100 .r - Science and Technology as Socidl Forces'

272. abler, Paul C. andHerman A. Estrin, eds:The NeScientist: Essays on the Methodsoand Values of Modern Sci,ence.Garden*City, New York:. Dobbleday,, 1962, 316.

273, Ornstein; Martha. The Role of Scientific Societies in the Seventeenth Centdry. Chicago: University, of Chicago Press, 1929, xiv, 308.'

274/Or.th, Charles D., I l l, Joseph C. Bail, and Francis W..Wolek. Admin- litering Research and Develop ent--The Behavior of Scientists and Engineers in Organizations.Homewood4 Illinois:. Richard D. Irwin, 1964, x, 585,. A casebook, but note chapters 6-8: c, 4 . 1275. Pelz, Donald C. and Frank M..Andrews.Scientists in Organizations: Productive Climates for Research' and Development. New York: Wiley, 1 966, 318.

. 276. price, Derek J. de Sol la.Little Science, Bi Science. New York: Co- lumbia University Press, 1963, 119.

277. Price,iDon K. The Scientific Estate. Cambridge, Maisachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1965, 323. t r -278. Rabi, Isidor I., Robert Serber, V.F. Weisskopf, A. Pais, and GlennT. S'eaborg.Oppenheimer. New York: S'cribner's, 1 969, 90

279. Reid, Robert W. Tongues of Conscience: War and the Scientist's Dilemma. London: Constable, 1969,352,.

280; Rotblat, Joseph:, Pugwash--The first Ten Year?:History of the ConfeF- erences of Science' and World Affairs.LonclOn-: Heinemann, 1967, 244.

281. Royal_ Society of London.Emigration of Scientists ,from the United King- doni;.London: loyal 'Society of London, 1964, 32. ) 282, School4r,'Dean, Jr.Science, Scientists, and Public P6licy.New York: r. Macmillan Free Press, 1971, 337. ' 283.' Skolnikoff, Eugene43.Science, Technology, and American Foreign Pol- icy. Cambridge,. Massachusetts: M.I.T. Press, 1967, 330. 284. Snow, Charles F. Public,,ffairs.New YOrki _SCribner's, 1971, 224. - ./

/If /

Scientific Work, n Technological Societies 101

285: Stern, Phi 14 M. The Oppenheimer Case: Securityon Trial. New York: Harper and Row, 1969, 591. ,.

286. 'Storer, Norman W.The Social System of Science. New York: Holt,

Reinhart, and Winston, 1966, 180. ,

287. Strauss, Anselm L. and Lee Rainwater.The Professional Scientists: A Study of American Chemists. Chicago: Aldine, 1962, 282.

288. Strickland, Donald A.Scientists in Poli tic,: The Atomic Scientists Move ment,1 945 r 1 956 Lafayette,Indiana:Purdue :University Studies, 1968, 149.

289. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization.Di- . rectory of International Scientific Organizations. 'Second Edition.. Paris: UNESCO, 1953, 312.

290. 'U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.Universities, National Laboratories, and Man's Environment. Oak Ridge, Tennessee: Division of Techni- cal Information, U.S. At mic EnergiCommission, 1969, 1 68. -,(CONF- 690705)

291'. U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Education and Labor.' General Subcommirreeon Education.National Science Research Data Proces- sing and Information Retrieval System.HeaiTngs before the Subcom-, mittee to the 91st Congress,1st Session, April,.1 969.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969, 405. r .1 292. . Committee on Foreign, Affairs. Subcommittee on Interns= tional Organizations and Movements. International Council of Scien- tific Unions.Hearing before the Subcommittee to the 89th Congress, 1st Session, June 7,'1965.Washington, D. C.: .U.S. Government' Printing Office, 1965, 40.

293. . Committee on Science andAstronautics. The Management ---;n7r--,°motion anirKnowledge. .Proceedings of the Eleventh Meeting of the Panel on Saenee and Technology before the Committee to the 91st Congress,.?n4tessiort, January, 1970. Washington, D.C.:. U.S..

*Government Printirti(Office, 1 970, 237.(No. 15,.27-29) .

, # 102..

.1 102 Science andlTechnology as Social Forces . , a

Congress.Senate,Committeeon Commerce,Subcommittee on Oceanography. Federal QceanicandAtmosphericOrganization. Hear- , ings before the Subcommittee to the 91st Congress, 1st and 2nd Sessions, December 17, 1909 -Jay 4, 1970 (Two Parts. Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing pffice, 1970, 1286.

295. . CommitteeonCommerce. Subcommittee onllOceanognaphy. Reorganization Plan flo.14 of 1 970 to Createa National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in the Department orCommerce.Hearings before the Subcommittee to the 92nd Congress1 2ndSession, July 27, 1970. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government PrintingOffice, 1970, 18.

296. . Committee on Government Operations..Izoorganization Plan No. 4 of 1970, Providing for the Establishment ofa National Oceanic

and Atm- osphericAdministration in the Departmentof Commerce.Senate 411k Report 91-1242 to accompany Senate Resolution 433, 91stCongress, 2nd Session, September 2:1970. Washington,D.C.: U.S. Goviern-' ment Printing Office, 1 97a, 15:

297. . Committee On Public Works. TheCase for-NationalEnvi- ronmental Laboratories.R/eport prepared by, the AdHoc NEL Concept Committee, Oak Ridge National., Laboratory for theCommittee. Wash- ington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970,40.

6. , 298. U:S. Department of Commerce. NOAA PhotoessayNo. 1: A New A- gency. Rockville, Maryland: Office of Public Information, National OceaniO and Atmospheric. Adniinistration, 1970, 8.

299. U .S : Department of Labor. Bureau of LaborStatistics.Federal Spending and Scientists and Engineer Employment.Washington,- D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Qffide, 1970, 46.

300. U.S. Federal Cbuncil for Science, and Technology..Proceedings--First Symposium: Current Problems in the Managementof Scientific Personnel, October 17-18, 1963. Washington, D.C.: U.S.Government Printing, Office, 1964, 131.

301. . U.S. Civil Service CommissiOn. Proceedings--Third Sy;r1- ' posium: The Environment of the FederalLaboratory, December 7-8, 1964. Washington, D.C.; -U.S. GovernientPrinting Office, 1965, ,, I -2-57

1 0 Ir Scientific Work in Technological SociAties - 103

302. U.S. Library of Congress. Legislative Reference Service. SciencePolicy and Research Division'.Inter4ciplinary Research--An Exploration of Public Policy Issues.Prepared4for the Subccerimitteeon Science, Re- search, and Development of fhe Committeeon Science and Astronautics, U.S.House of Representatives, 91st Congress, 2nd Session, by Genevieve J. Knezo. Washington; D .0 q.s. Government Printing Oftisce, 1970, 106.

303. WaVelin, J. H., Jr. The National .Stake in 8etter Technical Information:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department' of Commerce, 1971, 9.

304. Wallia, C.S., ed.Toward Century 21: Technology, Society, and Human *Values. ,New York: Basic Books, 1 970, 318.

305. Walton, Richard E.The Impactof the Professional Engineering Unions-- A Study of Collective Bargaining among.Engineers and Scientists and Its Significance for Management. Cambridge,,Massachusetts: Harvard Uni- versity, Division of Research, Graduate -School of Business Adminrai tian, 1,961, xiii, 419. Biblio.

10 306. Watson, James D.The Double ix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA. Niew York: Atheneum, 1968, 266.

307. Wolfle, Dael. The Uses of Talent.Princeton, New Jersey;Princeton University Press, 1971, 204.

308. Ziman, John M.Public Knowledge: The Social Dimension of Science. Landon: Cambridge Univer.sity Press, 1966, 148. t

1. Scientific Work in Technological Societies

LEADING QUESTIONS

1.Why is science as a profession soatimes comparedto a priesthood? Is the ,analogy" in any sense valid? What doe's it /neon?

'2.Are there discernible eleMents in ecientifiC work thait tendto cause.scientists to reuct in predictable ways to social issues? -For example, are there particular sOciefl attitudes or viewpoints associated *ithscience or with particular sciences?

3.How do you explaip recurreffr surpluses and shortagesamong scientists and engieneets? WhOt policies would be required to avoidrepetition oisuch yoccUrrences?

4.What conse uences follow from the naivoe of certain prestigious scientists regarding-mass.social behavior and a paralleling naivete im societygeneralti regarding the charactgr and capacities of scientists?

5. My has the employmErt of scientists ingovernment oocasioned so much study" and concern? What have been OA principal complaints of the;government scientist against his employers? Of public officials againstsome scientists?

6.What changes, if any, in the education of scientists and technicians would improve the quality of their contributions to science andto society?.If changes, are indicated, how might they most 'effectively be implemented?

7.If scientists who leave scientific work fog bdministrative ciadvisory responsi- bilitiessare still consid;red "scientists," *whyare science-trained physicians and' engineers not considered scientists,even x5en they are actively usjng scientific knowledge aced methods?

8. w important is the problem of commuhicatioriamong the science occupqtions and etween them and other occupational groups?What, ifanything,\can be done to alleviate the difficulties? 1

9.What problems has the information explosion caused in scientific and techn fields? What have been some of/ip remedies, actual and proposed? 4F. 10. What has been the role of scientists in'theorr:rt lotion of nationalgipolicy?. Should their participation increase in the formation of goals and priorities What contributions are scientists making to international policies for scienc and technology?

105 t

) TOPIC 05 SCitNCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND HIGHkEDUCATION

,,Man's knowledge of iealit(is both personal and social.The growth of civilization is measured by the accumulation and organization of knowledge. Con- temporary man may have no greater intellect than did the mon of Cro-Magnon. But he 'possesses an accumulating grid transmissible culture that extends his knowledge far beyond direct pers.6nal experience. gt.

The organization of knowledge into academic disciplines, or bodies of information and method called sciences, is artificial .The sciences are convenient rays of.strOcturing knowledge, but the structures are constantly under stress as the %ub- stapce and significance of knowledge Change. A major task of higher edification in the technOscientific age is the reorganization of knowledge. -Two contrasting processes'characte'rize the expansion 'of scientific knowledge. The first is specialization.Sciences such as chemistry and microbiology have been subdivided into ever more specific fields ofspecialization. The secor1d is synthesis.Hybrid sciences, such as biophysics and geochemistry, form new specialties out of fusLons between previously established icienees . And broadly inclusive synthesizing sciences or scientific concepts, such as ecology )or general systems the *y, move toward the . integration of scientific knowHedge. and the systematic structuring of the unity of science&

The expansion and specializatiOn of scientific knowledge 'created difficulties in the education of scientific workersand of citizens generally.For example, how much understanding of traditional culture; or of nonscientificcAcepts and values, is it desirable for scientific workers to possess?Particularly in a self-governing society, is it enough for scientists to know science--or should fhey4tnow more to be effective as citizens or as fully developed human beings? And sin a technoscientific society what'do citizens .need to know about science and technology? Can the great powers,, inherent in technoscientific knowledge be effectively controlled or responsibly used in a society in'which the mass, of the people does not .comprehend-the nature and implications of science or technology?.

By the later half of the 17th century, the power of science andtechnology to servethemnterests of the state had beguntS4e4erceived in European governmehts. . Official patronage of science and technology began with the establishment of a- casmies and, in the 19th century, was expressed in the founding of advanced schools of technology (e.g., les Grandes Ecoles in'France)andbypublic!inancial support for faculties, institutes, and laboratories for scientific training and research. By mid-20th century, education for science and teehnology had become a major commitment in all technoscientifically advanced societies and was promoted and assisted by international agencies.

1.06 r t ( 4 4 I

1 08 - Science'and Technology as Social- Forces . , / ti / TOPIC 05 SCIENCE, TECHNOLO9Y, AND HIGHER EDUCATION \ .

il . Selected Basic Readings: 4 . _ Ben-David, Joseph."The Universities and the Grow* of Science in Germany and r the United States," Minerva, VII (Autumn and Winter, 1968), 1 -35. ) Bevan, William."Science in the Universities in the Decade Ahead'," American Scientist, LIX (November-December, 197,1), 680-685.

. . Seitz, Frederkk."Science, the Universities, and Society," Americgn Scientist, . LVI (Autumn, 1968), 288-297. 4

Weiss, Paul. "science in the Universityk " DaedalusXCI II (Fall, 1964), 1181218. t A (1 Wilson, John T.."A Dilemma orAmerican Science and Higher Educational Policy: The Support of Individuals and Fields versus the Support of Universities," Min-

erva, IX (April, 1971), 171 -196. 4

Supplementary and Substitute Readings: --,

Brown, Gordon S. "Can Universities Fulfill the Challenge of Relevance ?" Tech- nology Review, LXXIII (October-November, 1970), 25-31.

11. Ferdinand, Theodore- N.'"On the Obsolescence of Scientists and Engineers," A- merican Sc,ientist, LIV (March, 1 966), 46-56. ' 0,

. I . Handler, Philip. "The Federal Government and the Scientific Community, "Science, I CLXXI (January 15, 1971), 144-151.

,.. Kash, Don E E. "Research and Development at the Uniyersity," 'Science, CLX A (June 21, 1968), 1313- 1318.' 1- l .

,IP N t 0 Todd, Alexande R."A Time to Think," Advancement of Scierice, XXVII (Sep- tember, 1970), 1-6. ( '.,

...

.. 1 4,.. .. 107 4 i 1 / . - ve r . TPP1C 05-SCIE,NCETTEC*OLbGY, ANDHIGHEMUCA1t6N #109

t '' ' . ,a ..-t s `.. - i. TOPICAL OUTLINEN' q- RE R NCE KEY ...

';',. '46'.'''.- . ...., .- , ',P!\. t''' r I, . .,,,.,4 y., .`e.",,.. ' 24 I.I The Coiri-6ula sof.171i-gher tducation as Expressive . . . , ofthe State and Configuration.of Knowledge 2, )4;157, 175, . . 1.84, 186, )87; . _ ., ,.. , - . 204, 252 ",, A.Th"Sciences" as fcrmalizedorganisations

ofnowledge , - , . 1. Physical ,_., 19, 190

2. Biological. ,

a. Behafigral clod social 20, 63 . 4. Interface areas, the "border" sciences

1B. Evolution of scientific Nechnical disciplines ,. ... 4 I. .----- 1.Fission and fusion inihelthouseoflcience,"" 30 4

2. Emeetence of techooscientific profession61 . -,. I. education. , 96,084. 4 a'. Biomedicine 24, 52, 59, 101, 1.08,134, 1461,

b. AgricultUre 1 ". 20'.

c. Engineering .,- 5, 26, 83489, 125, 127, , d. Social work e. Law enfercement____ f. Administration g. Education and training 3. How interdisciplinary andultidisciplinary fields emerge 31; 41

C. Need for general scientific "literacy" and efforts to meet the need in the university4 ,S. nor : 4.0 180, 231 D.The social content oftecherraleducation -- the.growirtg imperative for "s6cia.1.1iteracy" among scientists, physicians, and bngineers *id.39, 46,.237

0:; I o ' 111

. , . tilk ;Science and Te'clinologyas.Social Forces

IL.- Relation of Basic Scierfte,tci Applied Science and Technology in Higher Education .34, 186; 200

A.SCience in, the academic tradition 19,37,64, 176, 198, 231 1'. Humanist objections to science and `technology 2. Scientist's aysersiontotests of practiCality if 3. Role.of science in general education

B. Public roponse to the need for d'dvanced technoscientific education 78, 94, 227, 253 1. A EUropean example- -the great technical, schools .of France

2. Some Amer'ican responses - 21;205' a. Morrill Land Act lo". Medical education 131 c. Sea Grant Program 243 d. Intergovernmental Personnel Act 3. ,Technical 'Institutes 2,47,62,S4, 110,20Q' a. Massachusetts Institute 6f Technology b. Califomialnstifute of Technology

C.Pr'oblems of specialization; depth and breadth in scientific and technical education 73, 82, 98, 132, 161, 178, 189 1,, Rapid obsolescence of inforrn'atiorti 57, 107, 143, 149 2, fOver-speciatization 30, 46,.158, 160- 'lam Identification of reilfvanCe .22, 89 4. Educating the whole person 8, 66,'69; 81, 106, 135;152, 16 D. ;Application of science and technology to 9 improving the zedkational process 155, 191i 224, 241, 248 1. En1arqiig individu'alized conditions of

. -learning 11, 18, 97,224 . 2. Improving techniques and capabilities in: the organization and management of higher education 133,',244, 245

.1.0 0 "*

Science, Technology.; and Higher Education 111

44 ..41' Overcoming technical and informa. tional obso,lesceace; the growrh-of mid-career . education-Act third revel inhigher education . 14, 57, 59, ; 107, 149, 163, 237 4. Recording and retrieval of information (Cf. Topic 04)

Ill.Interaction among she Disciplines in Higher Education.--An Aspect of the Changing Con- % figuration of Knowledge 14,25, 51, 56, 80,148, 198 A.Influence of the "natural" sciences in the social and behavioral sciences t; 3 1. Underdeveloped study of the biological basis,of human behavior--effects upon anthropology, economics, and' political science 79,201 2., Influence of physical science concepts and methods on biology and the social scienci-ttie, relevance 9f quantification 22,157 3. Needlor integrative concepts find more I fruitful approaches to the study of social behavior 37,50, -65, 102, 178

4. Emergence of science policy and environ- . mental studies as fields combining the natural and social sciences 23, 32, 49, 53, 55, 85, 100,

128 138, 202, 4 2,,,,,229, 236, 252 B. Scientific concepts and methods in the arts and

'humanities (a continuation of Topic 03) . 119, 120, 235 1. Physics and music-theory-instrumentation accoustics 142 c 2. Scientific technology ih the graphic and plastic arts 3. Scientific technology in archaeology and 'history

110 112 , Science and Technology as $,ocial Forces

4. Scientific methods in literary an8-57(tual criticism and inlinguistics

C. influence of the sciences in relationshipsamong a professional disciplines- -their alaniff!staton41v. in teaching and research 184, 198, 234, 237 1. Law and medicine (forensic /medicine)._ 2; Physiology, psychology,/ andengineering . (human engineering, bio-instrumentation) 201 3. Pharmacology, chemistry, and agriculture (nutrition and toxicology) 4. Crimiriology and justice (scientific analsis in prevention and detection of crime)'

IV. Broader Impact of Noftenal Policieson Higher Educa- tion for Science and Technology 17, 18, 31, 36, 60, 97, 99, 121, 150, 156, 165, 166, 375, 4181, 192, 196, 210, _226, '256 A aEffect of the growing relotionshrp between highef'education and economic growth 12,77, 92, 103, 111, 133, 193 1. Amount and substahtive allocation of public funds 58, 129, 171, 177, 1 94, 208, 209, 215, 217, 218, 219, 228 2. Location of universitiessandresearch centers 6, 15, 44, 204 3. Closer ties between high-technology industries and academia r 105, 144, 256.4 . Growing investment of national, government in higher education, especially through aid of scientific research 41, 68, 71, 86, 90, 94, 114,. 122, 123, 15.1, 170, 206, 213, 220, 238

111 s1 S

:4P

Science, Technology, and Higher EckicaVion 113

5. Incivasing, costof hilher education and the changing basis of financial support ,1,0,,16, 40, 43, 88, 104, 111, - 112, 124, 141, 147, 179 B.Science and technological education relation #7 national programs and missions 29, 70, 199, 203, 230 1. Effects of changes in government policy on the institutions of higher education7 e.g., drag laws, research cut-backs, training grants, , 54, 75, 116, 117,137,145,- 154,159,168, 221,223,232, a 249 2. Links between mission agencies, national laboratories, and universities 35, 87, 95, 139, 174, .) 95, 212 3. Defense-oriented research oncampus- - a changing picture 45; 67, 130, 146, 169, 173, 182 0. 4. Problem-oriented research relating to national needs--the RANN Program of ,the National Science Foundation 118,126, 172 5. Special problin% of "dangerous knowledge," e.g., in psychology, genetics, pharmacology, and physical science (developed extensively in Topics 16-20) 28, 38, 64, 182

. I

112

. 1

Science, Technology, andli-ligher Education 115

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154: Sma4rWilliamE. "A Crisis within a Crisis," Scientificese'arch; Ill "W. (June 24.; 1N3,), 19 -20; 23-25.

155. Smith, Delbert D."Educational Satel lite Telecommunication: The Choi lenge-of aNew Technology,." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVII ,1 971), 14 -18,

156°. Snow, Joel A."Science and the Human Condition--An Introduction," BulletinV the Atomic Scientists, XXIV (October, 1968), 24-25.

157. Suits, C. Guy."Education and Science," 'American Scientist, XLVII (March, 1959), 60 -67. I 158. Taylor, Jarries. "Chemistry. Is *Nat Enough, or the Increasing Scope of S entists` Work in Industry," Advancement of Science, XVII (Septem- er, 1 960), 1 97- 206.

- - 159. Teter, D. P. "Higher Education:Funds Rise While &Alb Changes Are Deboted,".Science,410 CLXXIII (July.23, 1971)., 3D9731,1 4

q Science, Technology, and Higher Education 127

imp 160. Thirring, Hans. "The Step from owledge to Wisdom," American Sci- entist, XLIV (October, 19 445-456.

161. Tilson, Seymour. "Educating the .5cientist," International Science an Technology, Number 39 (March, 1 965), 46-53. ,

162. Todd, Alexander R."A Time to Think," Advancement of Science,VXVII (September, 1 970), 1-6.

163. Torpey, William G. "CofRpany Investment in Continuing Education for Engineers," Educational Record, XLV (Fall, 1964), 408 -413.

164. . "Fedea34-eovernment Investment in Continuing Ejucation for Engineers," Educational' Record, XLVI (Fall, 1965), 412-415.

165. Trachtman,..1.eon F. "Is Research Interfering with Teaching?" Industrial Research; Vi Vtpri I, 1964), '58 -65.

166. Vallane, Theodore R."The Government-University Relation to Social Science:, A Review of Some Issues," American Behavioral Scientist, X (June, 1-90), 28-32. -., ,167. Van Norman, Milord W. "UndergraduateTrairieinExperimental Re- search,".AIBS Bulletin (BioScience), VIII (April, 1958), 18 -20.

'' 168. Vetter, Betty M. -"The Drat'and Its Consequences," Scientific Resrch, III (September 2, 1 968), 38-40; 42.

169. Walsh, John."Confrontation at.Stanford: Exit Classified Research," Sci- ence, CLXXV (Ma'y 2, 1969), 534-537.

170. . "Congress: Subcommittee Surveys Effect of Fedeially Sup- ported Research on Higher Education,"..SciencE, CXLIX (July 2, 1 965), 42-44.

171. . "Higher Education: Mill Federal Aid Favor Students or ih-

. stitutions"1" Science, cLXXI (March 26; 1971), 1219 -1221.

172. ."National Science Foundation: Managing Applied Research," Science, CLXXV (February 11, 1972), 611-614.

173. - . "Stanford Research Institute: Campus Turmoil Spurs Transi- tion," Science,,CLXIV (MOy 23, 1969), 933-936.

1 9 t..7 1-$41 O

- , 1 .

128 . 'St ience and Techaplogyas SoCial Forces 119

174. Weinberg, Alvin M."The Federal Laboratories and Science Education," Science, CXXXVI, (April 6, 1962), 27-30.'..

1i5. Weiner, Charles."S8ience and Higher Education," in Science and Soci- ety in the United States, ed. by David D. Van Tassel I and Michael G:

Hall. Homewood, Illigois: Dorsey Press, 1966, 183-)89.,.. .

- . . , - 176.'Weiss, Pa-ul. "Science in the University," Daedalus, XCIII (Fall, 1964), 1184-1218.

177.,Wilson, John T. "A Dilemma of American Science and Higher Educational Policy: The Support of Individuals and Fieldsversus the Support *of U- niversities," Minenva,, IX (April, 1971), 171-196.

178. Winthrop, Henry.,"Needed Reconstruction in Education for a CybernCiting . Society," Educational Record, )41.V1 (Fall, 1965), 400-411.

179. Wolfle, Dael. 9"The Support of Solence in the U S"- Scientific American, CCXIII (Joly, 1965), 19-25.

180.- Woo rd, F. Peter."Sounder Thinking through Clearer Writing," Science, CLVI -(May.12, 1967), 743-745.

181 .York, C. M."Steps toward a National Policy for Academic Science," Science, CLXXII (May 14, 1971), 643-648.

General References: Books

182. Allen,Jonath4,ed.March 4:Scientists, Students, and Society. Cam- bridge, Massachusetts: M. I. T. Press, 1970, 177.

183. American Assembly. The F rdl Government and Higher Education. Ed, by Douglas McKnight. nglewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1960, 205. . . 1.....-- 184. Ashby; Eric.Technology ndtte.,Agidemics: An Essay on the Universities qnd the-Scientific Revolun. New York: Macmillan, 1958, vi, 117.

185..Ben-Dcivid, Joseph.Fundaniiintal .Riesearch and the Universities:Sorne Comments on International Differences.Paris: Organization for Eco- nomierooperation and Development, 1968.

126 t

Science, Technol , and Higher EducatiOn 129

186.. Blanshard, Brand, ed.Educat n in the A of Science.New'York: Basic Books, 1959, 30.

187. Bowden, Lord, Leo Goldberg, and °ger Gaudry. Science and the Univer-

sity. New York: St. Martin'sress, 1967, 104: .

188. (Brickman,'Wi I I iam H. and Stanleyehrer, eds.Automation, Education, and Human Values. New York:chbol and Society Books, Division of ,Society for the AdvanceMeni of E. ucation, 1966, 419.

189. British Associatibn, for the Advancern nt of Science.Leverhulme-,Study Group. The Com lete Scientists: n En into the PrOblem of A-, chieving Breadth in the Education ich931 and University of Scien -' tists, Engineers, and otherTechnologkts. New York: Oxford Univer- sity Press, 1961, 162.

._, 1 90...... -- Brown,- Sanborn C, and Norman Clarke,e .The Education of a Physicist. Cambridge, Massachusetts: M.I.T.M.I Pr ss, 1966, 183. 4 .

191. Chorafas, D. N.olke Knowledge Revolution. London: Allen and Univin, -. , 1968, 142. . 4 N

1 92. 'Consolazio, Wi I l iamY. The Dynaniics of Academic Science, Washington, D.C.: National .SOience Foundcttion, 1967, 190.

. s- 193. Dedijer, Stevan and L. Svennington, eds.Brain Drain and Brain Gain: A Bibliography on Migration of Scientists, Engineers, Doctors, and Students. Lund, Sweden: Research Policy Program, 1 907, 48.

194. Drew, David.. On the Allocation of Federal ds for Science Education: A Case Study of the NSF College Science Improvement Program. ',Wash- b ington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1970, 44.

195 Federal Council for Science and TeChnology. Education and Federal Lab- oratory-University Relationships. Proceedings of a Symposium, Octo- ber 29 -31, 1968. Washington, D.0 .: Federal Council for Science and Technology and American Council on Education, 1 96 9, 25.1.,

1 96. Folger, John K., Helen S. Astin, and Alan E. Bayer. Human Resources and Hi.gffecEducation.Staff Report of the Commission on Human Re- sources andAdvanced Education. New York: Russell Sdge Foundation, 1970, 480.

1?; -\ 130 Science and Technology as Social Forces

197: Gardner, JohnW. Nofasy Jctories. -New York: Harperand Row, 1968, 177.

198. 'Glass, H. Bentley.Science and Liberal Education. Baton Rouge:' Louis- la4d State Universitr Press, 1959,x, 115.

199. . The Timely and the Timeless: The Interrelationships of Sci- enceEducation, and Society.. Newldrk: Bask Books, 1970,9.

4 200. Graney, Maurice R.'the Te6hnidal Institute.NewYork: Center -for Applied Research in Educafion, 1964,x, 118.Biblio. R''

201: Grobman, A. B., ed. Soc ial ,lmplications of Biological Education. Prince- ton, New Jersey:Darv.lin Press,"1 971, 134.

'202. Harvard University erogramonTechnOlogy.andSoci-ety.Sixth Annual Re- port, 1969-1970. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Unimersity Press, 1971, 103. ' I 11' 203. Jevons, F. R.The Teaching of Science: Education, Science, and ,ociety. London: Allen and.Unwirt, 1969, 208.

204. ,Keenan, iloyd.R., ed.Science and the Uhiversity. New York: Colum- bia. University Wass, ) 966, 219. . - , , . .. . ._ 205. Kellogg, Charles.E. and David C. Knapp.The ;College of Agriculture: Science in the fublic Service., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966, 237. 1 ., 206. Ki dc), Charles V. Amer can Universi ti es and Federal Research.Cambridge, Massachusetts:, Harvard University Press, 1959,-272."

107. Machlup, Fritz.The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the U- nited States.Princeton, New,Jefsey: Princeton University Press, 1962, .

208. Marsh, Paul E. and Ross k..Gartner.Federal Aid to Science Education: Tw6 'Programs.Syracuse, New York: 'Syracuse University Press, 1963, xiii, 97.(The Economics and Politics of Public Education, NQ. 6)

209. National Academy,of Sdiences -National Research Council. Committee on Science and Public Policy. Federal Support of Basic Research in ,Institutions of Higher Learning.Washington, D.C.: -National Acad- emy of Sciences, National Research Council, 1964, 98.(Pub. 1185) . ,

41, 128 o

Science, Technology, and Higher Education 131

. s210. National Academy of Stiencei.Science, Government, and the Univer-* sities. Seattle and London: ,Liniversity of Washington Press, 1 966, 116.

211. . University Research and Patent Policies, Practices, and Pro- cedures. By Archie M.Palme. Washington, D.C..:.:41listional Aispd- emy of Sciences = National Research Council, 1962, 291. (Pub. 999) it 212. National Aeronautics and Space Admii nistration. A Study of NASAUni- versity Programs.Prepared by the Task force to Assess NASA Univer- sity Programs. Washington, D.C.: National Aerthoutics andpace Administration, Office of Technology Uti)ization,1 968, 79.(NASA SP-185)

213. National Research Counoil.The Invisible University: Postdoctoral Edu-' cation in the United States. Washington, D.C.:National Academy of Sciences, 1969, 312.

214. . Summary Report 1970:Doctorate, Recipients from United States Universities.National Research Council Report OSP-MS-4. Xshington, D.C.: National Research Council, 1971, 9.

215. National Science Foundation.The Dyhamics of Academic Science: A Degree Profile of Academic Science and Technology and the Contribu- tions of fedeilal.Fundtfor Academic Science to'UniversitiesandColreges Washington, National Science foundation,' 1967, 190.(NSF 67-6)

214. SEnvironmental Science--Challenge forthe Seventies. Third Report of the National Science Board. Washington, D.C.: U:S. Government Printing Office, 1971, 50:,

'217. . Feral Funds for Academic Science, Fiscal Year 1969. Washington, DI C.:U. S. Government Printing Office, 1971, 80. (NSF 71 -7)

. Federal Support of Universities and Colleges, Fiscal Year 1970. Science Resources Studies Highlights.Washington, National Science Foundation, 1971, 4. ,

219. . Federal Support to Universities, Colleges and,Selected Non- Profit Institutions, Fiscal Year 1969: A Report to the President and Congress.WashingtonD. C.:, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1971, 175. (NSF 70-27)

1 2 s 4 A -1

1 32 Science and Technology,as Social Forces

, A

220. NationaltScience Foundation.Graduate Student Support and,Manpower' Resources in Graduate Science Educaprion, Fall 1969. Surveys of Sci- !e'nce Resources Series.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Print- ing-dffice, 1970, 84.(NSF 70-40) ,

221. . Impact of Changes InFederal Science Funding Patterns on Academic Institutions, 1968 -1970. Washington, D.C.; U.S. Govern- ment Printing Office, 1970, 76. (NSF 70-48)

222. i . Resources for Scientific Activities at Universities and Jeges, 1969. Washington, D.C:: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1970, 152. .(NSF 70-16) 4 223. . Torard a Public Polk)) for Graduate Education in the Sci- ences.First-Report of the National Science Board. Washington, D.0 National Science Foundation, 1969, 63.(NSB 69-1)

224. -Oettirtger, Anthony G., with the collaboration of Sema Marks. Run, Computer, Run: The Mythology of Educational Innovation. Cambridge, Massaprusetts: Harvard University Press, 1969, 302.

225. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Develorimerit.Reviews of National Policies for Education. Paris: OECD. Three Volumes: Italy, 1,969, 280; Sweden, 1969, 70; and Netherlands, 0, 76.

226. . Reviews of ,National PoliciesforEduCation: United States., Paris: OECD, 1971, 432.

227. . Directorate for Scientific Affairs.Reviews of National Po icies for Scienceand Education: 'Higher Education and the Demond 'for Scientific Manpower in the United States.Paris: OECD, 1963, 102.

228. Orions, Harold.The Effects of Federal Programs on Higher Education: A Study "Of Thirty-Six Universities and Colleges.Washington, D. C.: Brookings Institution; 1962, 361.

229. ,ed.Science Polic d the University. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1968, 352.

230. Ridgeway, James. The Closed Corporation: American Universities in Crisis. New York: Random House, 1968, 273.

1 Science, Technology, and Higher.Education 1 33

231. Roucek, Joseph S., ed.The,Challenge of Science Education. New York: Phi losoMiree't Library, 1959, 491. Patio.

232. Scientific Manpower: ADilemma for Graduate Education.Summary of discussions at a May, 1970, Symposium on The Supply, Need, and Util-

i zation of Scientists and Engineers. Cambridge, Massachusetts: M.1 .T. Press, 1971, 180.

233. Seaborg, Glenn T. and Daniel M. Wilkes.Education and the Atom. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964, 150.

234. Skinner, B. F.The Technology of Teaching. New York: Appleton-Cen- tury-Crofts, 1968, 271.

235. Snow, Charles P.The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1 95 9, 107.

236. Steinhart, John S. and Stacie Cherniack.The.Universities and Environ- mental Quality: Commitment to PrOblemFAused Education. A Report to the President's Environmental Quality Council.Washington, D. C Office of Science and Technology, 196, 22.

237. Stratton, Julius A.Science'ond thl Educated Men.- Cambridge, Massa- chusetts; M.I.T. Press; 1966, 140.

238. Strickland, Stephen P., ed.Sponsored Research in American Universities anciColleges.Washington, D. C.: American Council on Education, 1968, 247.

239. Thompson, Walter P.Graduate Education in the Sciences in Canadian Universities.Toronto:University of Toronto Press, 1963, xi i, 112.

240. U. S. Bureau of theBudget. The Administration of Government-Supported Research at Universities. '0. Washington, D.' C.:U. S..Government Printing Office, 1966, 141.

4 . U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Education and Labor.To Improve Learning. A Report to the, President and the Congress by the Commis- sion on Instructional Technology, 91st Congress, 2nd Session, March, 1970. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1970, 124.

131' I

134 Science and Technology as Social Farces.

242. U. S. Congress.House.Committee'on Government Operations.Sub; committee on Research tend Technical Programs. Conflicts between Fed- eral Reseatch Programs and the Nation's Goals for Higher Education. 'Hearings before-the Subcommittee tathe 89th Congress, 1st Session, June 1 4;15, and 17, 1965. Washington', D.C.: U.S.. Government Printing Office, 1965, 202.

243. . Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries. Subcommittee on Oceanography.Sea Grant College Program.Hearingi before the' Subcommittee to the 9gthCong"ress., 2nd Session, March 14, 1 968. Wash- ington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968, 37.

244. . Committee On Science andAstronautics. The Management of Information and Knowledge. A Compilatiog of Rapers Prepared for the Eleventh Meeting of the Panel on Science and Technology for the 91st Congress, 2nd Session, April 21, 1970. Washinglon, D.C.: U.S. Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1970, 130.

'245. . Committee on Science and Astronautics. The Management of Infarmption and Knowledge.Proceedings of the Eleventh Meeting of the Panel on Science and Technology before the 91st Congress, 2nd Ses- sion, January 27-29, 1970.Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Offi ,1970, 237.

246. Commiftee on Science and Astronautics. SubcOmmittee on

Science, Research and Development.. Institutional Grants Bill. Hear-

.,i nas before the Subcommittee to the 91st Congress, 1st Session, Febru- ft, 1969.Washingtpn, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1469, 351. /... 247. . Select Committee on Government Research.Study Number V: Federal student, Assistance in Higher Education4. Hearings before the Committee to'the 88th Congress, grid Session, 1964.Washington, D.C.: "U.S. Government. Printing Office, 1964; 100.

248. U .5.Congress. Senate.Committee on Aeronautical and- Space Sciences. The Impact of,the Space Age on Education in the United States, 1 957- 1 96 9. A Selectee), 'Annotated Bibliography Prepared for the Committee and wanted to the 91st Congress, lstSession, September, 1969. Wash- ington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969, 21.

....- . . 249. U.S. Department of Labor.Bureau of Statistics. _Federal. Spending and Scientist and Engineer Employment.Washington, D.C.:U.S.. Gov- . ernment Printing Office,1970, 46. .. . 132, 4 t

% i

t ... r Science, Technology, and Higher'Education 135

...... 250. U. S. Federal Council for ScienCe and Technology.Interagency Com- mittee on Oceanography. University Curricula in Qceanography: Ac- ademic Year 1965 -1966.Washington, "D.C.:U.S. Atomic Energy COmmission, 1965, 116. (Interagency COrnmittee on,.Oceanography, - pamphlet No. 23)

251. U. S. Office of Science and Technology. Committee on Federal Labora- tories.Catalog of Federal Laboratory-University Programs and Rela- tionships..Report to the Federal Council for Science and Technology. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969, 76. . . 252. U. S. President'sScience Advisory Committee:Education for the Age of Science. Washington, D.C.: U .$. Government Printing Office, 1959,' 36. . 253. . Meeting Manpower Needs in Science and Technology: Re- v 0 port Number One, Graduate Training in Engineering, Mathematics, and Physical Sciences.Washington, D.C.:t:U.S. Government Printing Office, 1962, 45.

254. . Scientific Progress, the Universities, and the Federal Gov- ernment: A Statement .(The Seaborg Report).Washington, D.0 .: U .S. Government Printing Office, 1960, 33.

255. University of Virginia. Center for the Study of Science, Technology, and / `Public Policy. Second Annual Report, Charlottesville: University of 'Virginia, 1970, 24. ' s , 256. Van Tassel, David D. and Michael G. Hall, eds./ Science and Society in the United Statei-.HomeWooei Illinois: Dorsey Press, 1966, c360. ..- ../. le lb

/ a,

6, . 133 r

Or. - _.--_ L Science, Technology, and Higher Education 137

LEADING QI TIONS.

1. What are the distinctions usuallyidrawn between scientific and technical ed- . ucation? Are these distinctions vali'd?"Can or should scientific and technical education be kept separate?

2.What has been the history of government support for education in science and for technology? In the U .S .A.? In other7countries? What seems to be the explanation of these pattrns of support?

3. In what ways have science and technology contributed to the organization and methods of higher education? 'Can. you cite specific exdmples of scientific instrumentation, information handling, teaching Methods, and tests and measure- ments?

4.Why has scientific and technical education come to be described asthe knowledge business"? What is the exploration of the growing relationship between advanced scientific and technical education and economic growth?

5.., What changes in fundamental education would be necessary to produce a "Third Culture "society? What would be necessary to achieve these changes?

6.What evidence,° if any, indicates impending changes in science' education in the United States? Wharappears to be the nature and direction of the trends? To 'what eite_nt, is specific governmental action involved?,

7.It has often been claimed that the importance given terelarch on the cam- puses has led to the neglect of teaching by facultymembers! Do you think it would be in the interests of the students if faculty research were telegated to a secondary position?

8.If you were compiling, a list of science experts to be consulted in thitcourse of an archaeological "dig" in a city occupied mor,e than 5,000 years ago, 4 what specific fields of scientific expertise would_be included?

9. Does application of scientific.methods to the arts and humanities destroy their special character and value?E.g., has textual criticism undermined the scriptural basis of religion? .1110-

1.0'. How would you answer the question posed by Kenneth Boulding:"Dare we take the social sciences seriously?"

134 'NW

41,

THE ORGANIZATION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The five topics in,this.s,ection examine the way in which the technoscieotific enterprise of modem society ;At together.But because the context within which this section is placed isone of public policy (rather than of industrial or economic development, A for example), ifs -emphasis is upon the machinery of government- science relationships. In other contets, the relationship of science and technology to manufactudng, commerce, or agriculture might be given comparable emphasis. Organization of tet,hnosc ie..ntific enterprise is best described where it has been most deliberately and elaborately developed.And astite Topics are designed to assist.

'understanding of the problems and processes involved in public. policy for science and technology,andnot to describe all possible government-science relationships, attention has been focused on five major but contrasting national systems -those of the United States, the Soviet Un ion, the United Kingdom, France, and Western Germany.Several other national technoscientific systems might have been added, but their study would have contributed relatively less toward the objectives sought in this section.The structure of international scientific cooperation is described, and it is in'this. global context that !be future of ppblic policy for science and technology will inevitably,inlar.ge measure, be pladed.A. special aspect of the international character of science and technology is the concluding topic in this section--Technoscienc in the-Developing Countries.

(

135 TOPIC 06 SCIENCE AND GOVERNMENT: THE UNITED STATES

Scilient characteristics of the organizatiokof science in. the Unite States have been (1) autonomy, (2) diversified foci of decision on public policyforscience and technology, and (3) growing interrelationships with goVernment.and industry.

Extensive governmental involvement and leadership in public policy for science anclerechnology dates from World War II. Although thee had been continuing sponsorship-of science by the federal government since the admMstrations of Washington and Jefferson, the Cdngress and the states remained largely' apathetic: The scientific activities of government in the United Stateswere directed primarily toward practical ends such as aids.to navigation, the exploration of the west, and the setting of scientific and technical standards:" .

D,urisng the Civil War, however, the federal governmentassumed amore positive' posture toward applied science.In 1862 the first Morrill Act set aside public lands for the support of higher education in agriculture and mechanic arts. -Aod in 1863 the National Academy of Sciences was established asan advisory body to the government.By 1884/the growth of scientific(dgencies had reached a'point where their relationships and organization became' the object of "study by a 16-int commission of the Congress. .

WorldWar I brouett about increased governmental concern forsicience and led to the establishment of the NationalResearch Council. In agriculture, conservation, public health, and technicarstandords, government, was already engaged in- scientific work.The new field of aeronautics had been entered.By 1116 the general stnicture.of science that was to prefil untirWotld War II wa,c`coiRlete,. } . World War II and its aftermath ledto a jot: expansion of government's role in science.Nuclear energy and expleratioof outer space brought totafty new functions to government. Establishment of the NationalScience Foundation arts expansion of ;the research srie.rt activrties of thlt National* Institutes of Health, in addition to largeexpendiffites toridefen.se-related reseciwh dnd development, made the United States government the major national force in science and technology. An advisory 'apparatus in the execiltiv'e branchas created (President's ScienCe Advisory Committee and ederal Council on Sci en and Technology) and new committees for scientific weee created in theCongress. The Depart- ment of Science idea, propose .as early as 1885, was again consider:Id, but not adopted. As a technoscientific society took shape in America there was growing public concern with the interrelationships between goVernment, industry, and the universities, particularly in the allocation of funds for research and developmeh't and in public policy toward technological innovation.

13r It g.

142 The Organization of Science and Technplogy

TOPIC 06 SCIENCE AND GOVERNMENT:THE UNITED STATES .# 41.- is -.0 Sefectied Irc Reading's:

Daddario, Emil0 Q. "Needs fora Nationfil Policy," Physics Today, XXII (0c- . tober, 190),

Handler, Philip."Toward ONational Science Policy," AIBS (BioScierice), XX (September 1, 1970), 971-977. 414\... ',L 0. i . Nif . Peril Martin L.,. -"The Scientific Altvisory` System::Some Observations," Scienceby CLXXIII (Septernbei24, 1 971), r2 1 1.-- V 2 1 5, . . "r v.ii4'. Robaa,'-Herbert."Congress and the Scien6e Budget," Settnce,CLX (May 31, 1 968), 9647971., . . Sapolsky, Harvey M. ."Science Policy in Americsin' State Goiernreient,"Minerva, IX (July,971); 322-348. t supplementary and Substitute ReadYgs:r Chapman, Richard L.. -"Congress and Science POlicy:TheOrganIzational Dilem- ma," bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXV (Mfir'ch, 1 96 9), 28. 4° Dupree, A. Hunts*. ral Scientific Orgenization"Pn the United'StatesGor emment," 'MlWerv,o4umrrier, 1963), 453;469. t Harni4g, Donald F.: "U.S. Science Policy:Its -ktealtlitnd Fisture Sirection,"

Science, CLXIII (February 7, 1969),.,523- 528.' . op 4 Natur%."Does theU.S. Have a Science, Policy?" Nature,CCXVH (January 20, '°"--1968), 225-231. 4 r

Reagan, Michael -:[5. Congress Meets 'Sci'ence:The Appropriations Process," Science,'CLXIV (Ma 23c 1%9), 926-901. a' a.

137 or

TOPIC 06 SCIENCE A4,4ID GOVE ENT:- THE UNITED STATES. ,143

TOPICAL OUTLINE REFERENCE KEY

* I. Science and Pt4blic Affairs in the 18th Century 153, 184, 1 93,. 299, 210, 238, 251, 299 A:Sciehce in the colonies and confederation

1 nf I uence. of 'European science IcArnerican Phiosciphtical Society,,j743 (Fraillin,' and Rittenhousp) 3. American Academy of Arts and Scnces,., , 1780 B. Science under thefederalicanstitu * " 1. Federalist concepts of governme encouragementfor science and tec logy 2. Jefferionton animadversions` and practical Compromises,

er.

,II.,,Science and Government, the 1 9th Century , 1134, 1.92/ 193, . 4s .:.,. WO, 1 97, 218,. 238, 244, 253,- *: i. . 271, 299. A'.Exploration and mapping of the tontine ril.i , 1:U.S. Military,Academy and Corps of : Engineers,. 1802° --, AZ `2. Theteiis and Clark Expedition, 1P4- 01'

1 806. V ' 3. The Coast Survey, 1807 -L, . 1 . 4. Department of the' Interior, 1E149. ; 5. The Geological Survey, 1879 '1 30, 215, 252. . < . . .eitientifit, inititutions , 1. The Smithsonian Instituti.on>, 1 846 2. The American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1848 ; , 10,41,J2 3. The National Academy of Science), 1 863 145,,151 4. Agniculture and Merric Arts 20 a: Morrill Act of 1862--land grant Colleges b. Hatch Act of 1887--agricultural expei-r1 ment stations c. Cabinet status foragriculture,1889 ,

13s

AL. 144 The Organization of Science and Technology

5. The growth of the universities--higher ed- h. cation and scientific research. 6/The Allison Commission and a proposed .Department of Science, 1884-1886

Science and ?overnment in World Wars I and-6 184, 185, 193

s. 1 97, 200, 293, 238, 244, 249, 250, 314 A: New directions in government sciencein the ( prewar period , 1 96 1. National Bureau of ,Standatds, 1 901 23, 128, 189, 252 2. Pure Food anl Drug Act, 1 II 3.Public Health, Service" 1 912 4. National Advisbcy Committee for .Aeronautics, 1 915

13. Science and technology in World War I 197 1. Naval Consulting Board, 1 915

4 .2. The National Research-Council, 1 918 168, 169

C.Science and the GrealDepression 197 .1. Hoover Committee on Recent Social Trends, 1 929, (cf.- Report of the .-4 Committee, F932) 2. National InVtitutes of Health, 1 930 143, 148, 158, 171 3. Science Advisory4oard,1(33

4. National Resources Committee (cf. s4 Research--A national Resource, 1 937)

DiScience and technology in World War IIand post-war period/ 38, 51, 92,115, . 185, 1 90, 212 1. Office of ScIentific Research and Devel- opment 2.Office of Naval Research 31, 1 122 3.: the ls.4=;nhattan Protect 100 4. The Bush (Science,ttht Endless Frontier, 1 945) and Steelman (Science and Public Policy, 947) reports 186,268

6 3 j , Science and Government: Tie United States 145

5. The Atomic Energy Commission, 1 947 54, 80, 112, 116, 208,-21.1 6: The Notional Science Foundation, 1 950 2, 35, 81, 89; 252 7. Science and the Cold War-loyalty and security 61, 201, 207' Nt a. The atomic scientists 264 b. The Oppenheimer case 270

IV ..Contemporary Functions of Governn ient in Re- lotion to Scienc and TeChnology 83, 84, 87, 113, 123, 124, 125, 126, 12 9, 146, 149, 153, 160, 176; 182, 183,, 191, 222, 229, 235,.,247, 252, 261, 281, 312 A.Scientific and technological activities!. inside governthent 50, 305 1. Measurement and standarjf 23, 1 95; 303 2. Civil engineering 155 3. Military technology SI 31, 92, 122, .208 4. Agricultuge , 67, 97, 252 5. Natural resources management 57,117.9, 257, . 266 6. Healthnd safety!416 '...1S--"77 8, 13, 86, k- 93, 102, 3131 7. Atomic- erlergy 33, A4, 63, 112, 4 259, 274, 277 8. Outer space explgration 36; 44.94, 109,

a I%1471 -204 - 4 256, 300, 310 ; *41 9. Environwental surveillancp 1 9, '30, 57, 79, 175, 257, 283, 317. 10.' Marine and atmospheric sciences 4,40, 107, 245, 267, 278, 280, rc 284, 241F, 288, 304, 306, 307, M I 1,0

146 The Organizationof Science and Technology

o .71. Federal research laboratories 60, 71, 104, 106, 305 B. Formulation of policies affecting science and technology generally 110, 182, 191, 229, 265, 274, - .293, 309, 310 5 1.'In connection ,with federal scientific and fechnical° programs, e.g., via contract with DOD,. NASA, AEC 4, 36, 58, 77, 91, 96, 127, 141, 142, 208, 226, 277, 304 **2. Through the science advisory structure, e.g., Office of Science and Technology, Federal Couritil for Science and Technol- ogy, President's Science Advisory Committee National Aeronautics and Space CotOcil, Council on Environmental Quality, National Academy of Sciences, i` National Academy of Engineering, Smithsonian Institution 1, 3, 16, 22, 28, I. 37, 48, 64, 73, 82,121,82,i21,124 134, 151, 152, 164, 285, 286, 290, 308, 309, 312 3, Througthe administratiOn of research 0 grants, llowships, and other. assistance to sc ic research, and education, e.g., i fhrOugh the U.S. Public 'Health Service and National Institutes of Health, U.S. Office of Education, National Science F tion 2,-35, 42, 46,

59,90,.99, 118, 1 119,137,-156, . 1633167,170, 124,177,217, 222,224,288,

289 - 4. T ugh coopeption with international e is in science and technology 56, 255, 281, 282 _or , 1.

. t 0 . ., Sciencend Government:i he United St9tes 147 ,

b C.Review and assessment of the status and direct of public policy and administration affectinissietyce and technologyi' 17, 34, 47, 45, 64, 66, 74, 88, 157, 166, 179, 182, 229, 276,1' 299, 313 1. The COngress of the United States, e.g., House of Representatives: Committee on..

Science and Astronautics; Committee on .7 Agriculture; Committee on Armed Services; Committee on Interstate and Foreign Corn- . merce; Senate: Coramittee'on Aeronautical and Space Sciences; Committee on Agri- .cultuo and Forestry; Committee on Appro- priations; Committee on Armed Services; Committee.on Commerce; and ,Library of Congress, Science and TechnolOgy Division 5, 26, 29, 43, 52, ..e 79, 85, 94,132, 4 , .135,165,180; 181,221,2 91, 293,295,297,

. . . 298,299,302 2. Executive CommitteesorCommtions,e.g., Steelman and Bush reports, Environmental Pollution Panel of the Presidents Science IIII1 Advisory Committee, National C9uncil on. .Marine Resources and Engineering Develop-- ment ,.. 124,267,285, 309,312 4.4 3,,.. Analysis-and criticism of United States de science policy structure (see also Topic 11) 1,27,45,66,101, . - 120, 160, 178 . a. Centralization of federal science respon- ... 0 disibil ities it 292 I. The Department of Science idea, 1 884:1971 39, 49; 76, 103, 136, 138, 182 7 2. Proposal for4National Institutes of . Research and Advanced Studies 294 b. Over-emphasis on mission oriented tech- t norogical 'programs, e.g. Apollo, SST, Atomic Energy, etc. 36, 5458, 77, t 111, 116, 221 OM 1

4It 1 4

148 The Organization of Science and Technology

/-1/ . c. lupport of basic research by the DOD-- ,the Mansfield propesal 24, 99, 111, .-a 142 d. Intermittent nature of funding fOr science programs 17, 21, 25,98, 133, 144, 159, 172, 178 e. Insufficient attention to social and be- .havioral science--proposal for a National Social Science Foundation 117, 180 4

V.Science and the States 139, 140, 219, 227 Nis Role of State governments in the promotion of "science and technology in the 19th century and up to World War.11 .Involvement proportionately greater than it is today, and as extensive as that of the federal government,at the time.Initiation of programs in 1. Agricultural eiperimentation 2. Geological mapping 3. Higher education 4. Public health

4 B. Decrease in relative support byState governments for technoscientific research & development after World War II due to vastly larger federal outlays ('contribution of state agenties to total national R & D is about 0.5 percent, compared to 'about 66 percent for federal agencies). Stateiappocted R & D heavily concentrated in: 1. Health care (more than 40 percent of .total states R & D). 254 2. Natural resources (25 percent) 3. Highways (15 percent)rE N ac C.Lack of support by states of basic research at colleges and universities (except for agricuk tural research), due to 1. Qeneral lack of interest among State govern- "rents in science,or se or in academic re- -seorich; teaching function of the university empholPae4L

143 A

Science and*Goveroment: The.United Stati's 149

2. %ate priority assignedto projects which ;how tangible results in a comparatively shod time. 3. Results of successful research financed by one state will be quickly tiiallabre to other who did not pay for it.

D.Recent Federal support of state technoscientific activities; some examples : 49, 223, 254 1. State Technical Services (STS) Roogram, 1 965-1 969 62, 150 2. Intergovernmental Cooptration Act of 1 968 3. Maritime states helped by the Sea Grant College Act of i0966 \ 4. The Anadrornous Fish Concentration Act of the, 89th Congress c 5, National Science Foundation Grant to COuncil of State GovernMents I 69 E. Institutional Structure for technoscientific advice toState goVernments 55, 97, 187, 232 1. Functions a . Acceleration of economic development b. Anticipation and s'abtion of social problems c. Examination of natural resource and environ- ... mental problems' . d. Injecting benefits of science and technologt into State government planning and rnanagenint e. Setting of goals and appraising of progress in areas requiring the use of science and technology 2; Type of structure 1 99 a . Science Advisor Governor b. Science Advisory Council c. State Science Foundations 236

,d. Academies of Science e..Combinations of some of the above 3. Stati technoscientific developmentprograms, e.g.,154,198,205, 220,,228,230, 231,233,237, 246,254,272, 275' a .Information technology

144 ,/

150 The Organization of Science andechnology

Environmental research. 68, 95, 266 Systems analysis d. Natural areas for research e. State museums f. Cooperative programs between several states 214, 234, 248 4. Ineffectiveness of most state science policy structures due to a . Absence of clear indication of correlation between investment in technoscipnce and economic gain b. Lack of recognition of role of science advisers in the formulation of public policy c. Impermanence of advisers, who seldom survive a change in administration d. Lack of effective institutionalization of science policy in the regular structure of the legislative anctexecutive branches

. 14'5

9.0 Science and Government: The United States

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.,Policy-Research drnd Foreign Affairs Divisions; Congressional Research SerAit,4 'boxy of Congress, 91st Congress, .2nd,-Session, April, 1970. s. Wash; ton, D.C.: U.S. Government PrintingOffice, 1970, 28. .. . 4 , 281. . Committee, on Government Operations. 'Subcommittee on it . __ ,-,..13. ,- ..farecutiverxi Legislative Reorganization. Reorgbnization Plan No; p .._, -. of-197t1?' ntitentaikliotetion A ensy). Hearingt before the Sub- .*, 0committee to the cillstCongrels, 2n6Ses 'orr, July 22,. 23, and AugustA 3970.Washingkin,, D .0. : U :S.Gov rnment Printing Offi ce, 1970, '209. ' ,

. 284. .'Conimitfee Governmeht dperati6ns-.9ubconi'mittee on Executive anLegiabtive Re ization.Reor nization Plan No. of 1 970 (National Oceanic and ospheric Administratiop).Heariaps before the Subcofinmittee to the ,9 si-Congress, 2nd Session, July 2829, 1970. Wtseflington, D.C.: U -.S.Government Printing Office, 1970, 164 're . , 4), . 4COMm" itteeon G,ovemmeht:Ope,rations:.SObcornmittee on Military Opel'Otion's.$cience Organizations in the Eiecutive:'Ofilice of the President.Washington, D.C.Y, U.S. Government Printing Of- fice, 196-7p826.

286. . Committee on Mercharit Marine and fished eslubcornmit- -/ fee on Fisheries and Wildlife COnsii-vation.Council On Environmental: Quality.Hearings before the Subcommittee to the 914 Congijess,, 2nd Session, March5 andAugust 12:4970. 'Washington, D.C.: U.S,..Gov- ernrnenr-Prinkg Office, 1970,'166. 7 .4

16J 1 a 4 Science and Government

287. U.S.Congress. House.Committee ori, 'Merchant Mar' nd Fisheries. ''Subcommiiieeon Oceanoggiphy. Oceanography in 90th Congress . frepared for the Subcammittee.by Oeerge'A. Doumani, SciencePolicy., Research Division, Legislative Reference, Service, Library of Congress, 91st Congress, 1,st Session, linUary 10, 1969. Wat ington, DX.; U U.S. GovernmInt Printing Office, 1969,

288. Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries. Subcommittee on Oceanography.Sea Grant College. Program. f+tearirigs before the

S. $)ubcomfnitteeto the 90th Congress, 2nd Session,, Malch 14, 1968. Wash - ington, -D.C..: U.S. Government Printing Zfice, 1968, 37. AP .

289. . Committee on Science and Astronautics. Amendiod the Nam . tional Science Foundation Act of 1950 to Make lenprovements in the Or- ganization and Operation of the Fotmdatibn. House Report .1650 of the Committee' to accompany House Report 14838 to the 89th Congress, 2nd Session, June 23, 1966-: Washington, D .C.: LIS. GovernmentPrinting Office, 1966, 54.

290. . Commite on Sciencea nd Astronautici. areation of the Of- fice of Scie,nce anT.echnologys(Reorganiiation Plano. 2,1962). Prepared forptlie Co mittee by Dorothy Schaffter:and Dorothy M. Bates, Legislative Reference Service, Library of Congress, 87th Congress, 2nd Session, May 15, 1'962. Washington4 D.C.: U.S. Government Rrintinp Office, 1962, 85.

291. . Carmittee on Science and Astronautics.Report on the Activities of the Committee On Science and Astronautics,. Ninety- First Congress, First and Second Sessions. Report of the Committee to the 91st Congressjst and 2nd Sessions, Dedmber 31, 1970. Washing- - ton/ DC.: U.S. Grernment'frinting Office, 1970, 20.. -292. . Committee' on Scierite and Astronautics!. Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development.Centralization of Federal ence Activities. Report prepared for the Svbcomniltteewby4the Science Policy Research. Division,' Legislative Reference Service, .l4brary of Congresi, 910Congress42nd Sessiop, May 29, 1'969, Washpgton, 111 U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969, 108. .

i .1. j " 29,. / . Committee on Science and Astfonautics.SUbtomplittee ow., 4' Science, Research. and Development.Government and Scien ..,. No. 1: A Statement of Purpose.Report'. of t e Subcommittee t51,4 w * 89th Congress,Ist Session, December 2, 1963. Washington, D .0 .: U.S. Government Printin(ce41 963, 14.. ) ,.. , i 4 . , ,...., .1`74.03,- .

, a 11

176. The Organizdtion of Science and Technology

294. ,U S. Congress. House. COmmitte%on Science and Astronautics. Sub- commitree'on Science, Research, and Development. The NationalIn- stitiitesof Research and Advanced Studies--ARecommendation for Cen- tralitation,,of Federal Science Responsibilities.' Reportwofthe Subcom- ittee to 91st-Congress, 2nd Session, April 15, 1 970. Washington, D.C:: .S. Government Printing Office, 1970, 55. ift' :Committee on Science and Astronautics. Sacommittee'on

cience, Research, and Development. National Science Polisy.. Hear- 1 s before...91st Congress, 2nd Session, Jay7- September 17, 1970 on .Con. Res: 666. ,Waspington, D.C.: U.i. GovernmentPrinting ?Of ce, 1970, 963.

( . . Committee on Science and. Astronautics. Subcommitteeon cience, Research, and Development.Policy Issues in Science end. chnolog: Review and Fore t.Third Progress Report of Subcom- ttee to ongress, rid Session; October 28, 1968.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Governmerit Printing.Office, 1968, 54.

297. . Committeeon Science and Astronautics. Subcommittee on cience, Research, and Development.Summary of Activities of the Subcommittee ca Science, Research and Development, 1 963-1 970.Re- poc't of the Subcominittee to 91st Congress, '2nd Session.Washington, D.C.:'. U.S. GOvernment P;inting Office,, 1970,.1 83.

298. . Committee, on Science and Astronautics.. Subcommitteeon. 'Science, Research, and Develop*ertt. . Technical Information for Con- gyess.- Report rho 'uocorntijitee td 92nd Congreis, 1st Session, April 15, 1,971, prepbred by the Sciende Policy Research Diviiion, Congres s iohai Research Service, Library of Congress. Washington,.D.C.': -U.S. 6.otteEnenent.Printing Office, 1971, 845. a . `I ,- 299. Lommittee on ScienCe and*tronautics.Subcommittee' on Scienc,Research, and Development. Towards Science Porky for the . United States.Report of : ylsf Congress; 2nd Session, October 15,' 97O.' Washington, D.C.: O.S. Government 'Printing Office, 1920, 1 15k.

U.S .; Congress. Se to .Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciencei. .Space, Coo tion between the Uolited States and.the Soviet ,Union. oe He°ring'be ore 92nd Congress, 1st Sqiiion; March 17, 1971. Wash'- ington, 'U. SGovernrodnf Printing Office, 1971, 30.

174_ Science and Garginment: The United States 177 411.

301, U.S. Congress. -Senate. Comnitteeon Government Operations.Sub- comlnittee on Executive Reorganizationand Governthent Research. * ,Federal Role in Health. Senate Report91-809 of the Subcommittee to the .91st Congress; 2nd Session, April30, 1 970 (Rursuant to Senate Reso- lution 320).Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government PrintingOffice, 1970, 561.

302. . Committee on Go'vernment Operations: Subcommitteeon Executive Reorganization dnd GovernmentResearch. An Inventory of Congressional Concern withfiesearchand Development, 91st Congress, 1 969-1970, Part V. Pre red for the Subcommittee by Barbara A .Lux- enberg, Congressional esearchServic'e,Library of Congress, 91st Con- gress, 2nd Session.' ashington, D.C.:U..S. Government Printing Office, 1971, 64.

U .5. Department off Commerce. Nation cit Bureau of Standards. U .5. Metric Study Report International Standards.Interim Report. 'Wash- ington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1970, 157. (NBS 0N. SP 345-1)

304,i . National(Oceanic andAtmospheiic Administration. TIN National Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationFact Sheet. Wash- iI ington, D.-C.: U.SGov'ernment' Printing-Office, 1 970, 114 4. . 0 ,' 305.5 U.S.Federal Couhcilfor Science and Technology.U.S. Civil ServiceY. Commission. Proceedings-7Third Symposium: TheEnvironmenof the . Federal Laboratory, December 7-8, 1 964.,,`Washington, D.C.:. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965,.125. .

. I K 0 . 3 U.S.' Nationpl Councilon Marine Researchand Engineering Development. . Details of Five-Point Interim r'1't Marine Science Program. Washington, D.C.: U.S.TGoverneent Printing Office,1969, 5.

307. U. S. Office of the Oceanographer ofthe Navy. The Ocean Science Program of the LIS. Navv. Accomplishmentsand Prospects.Wash- ington, D.C.: U.S. Gomernment Printing'Office, 197Q, 99.a . vir 30. US. Office "Of Science and Technology. Federal Council fdr Science and TeChnology, 1 969 Annual RePort.-fWashington,D.0 U.S. Govs7 ernment Printina Office, 1969,. 29.

.->

172 t 1178 The Organization ofScienkand Technology

309. U.S. President's Science Advisory Committee. Scientific Progress, the Universities, and the Federal Gbvernment: A Statement.(The Sea- borg Report). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office 1960, 33.

310. . The Space Program in the Post-Apollo Period: A Report of the President's Science Advisory Committee.Prepared by the Joint Space Panels. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967, 99.

311. . .Panel on OceanograOhy. Effective Use of the Sea. Wash- ington, D.C.: U.S. Governmint Printing Office, 1964, 144:4

312. U.S. President's TaskForder}on Sciece Policy.Science and Technology: Tools for Progress. Washington,.C.: U.S. Gover.oent Printing Of- fice, 1970; 48.

313. Van Tassel, David D. and Michael G. Hall.Science and Society in the U.S. Homewood; Illinois:Dorsey Press, 1966, .290.

314. Weaver, Warren.Science of Change: A Lifetime in American Science.. New York: Scrilmer's, 1970, 226.

315. Wells, 17 G., et al.Contract Research and Development Adjuncts of Federal Agencies: An Exploratory4Study of-Forty .Organizations. Den.. ver, Colorado:Denver Research Institute, University of Denver, 1969, 400.(P8 187 945)

316. Wengert, Norman, ed'.Perspectives in Governmentand Science.Philo- d?lphia: AMerican,Academy of Political and Social Science, 1960, 204.

31.7. Whitnah, David R.A History of the United States Weather Bureau. Ur- bana: University of Illinois Prdss, 1961, 267.

Wolfle, Ddel.Science and Public Policy.Lincoln: University of Ne-. braslca Press, 1959,-81.

3 173 I

Science and Government: The United States 179

LEADING QUESTIONS

1. How has science been involved in American politics?In foreign policy? In domestic policy?

2.What are the principal prganizational components for scientific and technological decision-making in the Federal government? Whatare their statu- , * tory and functional relationships?Are advisory and decision-making func--1 ct°bons realistically separable? Ate . * , 3.What were the frincipal observations of the 0EdD examination of science policyin t1; eUntedi States (1968)? What response has been made to the observations-of the examiners?

4.What difficulties has the American politician encountered in attempts to deal with issues having science content?" How could these difficulties be alleviated?

5.What difficulties complicate, the role of the Congress in the fcxmulatibn and reviev.tf science policy? What methods, propbsed or in effect, have been

advanc to assist the Congress in- decisions relating to science policy? 411

6.What hOsbeen the role of the National Academy of Sciences-National.Re- .search Council in the administration of federal science policy? What circumstances led to ihe establishment of the National Academyof Engineering? Whrare the social sciences largely excluded from the AS?

,7. Whor are the arguments forOnd against a national departmenrof science and technology?Is there a parallel in the proposals for a national university? t 8; How did establishment of the natiohal system of land grant colleges mark a - chan9e in the functions of universitiesand, the beginning of a new erpin re- lOtionships betweengovernment, higher education, and industry?

9. What has been the role o privately owned industry in the organization and development of American science? What appears to be its. probable future? HO* do not-for-profit .R&D organizations differ,, ill/addition to financial , status,frOm other private industri9l entei'prises?.

10. What, role 'have State governmenti silayed in the development of sciencefir and technology?Is there any correlation between the quality, of State govern-

. merit generally and its role in science and technology?

174, TOPIC 07 SCIENCE AND GOVERNMENT: THE SOVIET UNION

The distinguishing Characteriitic of Russian science has been its centralized and governmentolized character.From the time of its introduction from Western Europe by Czar Peter t,until given its present structure under the Sovi.Aregi me, science.in Russia has been almost exclusively a governmental function. The struc- tureof Soviet science, although not monolithic, is nevertheless subject to overall political and fiscal control.Soviet science is thusamenalale to integrated and pro- gramed direction:It may, however, lack the_ flexibility and creativity of less highly structured Western science. ThAcademy of Sciencewas planned by Peter I and established in 1725. membership of the Academy (16) was foreign. Nearly a Anturywas required for it to becOme a truly Russian institution.In 1847,' university functions were re- moved from the Academy, estafilishing the practice of separating reseatch, which the Academy retained,, from instruction, whichwas the principle function of the universities.

The autocratic and ideologically dominated governments of the Czarsond theit Soviets favored science insofar as it served theirpurposes. They had little intetest in the freedom ofocience and did not hesitate to punish scientists for political heresies. The safest sciences in Russia were the most abstract.Ft is not suprising. therefore that Russian scientists dist17iguished themselves especially in the physical sciences and mathymatics.

,Politcal domination of Soviet science reached its greatest extent Under the dil- tatorship of Joseph Stalin. The most notorious political-scierticcontroversy of the Stalin era arose- over the theories of genetics associated with the biologist Lysenko.His views, although rejected by masMpiologists, were favored by the pqlitical authorities,. Lysenk-o's academic oppOnents suffered political reprisals. The-episade.gave the-name "Lysenkoism" te.efforts to make scientific theorycon- form to politcal ideology.

Coordination of Soviet science policy takes place intommittees, of theitouncil of Ministers of the U.S.S.R., notably in the State Committee for CSordination of Researci, and Development. Principal components of the Sqviet syttem for science policy are the Academies of Science (of the U.S and Union Republics), the Ministry of Higheand Secondary Spectalized*Education, and ministerial and in- ., dustrial committees for -research and development plartaing..

. . , Science and technology have been accorded high priority in the allocation of public resources.' Scientistsand engineersare among the more prominent member; of anew Soviet professional class, which Marxist ideologyopposes but which practical considerationsabet.It remains tgi be seen whether the strength of Soviet ence cah be channeled indefinitely along ideological lines. As social and bellav - ioral science advancesin other parts of the world, the Soviet commitment toa social ideology beyond challenge by science-may be severely strained.

,175 ,A -IP

A 182 -The Organization Of. Science and Technology

TOPIC 07 SCIENCE. AND GOVERNMENT: THE SOVIET UNION

Selected Basic4eadings:

Amann, R. The Soviet Research anctDevelopment System: The Pressures of Ac- ademic Tradition aril Rapid Industrialisation," Minerva, VIII (April, 1970), 217 -241.

Gill, Richard R."Decision-making in Soviet Science Policy," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXIV (April, 1968), 1571 9.

Jordan, Lloyd F. "Scientific and Technical Relations among Eastern Communist Countries," Minerva, VIII (July, 1970), 376-395. L.

Kapitza, Peter L."Problems of Soviet Scientific Policy," Minerva, IV (Spring, 1966), 391-397.

OECD Observer. "Science Policy in the U.S.S.R.," OECD.Observer; Number- \ 38 (February, 1 9A, 10-14.

Supplementary and Substitute Recidings:

\..... Jomvsity, David."The Lysenko Affair," Scientific American;CCVII (November, 1963), 41-49. 1,

. Mecivedet, fhores A."The Closed CircuitA Record of Soviet Scientific Life,"' Nature, CCXXVII (Serifekier 19, 1970), 11 97-1202.. bi \ 4 1 SakharA Andrei De.Progress; .Coexistence, andIntellectual 'Freedom.New , Z.., York: Norietn,-1968., 158. ,

Vuchinich, Alexandir A."Science and Morality: A Soviet Dilemma," Science, CLIX (March 15, 1.968), 1208-1212.

Zaleski, E.- "Soviet R & D: Finance.andAllocation," Science and Technology, Number 84 (May,'1 969), 8-15. .4 Zvorriiirjn, A. A."The Organization,of 'Scientific Work in the t.1.S.S.R.," Im- pact* Science on Society, XV (Number 2, 1 965), 67118. -rr-

I 176

5. 4 TOPIC 07 SCIENCE AND GOVERNMENT: THE SOVIET UNION 183

TOPICAL OUTLINE REFERENCE .KEY

Science jn Czarist Russia 154, 153

A.Influence of Wdstern thought in the 17th century 1: Receptivity of Czars and court officers 2. Opposition of Orthodox clergy 4.` 3. Developmenrof non-theoretical technical knowledge

B. Peter/4, 1682-1725, and the beginning of Russian science 1. (ale of'fkreign scientists and ddvisers a . Leibnizscience counselor" to Peter the Great b. Henry FarquhCrson and the School of Mathematics ail*Nav_igation, 1701 kr (after 1715, NOvd1 Academy) InfluenCe 8f the European academies:,.. common characteristics of voluntary Cssemblagessof scholars for thi advancement of knowledge (not teaching); contrdrs in concepts of the relation of scientific acadeMies nip" the statqunationalist'science in France and Prussia 2. The St. Petersburg Ac&deiv ofSciences, 1725 48.. a .Initial membership--foreign scholars-. (13 German; 2 Swiss, I-French) A :unctictris indicated in plan appeved in e 111 1724 by Peter I; Academicians were to:, (1) engage in independentresearch in !, their discipline!' (2) prepare extracts from foreign scierr' .tific publications YID

(3) collectively eJaluate inventions Sub-* _ miffed -to them for appraisal (4) provide expert answers to questions pro- . pounded by governmental authorities 184 The Organization of Science and Technology

(5) prepare Latin and Russian textbooks in their fields c. Abfence of universities a handicap, 21 I d. Charter of 1847 separates Academy from .univerdly functions and excludes the humanities from the Academy e. Confentions.beteen: (1) Academiciar and bureaucratic 4 - control (2) Russians and West Europeans f.Influence and accomplishments of the early Academy 3,University of Moscow founded, 1755

C.Russian science in the 1.9th and early 20th centuries .21, 154, 155 1. Flowering of an it digenous Russian science after 1860: Butlerow, Sichenov, Mendeleev, Pavlov, Tsiolittivske-' 6 A 2. Shifting attitudes in the Russian government toward science and higher education--indirectly encouraging the already traditional emphasis on mathematics, physical science, and ,technology and disCouraginglocial science, law, and evolutionary aspects of biology .

4 It.ScienCe, Marxism, and the Russian Revolution . of 1918 107, H 0, 116, y 121, 129 A.Marxismos q "scientific theory" of socialwi evolution 101

B.Incompatibility of open-ended science and, closed-system dogma- -the inevitability of conflict between Marxist ideology and biologic.al and sac-kJ) science 10, 65, 75, 131, 133, 151,161-

7 a C-)

Ir t'

.,, I -. '41' Science and Government: The- S6viet Union , 185 . ..

C.. Otilitarian 'tendency of-Soviet science policy with resulting: 62, 98, 112 '

D.Politicization-of Soviet science under_ _ Stalin. ° 13,651, 72, 99, 41:$ ,104 106 lb() 1. Tolalitarian.. irrfrtAt of Sovlet science 7,22, 27, 32, 38, 63' 2. Lysenkoism 31, 35, 36, 17, 66, 118, 0 132, 161 E. De-Stalinization of Soviet scitnce-- r ,16 411P. - limlts on political feasibility inan 49 41e ;ilk ideological .state. . .. g,949, 94,155, --Th - iv s , . 4 ik k F,Comparison Of'Sovietangkiczarist science policies--similaritieOand apparent contrasts- ' 98 . 450 , Ill. The institutional Structure of Contemporary 'Soviet Science 1, 2, 3, 14, 15, _ , , 19, 25, 44, 52,- 71, g9, 100, 105, 119.1,22;4' Ir. , . 136, 40, 150 A.The. Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S. R.. 29, '48, 76,. 120, % - . . 151, 1,56 1.%)leand status of Soviet science 104 Q. Acaderjaiesin the Union Republics 79 * 3. The ScienCe City at Ncho Sibirsk t. ., (Akademgorodok). -, 8, 40,54, 7'9, . . 81 B. Admini§trative apparatus- for _science and ' _

'technology P. 1, 83, 96,1126, . 135; 140 . 1. Council of Miriiiters of the\ U .S .S. ii. aState Plannig Committee (GospItni, b. State EConomii Council of thf '-council of Ministers Is. , 17 .1

, , ItI 4 '186 The Organization of Science and Technology

State 4ommittel on the Coordination - of Research and Development, Council 44' t. a of Ministers . s Ministry of Higher and Secondary Specialized Eclusidtion of the li.S.S.R'..(and Un on Rep4A lic%inistries, and Committees of 111r

SecOndary SplpHalized Pucafion) J 113 3. Ministries andodministrations with spefial 1 scientificrtechn"mal functions: Ministry of ilealttAcademy of Medical k Sciences; Ministry of Geology and Mineral Resources, Administration of Hydrotneteorological-.

Sorvices . . , * 4. State committees with research and development a . Functions; e.g., Automation and 1%M.aihineoiluilding, Atomic Energy', Radio-Electr nios a "24, 45,103, 123, 1,27 C. 'The roe oflomitotionsof higher educatio 108, 109, 113

y D.Re a i between the U.S.S.R. a the East European ocialist countrie4 in the fields, of 4 science and technology, e.g. COMECON. 4, 28, 39, 40, 55, 67, 68, 77, 82;° 144, 145, 150

Trends and Prospects' fclr Scienc4and Technology in the Soviet. Technpld'gical Society ' 5, 6, 18, 58,59, 64, 69,.74, 88,, 1'03, 114, 415, 11'7,-124 123, 128, OP' 130, 1,36, 143, 146, 149, 157

.A.Rise of a new class -- scientific and technical professions in the U.S.S.R.41111,-----;')0.,_ 12,38,42,47; 86-,93,95,106, 4111P '1.09, 111, 138, 147 <4,3 Dilemma of Soyietscience policy--risks

of deviation arstulti'ficatiOn , 13,60,99,1-01, r ,P 102, 119, 129, 137 Soviet policy in rela'tion to international scientific cooperation -- problems of out- flanking the ideological barrier; 11, 142" .1b0

4 fi I It S.eience and Govern4lt: The Soviet Union 1$7

.. I . 1.:Exchangeprograms and tisitations 9; 53, 61 '2: Cooperative international efforts, e.g., Antarctioe, outer sod-co 152, 150_

q . . D.prengohs.and weaknesses in Sovier policy towa5d science and technology .4. 13, 23,:41, 70, 'NI . 80, 91, 119,140 .1:'Emphasison research rat than . development 174. 2., Long "lead times" between `innovation and production 4" "17

3. Orientation of economic planning towards , achievement of maximum production, t' often neglecting experimentation . 4. Existence of organizatignal barriers

between different phases,of theresearch-. ly -production cycle: ; . . , - a. between fundamental and ether types ...... of research .4 t. Between Oilion and military R&D: -* itrong barriers due to secrecy as- well as,organizational distinctivenes/ c'..Befween industries: individual . ministries have their Own indtistry- . related R&D pcligram 6a d. Between industrial.resear and the , prodecing enterprise: ne*Vork of specialist establishment's sepbroted , geographically and oi.anizationally s' - , I 5. Experimentation with new organizational b 4 forms: . . . a-. Factory center in which research instil:-

tution,-clesign bureaus and. production , entetprises are brought together ina . / single unit: . .. ., a . etearch complexes closely associated. witindustry, e.g., LeningrOd PO1Y-- '. . -*"'_,, technical Institute , . c. Selfi-supporting research corporations which, work for industry '` d . Science cities 4.1.. 8, 26,.43,4, s , 57, 73, 85 4

.0 I

- Science and Government: The Soviet Un ion; 189

BIB1.10GaAPHY \047,,'

0. .Oenerol References: Articles a 0 ,,, 1' arnson,,R:"Mobilizing of Soviet Science," Scientific Research, a (January 27, 1968), 24 -34. . 4 . I

. 2. Amor pi, R.0 viet Research and ,Developrhent Systehi: The Pressures.. 4 rAcademic.Traclition and Rapid lndu'strialiiation;" 'Minerva,VIII (A- s, ril, 1970), 217-241.

Bawn, D. E.' "Some ImpressiOns of Soviet Science," American Scientio, XLVIJI (March, 1960), 46-50.,

4 ,Biernacki, Andrzej.'"Observations on the Development of -Science i Poland," Minerva, VI,(Autumn, 1967), 18:-27. . . Boretsky, Michael "Comparative Progress in Technology,Productivity, and EconOrnic Efficiency -U .5 .S.R.versus U.S.A.,"'irr New Direc- tion's in 'the Soviet Economy, Studies Prepared for the Subcommitteeon Foreign'Economic Policy of the JointEconomicCornmitiee, Congress of the United States:89th Congress," 2ntl Session. Waihington, b.C.: 5. U SGovernrhent Printing bffice,J 946, 133-256: . ., 6. Brownlow,`.C.. and B. Miller, eds. The Growing Tireot--1.:Soviet t-_,, UniontelIchnorogical-Military Drive,:'Aviation Week,,ancf Space Technology, )

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.4P

4 a ' red

84 4 S t , .1 90 The Organization ofcience, and Technology

_ , fi - ., lir '-11 Dedi jet, Stevan."Soviets Take a Ne.w Looat Science," I. . Atomic Scientists, XXI (MarA, 1965), 40-41. . 0 12. (De\Aiitt, Nicholas "High Level Mahpower in the U.S.S.R.'," .in.New

( Dii.ectigns in- Or Sovili Economy, §,E.,cit., 789-816. 4 4- .I. ' * . 13. . ."TheoPoliticsbt Soviet Science," American BehaviOratSci- ,o'r . entist, VI (December,' 1962), 7.-11. % L' A .. 1r 14. . II Reorganizationof Science and Research in-the U.S.S.R .," Science, CXXXI I (June 23,.1961), 1 981-1 991. , 's, , --) 15. . "Soviet Science: The Institutional Debate," Bulletin of ge Atomic Sciarttists, XVI (June, 1960), 208-211.

16. , 11.:Cl7ansky,Theodosius."Commentary by 'American Geneticiftitt Bully- )tin of the Atottlic,Scientiql V (May, 1949),1 141-143; 146. 7.---- . .., t 17. Dc4nberg,J."Rusiia's TeChnologicalGapWidening ," Congressional). Re- cbrd, CXVII (March 11;1971), E1813-E1814. 4 ,. ... I .11 : i. 18...1Emelyanov-, V..5. "Nuclear Energy the Soviet Union," Bulletin of the 4 i\ AtomicScientists, XAI I (Nbve .** 971), 38 -41k

.19. Ince!). S: "Sci,@as e and Govern ri Policy--III:The Soviet Union," Public Administration fAusiralial, XXV (June; 1966), 104 -114. . ..W ... 20: Field, iVs0k ,G.-'Soviet Science, and.Some Implications' far American Science arid Society," Journal OfInternationcil Affairs, XIII (Number 1,195 9), 19=.31.* .r I .21% FigUroysky, N. ,A. 'The.Intelction betreen Scientific Research and .TechniCal Iriventioh in theHistory of Russia," in Sci ntific Change: Historical Studies in the Intellectual, Social, and TenicalcAditions for Scientific Discovery and TeChnical invention, Acitityto the Pre- sent, ed. by,A . C.-CrombietNew York: Basic' Books, 1963, 701-723,,

,s22. .Gorclner, Martin.- ":Bourgeois idealism' ;en Soviet Nuclear Physics," Yale

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c 't Scienc andGovernmOnt:; The Soviet Union -

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36. A "The .Lysenko Affair," .Scieritific American, CCV11 . v 1-963)t 4r1 -49

St4

154 et -4

.0 ' .

4 _ 1 92 The Organization of Science and Technology

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Science and Qoverriment: the Soviet Onion 199' ,

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4 139. Penkovs19y, Oleg.The Penkovskiy Papers, ..,Gerclben City,, New York: Doubheday, 1965, 411.

alb

... , 16 4

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140. Ploss, Sidney], Cbnflistsind Decision-Making in Soviet Russia: A Case- Study of Agricultural Policy., 3 953-1 963. Princeton, New Jeriey: Princeton University Press, 1965, 312.

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.193 p "V. O ,

Science and Government: The Soviet Union

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AddenduM:

162. .Gol Idanskry, V .1.,V .A.Kiri I lint et al ."Future of Science, U.S.S.R.," The Future of Science, (October, 1 971).

.194 A 4 .

202 The Organitation ,Science and,Technology I , MP

163. Greenberg, Linda Lwbrano."Soviet Science Policy and the Scientific' , A Establishment," Survey, Number 4.(Autumn, 1971), 51-63: 4

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16W. Vucinich, Alexdider. Science in Russian Culture, 1861-1917.Stanford, California: tanford University Press, 1970, 575.

Alp 1J5

Alp

eV Science and Government: The Soviet Union 2p3

LEADING QUESTIONS

What are the principal organizational differences betweenAmerican and° Russian education and research in scienTic and technical fields?

. To what extent were technological and scientific ideas influentialin pre-" revolutionary Rupia? What effect, for instance, did the workof D.I. Men- deleev, K.E.Tsfo lkoysky, I.P. Pavlov, and Count Witte haveupon the character of Russian science and technology?

Towhat extent did a "two-culture" circumstance prevailin pre-ievolution- ary Russian intellectual life?

4 4. What were the historical origins of the distinctions betweenthe-Russiart,uni- versifies, the technological institutes, and the academies? Whatis the role ' of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R.?

5.What Is "Lysenkoism"? Whatwas its history?Have there'been parallel developments_ in the,pnited StOtes?In other cauntries?-

What has been the evidence of a dectralization ofscientific and technological work in the US.S.R. since World War 41?Has the decentfaliiation ; been general or selective? 9

.7.How does public regard for scientists and engineers differas between the U .S .A. and U.S .S .R .? What factors appear to account for the.differences ?'

8:Haw has theU.S.S.R.used science as an istr/onent of foreign policy? How would you appraise the effectiveness of ts effort?

-9.Why have such observersas James Burn in and Jacques Ellul pointed to the Soviet Union as the most advanced fortn oftechnological society?Are national industrial systems generally moving towardor away from the Soviet model? What is the evidence?

10. Do the ideological parameters-that circumscribeSovief science seem likely ultimately to force it into.an intellectual cul -de -sac? Will thescientific technology upon.which Communist leaders haveset such store ultimately contribute to the dissolution °Lithe Marxist-Leninist regime?' (Noteopinions expressed by Stevan Dedijer--referente)

1 I.

TOPIC 08 THE ORGANIZATION OF SCIENCE IN WESTERNJUROPE

The historical development of gOvernnient-science relationships in Western Europe has followed two corittasting patterns.Prototypes for these general patterns are found in England, where a laissez faire attitude toward science long prevailed, and ill France, where government has been the principal patron and organizer of science. These pdtternsare no longer clear y defined, and there are many varia- tions and intermediate stages in other Euioan nations.But the tendency arrron9 the civil law states of continental Europe hailbeen to follow the French systerntof central ized, governtnent-sponsored,science; wherea's in the United Kingdom and the smaller maritime states of northwest Europe the reldtionshipsbetween government and science Were similar to those also prevailing ip the United States. The basis / for these differences has lain not so much in attitudes toward Science as in preyail-, ing orcepts of jurisprudence and public administration. Similar contrasts may be found with regard to governmental Alsponsibility for education, economic affairs,

04' the fine arts. . 1 '.The chartering of the Royal Society in London in 1662 marks the beginning of organized science in England.During the 18th .and 19th centuries a modified laissez fake prevailed with respect to science and technological innovation. Eng- .... 1c7rTaTvara leader in.4 industrial revolution and itwas industrial technology, encouraged by the inducements of a market economy, that flourished.blot until mid-twentieth century did the British 'government become seriously involved it, science policy.In the post-World War )1 era, science became a political issue, 1 and major innovations occurred in government organiiation. * In France, government sponsorship of science may be said to have begun with the establis'hment of L'Academlie des Sciences in 1666. Advancement of 'sdience and technology, at least in theory, became a continuing function of French govern-i ment.In the.years between World Wars I and II the vigor Of French .'science ap- * peared to decline, and in 1958 a major reorganization of the machinery of government foithe advancement of science and technology occurred. An effort has been made to preserve the advantages of centraliied support and coordination and to gainflexibility and diversity, involving the industrial sectorand the research lab- and university faculties in partnership. in planning. \ .)oratories -) II' the period since World War .1Ihas been marked bya resurgence of science in Germany,which had 'suffered heavy losses during the Hitler regime 'and the woe. years.European regional 'cooperation for science and technology has greatly increased. Adding to the. informal collaboration of indiv dual scholars and schol societies, new organizations have been established for cooperation in atomic en ergy (CERN, EUROCHEM IC, EURATOM) and space research (ESRO and ELDO)t The high cost. of advandedscientific research 'and technological innovation makes internbfiooal cOoperation a practical necessity inmany fields of inquiry for most European stdtes. I . , -./ 19.7 .

I, t, ../ , , j

. 206 . The Organisation of Science and Technology.

.1 TOPIC 08 THE ORGANIZATION OF SCIENCE IN WESTERN EUROPE

Selected Bask Readings:

Flowers, Brian."Science and the Common Market," Nature, CCXXXIII (Sep-, tember 17, 1971), 173-176.

Nature .:'France: At the Crossroads, ' Nature, CCXXXI (May 28,101), 229-230.

OECD Observer."Technological Gaps: Their Nature, Causes,andEffects," OECD Observer, Number 33 (April, 1968), 18-28.

Valery, N."Germany's Science Boom Gets Underway," New 6cientisfand Science Journal, L (May 20, 1971), 471-472.

,WedgewoodBenn, Anthony."Science, Europe, and a New World," New Scientist and Science Journal, XLIX (February 18, 1971), 348-350.

Supplementaryand Substituic Readings:

Huntley, J.R. "Gaps in the Future:The American Challenge and the European Challenge," Futures, II: (March, 1970), 5-14.

Industrial Research. "Special Report on R & D in Europe," Industrial Research, . rXIV (January, 1:972), 28:49. ,... Nature.'Survey of Science in'Europe," Nature, CCXXXI, (May 28, 197)), 221-

. 2-F6-. .

. . . 1 OECD'Observer."Science Policy in ,Germany and the United Kingdom," OECD C)bserver, Number. 24 (October, 1966);30-34.

Piganoil, Pierre'."Scientific Policy ande European Commonify," Minerva, VI

(Spring, 1968), 354-365. . . . . Quinn, James B. 's ';National Planning of 5pience and Technology in France," Science, CL ovember(Is\, 19, 1965)i 993-1003. me,

° TOPIC 08 THEo ORGANIZATION OF SCIENCE IN WESTERN EUROPE 207

"APICAL OUTLINE s REFERENCE KEY

I. Historical Roots of Science in the West (cf.,Topic 02) 6, 117, 130

A.Science in the Middle Ages -- legacy of antiquity

B. Birth of modern science in the Renaissance 4. Pattoncige of science 2. Science in the universities

C.Emergence of organized science (Cf. Topic 04) 296 .1. Indespendent scientific societies, e.g., The Royal Sipciety of London, 1662 289,302 2, Government-sponsored academies, e.g., L'Acaderriies des Sciences 1666; The Royal Observatory at Greenwich, 1675; academies established in Prussia, 1700; Sweden, 1739; Denmark, 1742; (Netherlands, 1808; Austria, 1 847 204,266,34

D.Science and technology as instruments of nthional policy 220,274 1.. The place of science and technology in political economy: mercantilists statisticians, cameralists, physiocrats, 306 2. Establishment of institutions for higher education in science and technology, e.g., Ecole Polytechnique in France, 1794; and the Federal Institute of Tech- nology in Zurich, 1854 130,354. . II.Science and Government in the United 'Kingdom 1,13,130,139,159, . 174,1 97,1 99,207,. 210,276,279,300, 301,304,320

_19;J \ r

208 The Organization of Science and Technology

III. A.Historical relations of %overnment to science. modified laissez faire' 213,233,283, 289, 302 1. The Baconian tradition--The New Atlantis, . 1626 ) 296 2. the Royal Society s 141,1 72,1 73, 188, / . 195, 216, 273 N. :3. The British Association for the Advancement

of Science, 1832 . 150, 194, 235 4. The National Physical Laboratory, 1 900 155, 202

B. Science and technology in the Industrial Revolution 175, 275 1. The role of invention 286 2. Interrelations between science andindustry 286 lo 3. Influence of the relationsamong science, technology, and industry in shaping popular t concepts of science in English-speaking i countries I C.S-cience during World War I and between the . World Wars . 268, 269 1. Realization during the first World War of the unity of scientific knowledge which-sup- ports both the military and the Industrial effort I Recognition of need to put state support of . science on something more than an ad hoc'basis 2. Establishment of science advisory committees and the beginning of an integrated science

policy to 3. The Haldane Committee of the privy Council (1915), which became the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (1916) 203, 261 4: The 'Million Fund' and the Research Asso- ciations set up to support scientific research 187 5, The Report of the Haldane Committeeon the Machinery of Government (1 918)zeSulted in the creation of g..Ministry of Health, anda Medical Research Council (1920). An Agri- r. cultural Research Council was established in -s, 1931 307, 312

2...)0 e S s I The Organizdtion of Science in.Western Europe .(209

1 I 6. A professional organization- -the NOfiariall Union of Scientific Workers was established in 1 91 8, which became the Association of Scientific Workers in 1 927 /' 7. The Tizafd Committee for the S'cientific Study of Air Defense (1 934) led to the de velopment of radar

D.Science daring and after World Wat: II ,130, 140, 1 53, 179, 219, 228, 253,281, 288, 293, 301, 314, 320, 321i

1. Mobilization. of British science during World War Cooperation with the U.S. 4 inthe delopment of the atomic bomb, and the large cale manufactUre of penicillin 280 2 .,Attempf to apply methodology of the natural sciences to improverent of efficiency of war led to a new branch of applied sciente-- 40peiations 'Research 3. Science as a posfwar political iue 131, 1611215, 229, 241, 247, 251, 319 4. Science as an intellect`ual issue 114, 130, 162, 303 a . The Two Cultures controversy (Cf. Topic 05) b. Reform in higherieducation- (1) The Robbins Commission (2) The Open University I" 148, 160, 163, 146, 167, 169, 181, 205, 222, 230, 237, 249, 257, 264 5. Restructuring of government for science policy 131,. 143, 158 64cientific manpower and the effects of the' "train Drain" 149, 168, 176;1 83, 204, 226,'240, 245, 252, 234, 271, 298, 115, 316 7. The British atomic energy and Noce progroms 159, 192, 196, 200, 209, 221, 250, 267, 272 % 8. Research and development in industry 152, 243, 260, 308, 320

201 I

ti t

210 The Organization of Science and Technology

E. The structure for the administration of science and technology in the United Kingdom 146,1 84,225;236, 248,253,263,277, 290,297,319 1, Higher education 144, 147, 156,201, 211,242,259,278, 287,309,3.1 1,318 2. Research councils and institutes 164;165,178,255, 265,282,310,317 . 3, Parliament (The Parliamentary and Scientific Committee, 1 939) 139,151,208,238, 270 4. The ministerial structure. 123, 197, 258, 373 a. The Scientific Civil Service, 1949 b. TheyScienceand Technology Act of 1 1 964 c. Department of Education and Science d. Ministry of Technology, 1964,1970 154,157,17f,1 85, 191,224 e. Council for Scientific. Policy f. Committee on*ManpowerResources for Science and Technology g. Department of the Environment 25k,317 5. National Research and Development Corporation 186,227,313

III. Science and Government in France 323,330,346,348, 351

A.Science and rationalism during theera of Louis XIV: emergkce of a pattern of state- science relationships--etatism 337

B. Science and the French Revolution 324,326,354 2 C.Science-government relationships in the 19th and 20th centuries to 1945 323,335,355

D.Rejuvenation of French science and tech- . nology after 1945 327,344,353 , I

'The Organization of Science in We'stern Europe 211 1 1. L. Role of science in thy' "modernization" of post-war France -'- 2: Commissariat arl'Energie Atomique

(CEA), 1945 s 1 331, 336;338, 339, 349, 350 r 3. Landucci Report, .1-957 4. Decree of 28 November 1958 5. The ,space program 322 6. Research and development in.industry, 329.1352

E.The structure ,of administration for science and technology in France 340,345;346, 34a

1. The educational system--teaching and research 4,333,352 a. New role for universities b. Engineering schools: The Grands EcoleriV

. Ecole Polytechnique, 1794) 342 c. National Center for Scientific Research, CNRS d. The Institute of Science-and Technology

at Lyons . 328 2. The ministerial structure 345 . a. Minister-Delegate, ScientifiC Research and Atomic and Space Questions b. Interminister(al Committee for Scientific

Y . and Technical Research c. Consultative Committee on'Scientific 4 andTechnicalResearch d. General Delegation for Scientific and Technical Research, DGRST

e. Commissariat du Plan . . 3. Science and technology in the pdst-Ide Gaulle era , . ,.. 343 a: Ministry for Industrial and Scientific Development - ' , 0 325,332 b. Ministry for the Protection of Natyre and the environment ,--

IVScience and Government in Germany 356,370,372, 373, 383

4 "203 I

e of- 21.2 TheOrganizcition,af 5eie6ccalid Technology

, r .."4"

A.E,a r 1 y develbpment oTgov,ernrkentpatro

. science 7---..4 ).' 1.Berl in,Academy-df Science **---1,

2.,Statistics , 4 B. Preeminence of German science in the 19th .7". 14 and early 20th c turies7-The Kai.ser Wilhern 4 Society 374

C.Decline of German science after World War I ,,and the debacle of Nazism argi Workl. War II 1.16, 358,359, 364, 365,375

D.Reorganization of science in the Fede pub lic of Germany ..V 123,4369,371, ...- I 4 . ....------3721383

1. Scienceu-AbsenshaftsratiCouncil- 1 957 362 , 2. Joilit Federal- Lander (State) Committee . for science. ' 3. Federal Ministry of NuclearEnergy, 1955, which became the Federal Ministry for .Scientific Research in 1962, and the Ministry ,-, of Science and Education in 1 969 4. Cabinet and Interminiiterial Committees-for Scientific Research / 5. Committees for Scientific-end CulturalAfirs in both houses of the federal legislature 6. Structure of research encf,developaient 367,383 a . German Research Aesociation (DFG)

b. Max Planck Societj, (MPG), 361-,J80,.386 c. University Research Institutes : 4 *361,363,381 d. Independent and state-supported research '.institutesi suchas the Volkswagen Faun- -4. dation, the Fritz Thyssen Fount-Irian, the,

DonorUkssociatiori for Prq,moting Ap,and ., Sciences, Berlin Science Center ,F 7. The Federationdf Industrial Research Asso- ciations , . .., '383. A 4 E. Re-emergeote of a strollfechnoscientific .ik ,enterprise in Germany--emphasis on 366, 368, 376, 384, 385 1:Th atomicenergy program 382 204 to

/The Osgcmization of Science in Western Europe -213

. '2. The*German Research Organization. for Air

and SpaCe Travel , . IN - 360 - 3. Data processing and information technology --, 360 .. . 1 -to a V. Science 'and -Government in the Other Notions 4' of Weitern Europe

(,/j. VI. European Scientific Enterprise, International Regional Organi,zation'(see also Topic 09) 8, 15, 24, 35, 36,66,,67, 68, 86, 91, 1 07, 121,, 134;135, 136 A. The trans-national character of European science 1, 6 .,, B.The establishment' of international institutes and organizations for scientific investigatibn 1. International Ciingresses.after1847 2. Internationilassociations and bukpus a . Universal Society of Ophthalmology- Twit, 1861 European Association of Geotsr- Berlin; 1 866 c. Zoplogical Station:ofINaples, 1870 d. International Bureau of Weights and , Measuies--Parls, 1 875 e . JungfraujochScieniffic -Station, 1930

C.The'e ffectste cold war and atomic, and. . space science on European cooperation 1, 54, 55, 84, ' -, 137 1, General structures for cooperation a. Organization for Economic Cooperation tnct,Development, OECD, T948, 1 966 41, 66, 74*. b .CouRci I of .Europe; 1 949 , c.,North,Atiantic Treaty Organization, NATli, 1949 -= Committee on Challenges .of Modern Society 25,70,71;72, 106 e

0 A

4. 214 ,; The Organization of Science and TechnOlogy

.40 European Coal and Steql Community, ECSC, 1951 e.Nordirc,Council, NordfoA, and NORDOK 416, 41 422 2. Nuclear energy 30, 65,80, 81, 87, 125 a .uropean Organization for Nuclear Research, CERN; 1 953 2,'48, 102 b. European Company for the Chemical Processing of irradiated Fuel, EUROCHEMIC, 195, c . European Nuclear energy Agency, ENEA, 1 957 73 d. Holden Reactor, HALDEN, 1 958 (boiling water reactor, Norway) 1,04 e. Dragon Reactor, DRAGON, 1 95 9 (gas- cooled reactor, U.K.) 1.04 .f. European Atomic Eneegy Committee, 'EURATOM, 1 959 "3,23, 33, 66 g. Uranium centrifuge 27 3 sSpace research' 5,11, 13, 51 a . European S'Poce ReSearch Organization, ... ESRO, 1 962 . 12,50, 62, 98

b. Europeari Launcher bevelopment, ELDO, fir 1 962 10,14, 52, 62

D.Other European cooperative institutions for -science and technology 1. Western European Unfon, WELD, 1 948 2. European Organization for Experimental "Photogrammetric Research, OERPE, 1 951 3"4.,European AtomiNAtrgy Society, EAES, 1 954. 44. European OrganizatiOnfor Research on IP Flourine and Dental Caries, ORCA, 1 953 5. European Federation of Chemical Engineering, 1 953 6. EurOpean Molecular Biology Organization, EMBO 9, 18, 39, 65, 108 7. European Cell Biology Organization 63 8. European Physical Society 97 p

I The Organization of, science in Western Europe 115 . I

Naturiand -causes of the "Technology Gap" between Europe and the NY.S.A.--extent of the "gap" in, for example, the electroni=cs, computer, and pharmaceutical industries 1 9, 20, 21, 34, 37, 40, 44, 56, 38, 75,/76) 77, 78,n,99, 103, 1 09, 110, 122,

Mir l'30, 136

F. Problems of multi-national science cooperation in Western Europe -- proposals. for --\ new ways of collaborating 82, 1 01, 118, 120, 127 1. European Research Council 32 2. International institulvior the Manage- r,nent-af Technology 7,26, 38, 66 3. European Science Foundation 79 4. Individad projects, such as the British- French supersonic transport 22,95, 111

20 I C iA The Organization of Science in Western Europe 217 1. } ti C , , . °et BIBLIOGRAPHY

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2. Bakker, C. J. 'CERN as an Institute for International Cooperation," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists,. XVI (February, 1960), 54-57.

3. Barnaby, F. "EURATOM."-Thepiclo Leading the Six?" New Scientist ( and Science Journal, XLIX ( ebruary 18, 1971), 356-37.

4t'Boffey, Philip M.,"Technology and %/arid Trade:Is There Cause for Alarm?" Science, CLXXII (April- 2, 1971), 37-41.

5. BolkoW, L. "A Future for European Aerospace?" New Scientist an-d Science-Journal, XLIX (February 18, 1971), 352-353.

Born, Max,."Europe and Science," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XIV (February, 195$), 73779. . 7. Cade, J. A."The International Institute for the Management of Tech-. nology," OECD Observer, Number 47 (August, 1970), 44-49.,

/ 8. Ca ty, G."Coordination' or European-Wooseland-technology, " Science Policy News, (September, 1969),'25. -30.

9. Chedd,- G. "A New Lab-for turope?", New Sc entist and Science Journal, XLFX (February le, 1 271); 350-352.

10.x, Coleman, H. J."British Withdrahing from'ELD0,:' Aviation WeelCandit 3 Space Technology, LXXXVIII (April 22, 1.968), 16-17.

11. Croome, A."Europe Still Awaits SpacelDecisions," Science Journal, Van (October, 1 969), 6-7.

12. .i"ESROI: The Next Deccide," New Scientist, XL(December/C -. 1966), 662=663. 4 4 COW . 3 19, ' . 13. Edelson, E."Gloom in tiepace Lobbies,:"New Scientist, XL (October 24, 1968), 179 -180. r .._) 2(8 The Organization of Science and 'Technology f I 14. Fink, D. E."Failurd Clouds European Launcher Future," AviationWeek and Space Technology, XCV (November 15, 1 971),20-21.

15. Flowers, Brian.. "Science and the Common Market,"Nature, CCXXXIII (September 17, 1971), 173-176.

16. Gates, D. M."Basic Research in Europe," Science, CXXV111(August 1, o 1958), 227.

17. Gibbons, Michael. "The CERN 300 GeV Accelerator: A Case Studyin the Application of the Weinberg Criteria," Minerva,VIII (April, 1970), 180 -191. °

* . 18. pi I I i e, O. "Molecular Biology: Growth Pangs in Europe,"Science Journal, IP Va (September, 1969), 11; 13; 15. A. 19. a ilpin, Robert. "Of Course the Gap's NotR Technological," The Public Interest,, Number 12 (Summer, 1968), 124-129.

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27. "Uranium: Three European Nations Plan To Bui I d-Centrifuge P ants,Science, CLXIV (April 4, 1969), 53-55.

--...-- -W@ 20c'0 The Organization of Science in Western Europe 219'

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29. Grossfield, Karl. "National Interest Aspects of Innovation," Advancement of Sciensc, XXV (March, 1969), 335-343: ) 30.. Gueron, J."Atomic Energy in-Continental We-stern EUrope,' Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVI (June, 1970), 62-68; H6.

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2 1 2 a

we 22 The Organization of Science and Technology

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.85. Salomon, J."Feasibility of,Mdltilateral Cooperation," Nature, CCXVIIT' (June 1, 1968), 819=821. '

86. . "Some Examples of National-Science Policy," Science Pol- icy Information, Number 5 (NoVember, 1968), 97 -110.

87. Sapdgreber, J."Nuclear Industry: Change to Build a 'New EURATOM1,-" New Scientist and Science Journal, LI (July, 27, 1971), 189 -192.

1 88. Science Journal". "The Falling Growth of Science" (Interview with An- thony Crossland, British Secretary of State for Education and Science), Science Journal, Ill (February, 1)67), 81-84.

89. Science Policy News."Coordination of Science Policy,",Science Policy News, II (November, 1 97 0), 31-33.

90. . "Education and_Science Priorities," Science Policy News, I(March, 1970), 101-102.

91. Scientific American. 1.11,e greening of Technology," Scientific American, CCXXV (August, 1971), 44-45.

92. Scientific Research."CERN: Dampened Optimism--But No Defeat-ism," Scientific Research, III (August 19, 1968), 33-36.

93. . "IDA and the Universities:What Next?" Scientific Re- search, III (January 8, 1968), 23-27.

94. Scientific World.'WFSW Conference on European Scientific Coopera- tion," Scientific World, XII (Numbers 4-5, 1968), 3-51.

95. Sims, G. and W. Bright."A New Alliance in Science," New Scientist and Science Journal, L (June 3, 1971), 579-582.

96. Spaey, J. "Conditions for Success in. the Econor ndSocial Develop- ment of Nations through Science,'; OECD Observer,Number 33 (A- pril,.1 968), 32-34.

Star, J."European Physicist Rush in Where PoliticiansFear to Tread," Scientific Research, IV (June 9, 1 969), 38-41.

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98. Stubbs, P. "Whither ESRO?" New Scientist, XLIV(November 13, 1969), 336-338. f. 99. Suranyi-Unger, T., Jr."What Is the Technology Gap?" Interplay, II (June-July, 1968), 22-25. t

100. Teich*H. "International Laboratories and European Integration," Technology Review, LXXI-1 (Decer'nber, 1 /69), 43; 45-47.

101. Thompson, H."Europban Exchange to Promote Science," New Scientist and Science Journal, XLIX (February 18, 1971), 354356.

102. Valery, N."300 GeV Machine:- Object Lesson Ln ScientificAutism," Science Journal, VII (January, 1971), 3-4.

103. Vernon, Raymond. "An Outsider's View of the Technological Gaps Re- port," OECD Observer, Number 33 (April, 1968), 28-31.

104. Vichney, N."What Future for Advanced Reactors in Europe?" New Scientist, Willi (December 10, 1970); 434-435.

105. Walsh, John. "EURATOM: A Cut for Cooperation," Science, CLVIll (December 29, 1967), 1657.

106. . "NATO: A North Atlantic 'Technology_Organization?" Science, CLV (February 24, 1 967), 985-986; 988.

107. Wedgewood Benn, Anthony."Science, Europe, onda New World," New Scientist and Science Journal,XLIX (February 18, 1971), 348-350.

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147. Blume, Stuart."Research Support in British Universities," Minerva,VII . (Summer, 1969), 649-667.

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164. D'aeth, R. "Proposal for an Educational Research Council," _Nature CC: (October 12, 1963), 116-118. I. 165. Dale, Henry."The Medical Research Council: A Menioir of Its Begin- , nings," New Scientist, VIII (4pril 21, 1960), 998-1000.

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175. Nate, George A. "Mechanism, Materialism d Science in England, 1800-1850," Annals of Science,-VIII (June 28, 1952), 152-161.

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183. Grieg James. "Technological _Manpower, and Postgraduate Study" Nature, CCX (April 30, 1966), 457-459.

184. Gunn, Lewis .A. "Organizing for .Science in Britain:Some Relevant Questions,".Minerva, V (Winter, 1967), 167-1'97.

185. Gunston, B."'Harsh Decision' for U. K. Science,'Science Journal, Va (September, 1969), 9; 11.

186. Haigh, G..E., A. W. Pearson, D. S. Watkins, andM. Gibbons. "NRDC 1,-- and theEnvironment for Innovation," Nature, CCXXXII (August 20,

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211. McCarthy, C."Universities and the Future," New Scientist and Science Journal, L (May 20, 1971), 440-442.

212. Macfarlane, W. A."The Organization of Government Sciencitrthe - United Kingdom,' Scientific Monthly, LXXI (August, 1950), 85-90.

213. Macleod, Roy M."The Support of Victorian Science; The Endowment of Research Movement in Great Britain, 1868-1900," Minerva, IX (April, 1971), 197 -230.

214. Macleod, Roy M. and E. K. Andrews."The Committee of Civil Research: Scientritc Advice for Economic Development, 1925- 1930," Minerva, VII (Summer, 1 969), 680-705.

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216. Martin,D. C."The Tercentenary of the Royal Society," Science, CXXX.I

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218. ,Mencher; A-. G. -"Malcirt Technology Pay: A British Dilemma," Tech-

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221. Moore, A. F."British Space Research: The Programme and Its AirnsZ

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222. Murray, Keith."Technology in the Universities," Natur.e, CXCVI (No- 'vember 24) 1962), 710-714.

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229. . "Science, Technology, and the Election," New Scientist, XXIX March 24, 1966), 760-762. 1

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230. New Scientist."Summary'of the Robbins Report," NewScientist, XX (October 24, 1 963)/1 91?-1 97.

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238, Price, M. Philips."The Parliamentary and Scientific Committee of Great Britain," Impact of Scienceim Society, III (Winter, 1952), 258-276.

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240. , . "Too Many Scientists- -or Too Few?" New Scientist, VI (1DecTn er 17, 1959), 1258-1260.

241. Robinson, Robert."Science and the New Politics," New Scientist, XX (October 10, 1963), 74-75.

242. Rudd, E. "The Rate of Ecoriomic Growth, Technology, and the Ph. D.,1! Minerva, VI (Spring, 1968), 366-387.

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246. Sherwood, M."Government Pay Goads the Scientists," New Scientist and Science Journal, LI (August 5, 1971), *08. /* 247. . "Science and the Politician,"-- New Scie ntist and Science Journal, L (May, 13, 1971), 402-403.

248, Smith, A."How Is Science Policy Made in Britain?" SciencForum, IV (August, 1971), 14-15.

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2 ) 4

238 The Organization af Science ancl Technology

k 285.. Gowing, Margaret M.Britain and Atomic Energy, 1939 - 1945.London: Macmillan, 1964, 464. kr 286. Habakkuk, Kfother J.American and British Technology in the Nineteenth Century: The Search for Labour-Saving Inventions. Cambridge, Eng- land: CombridgeUnive4sity Press, 1962, 222.

287. Halsey, -A.H. and M.A. Trow, with the assistance of Olkier Fulton. The

British Academies. London: Faber, 1971, 560. _

288. Harrod, Roy F. The Prof: A Personal Memoir of LordCherwell; London: Macmillan, 1959, 281.

289. 'Hartley, Harold. The Royal Society,Its Origins and Founders.London: Invicta Press, 1960, P5.

290. Himsworth, H.The Development and Organisation ofIcientific Know- ledge.London: Heinemann, 1970, 175.

291. Hogg, Quintin M.- (LordHailsham). Science and Government. The Eighth Fawley Foundation Lecture. Southhampton, England: Universi- . ty of Southhampton, 1961, 20.

292. . Scienceand Politics.London: FaberandFaber, 1963, 110.

293. Lovell, Bernard.The -Story of Jodrel' Bank. Nev York:Harper and Row, 1968, 265.

294. Macreavy, S. E., ed.Guide to Science and Technology in the United KjngslorroVGuern;ey, British Channel Islands:Hodgson,.1971, 450..

295. Melville, Harry. The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. London: Allen and Unwin, 1962, -200.

296. Merton, Robert K.Science, Technology, "and Society in Seventeenth -. . t Century England. New York: ertig, 1970, 279.._

297. Organization for Economic Cooperion and development. Revisions of National Scien9 Policy:United Kingdom and Germany.'Paris: OECD, 1967, 259. .

22D .

the Organization.of Science in Western EUrope. 239

298. Prandy, Kenneth.Professional Employees: A Study of Scientists and En- gineers.London: Faber and Faber, 1965, 197. A 299. Royal Society.The Emigration of Scientists from the United Kinidom. London: Royal Society of London, 1963, 32.

300. Snow, Charles P. A Postscript to Science and Government. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1962, 37.

301. ..Science and Government.Godkin Lectures. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1961, vi, 88.

302. Stimion, Dorothy.Scientists andAmaieurs: A History of the Royal So- ciety. New York: Henry ,Schuman, 1948, xiii, 270.

303. Sussman, Herbert L.Victorians and the Machine: The Literary Response to Technology. Cambridge, Massabhusetts: Harvard University Press, 1968, 261. .

304. Talbot, C. H. Medicine in Medieval England". NewYork: American .Elsevier, 1969, 222. t -r 305.. Tav-istock Institute of Human Relations. Social Research and &National Policy for Science. London: Tavistock, 1964, 44.

306. Teel ing-Smith, GeOrge, ed. Science, Industry, and the Sta4e. New York: Pergamon Press, 1965, 100.

307. United Kingdom.Agricultural Research Council.Annual Repot 1 969- 7 O. London: Her Majesir's Stationery Office, 1970, 104.

308. . Central. Advisory Council for Science and Technology. Technological Innovation in Britain.London: Het Majesty's Station- ery Office, 1968, 25.

309. Department of Education and Science. Education and Sci- . ence in970. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1971, 96.

310. .. Department of Education and Science.Science Research Counci. Report for the Year 1969 -70.London: Her Majesty's Sta- tionery Office, 1 070, 80.

230 240 ;The Organization of Science and Technology

311o United Kingdom.Department of Education and Science. Scientific Re-, search in British Universities and Colleges.', 1 970-1 971.Volume I: Physical Sciences, 1971, 868.Volume II:Biological Sciences,-1 971, 732. Volume Itt:Social Sciences (trieludingGovernmentkpartments and Other Institutions), 1971, 640.Landon: Her MajestfsStationery Office, 1'971.

3 1 2. . House of Commons.Medical Research; Counci I Annual Re- port. April 1 970-March 1 971.London: Her Majesty's Stationery Oft- fice, 1971, 136. . A*

-313. . Ministry of Technology. National Research Development Corporation. _21st Annual Report.London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1970, 84.

314. . Ministry of Technology. The Survey of ProfessionalEngi- neers 1968. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1968, 68.

315. . Ministry of Technology. The Survey of Professional Scien- tistf 1968. London: tier Majesty's Stationery Office, 1968,48.

316. . Ministry of Technology, and the Department of Educationond Science. Statistics of ,Science and Technology 1970. London:Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1970, 136.

317. . Natural Environment Research.Council. Rep6r.tiof the Coun- cil for the Period April 1, 1969 -March 31, 1970. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1970, 116.

318rWalker, R. Mi Ines. Medical Education in Britain.London:Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust, 1965, 1 01.

319. Vig, Norman J.Science and *technology British Politics.New York:. Pergamon Press, 1968, 190.

320. Zuckerman, Solly.Beyond the Ivory Tower: The Frontiers of Public and- Private Science. New York: Taplinger, 1971, 243.

321. . Scientists and War: The Impact of Scienceon Military and ,Civil Affairs. London: Hamish Hamilton, 1966, 177.

231 The Organization of Science.in Western Europe 24r

France: Articles and Books

322.Auger, Pierre."Space Research for Sma lier Countries-*-I:The French Programme," New Scientist, XVI (Decen;ber 20, 1962),, 674-676.-\

323. Ben-David, Joseph. The Rise and Decline of Franceas a Scientific C.ntre," Minerva, VIII (April, 1970), 160-179.

324. Bugge, Thomas.Science in France in -the Revolutionary. Era. P. by Maurice P. Crosland. Cambridge, Massachusetts: M.I.T. Press, 1 970, 239.

325. Chodkiewicz, M."French Science Goes rhaigh a science Journal, V (December, 1969), 11; 13.

326. CombrIsson, Jean. "Physics in France," Physics Today, XX ,(November, 1 967), 55-61.

327. The Delegate General and the Consultative Comrtteeon Scientific and . Technological Research of France."Scientific and Technological Re- seatIch: Fourth.Plan -1 962-1 965," Minerva, I (Summer/ 1963), 470 -492. 40

328. Finch, D. 1."How France Is Speeding Up Technical Edt.Icion,"New Scientist., V (April 9, 1959), 805807.

329. Gikiello, Henri. "Research and Development Activities in France," Re= search Management, V (November, 1962,

330.'GiliAn, Robert.France in the Age of the Scientific State.Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1968, 474.

0. -

331. Goldschmidt, Bertrand."Tip French Atomic Eby Pr6gram," Bulletin it of the Atomic SCientists,1111/11 pciokker, 1962), '39-42; "fartji," Ibid. XVII (September, 1962), 46-48.

332. Greenberg, Daniel S. "France: Profit Rather than PrestiA Is New Pol icy for Research," Science, CLXV (September 26, 1969), 1334-1337. MI 333. Grignon, C. and J. C. Passeron.Case Studies on innovation in Higher.' Education. French Experience before 1968.Park: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 1970, 140.

232. The Organization of Science and Technology

334. Hahn, Roger._, TheXhotomy of a Scientific Institutionve TheporisAtademy of Sci enc-es;-1663-:1803. 'Berkeley: Universityilrf CaljfdoniaPress, 1 971,

335. Impact of Science on Society. "Science and Society: French Bibliography, 1 900:1930," ct of Science on Society, I-1 (July-December, 1951), 65/112.. . 336. Kelly, George A. "The Political Background of the French A-Bomb," .-Orbis, IV (Fall, 1960), 24-306. `-a *,

337. King, JamesE.(--,Sciencea.r4rifitationalismiinthe Governmlit of Louis XIV, 1661-1683. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1949, 337-.1-(JohnsHop- *- kinsStudies in Historical and Poli'tic'al Science, Seeletri.XVI, Number 2)

338. Kowarsky, L."Mon* Energy Developmerits in France," Bulleffirr-efthe Atomic Scientists, IV (May, 1 948), 139:..)140; 154-155.

339. 'Atomic Research in France," Bullerm of fre AtomicScien- . . ,tisti, If. October 1, 1 946), 7-8; 25.. e .

340. Low, Ian.'Trench Planforicience,"'NewScientist, XXX (May 19, 1 966),

463 ar .

341. McKie,,poUglas."The Early,Years of the Academie detentes" En= S deavou 4,(c\y, 1966), 1 04-1Q3. . , ,, it* Morel, Pierre .t. Engipeering Schools in France:New York: Cultural Cen- ter of the FrenCh Embassy, 1959, 84.(Frenchltliogiaphiccia Digest, Series 11, Number 28)

343. `Nature."France: Ai 'The Crossroads,' Nature, CCXXXIMay 28, 1 971), 229-230.

44. New Scierrirs "DeGaulle's echn-6-Piplomacy,?' New Scientist, XXXI (JtsFy 7, 19661e, 12. . ,6- a . , ' 345. OECD Observer."French Science PoliCy," OECD Observer,_NuMber-'43 .' (August, 1966), 10-14<

346. Organr Econarnic Cooperation am!,Development. Review of. ' National Science Policy--France, Paris:OECD, 1966, 13g. 2') The CkganizatiOn of Scie cin Western Europe 243

347: Perrin, ;Francois. "Atomic Energy in France," Bul-let4of the Atomic ' Scientists, IX (March, 1 955), 92-93. , 1 348. Quinn., James T.' " NationalPlanning of Science and TechnOlogy in France," Science CL (November 1 941 965), '993 -1003,

349. Renou, Jn M."Atomic Energy in France," New Scientist IV (October 9;1 90),, 1011-1 04. . r ,/ # . . . 350. Scheinman, Lawrence.Atomic Energy Poll y In France undertheFourth O Republic.Princeton, New Jersey:P'eton University Press, 1965, 259. '' .1' *. 351.. `Seience Policy News.',France: Teen() of Expenditure_p63-1 975,, Science Polict(lews', III. (Septemller, 1971), 25.

352. Trehirr, Robert "Links withlndtistry at the UniJitsity'-of Grenoble," 1.3c .poitof Science.on Society, XV (Number), 1965), 2 r t 1 363. Walsh, John... :France: First the Bomb -Then thet .? Ian CalcuP, "'-t sience, CLVI (May 1 2, 1 967), 767-770. -.. i. :.- ... 354. Wi !Warns, L. Pearce. "Science; Education,. ah theirencit-Revolution,-°. fr Isis,X.IVL (December1 953), p11-330p11 -330. , .. c . 3 44' . .,,

355'. "sc-. .%uScienCe, Education', and Napoleon I," Isis, XLV11116 (15e- - ---,... 4 . s T6' --tier, 1957), 369-382. 4I

Germany: Articles and Books . is AI -,-. .." . c illt.,356. .skodri&f Ludwillf F,:and HermOn I. cgtnn. The Organization of Science gr. irWermciny. Washington, D.C:: National Scienceloundation, 1963, . 121. ., ,- , . . . L, . . . , Curt1_ . 357. ts, Roger-W."The Max Planck Institutes," Inter tiOncirScience and

, Technologx, Number 19 (.114, 1 963),42-47.

358. Edelstein,. Julius C..C. "Science' as Reparations,' Physics Todqy, (December, 1948), 7-14. 4. - :359. Goudstit, Samuel A.ALSOS: The Search for the German atom Bomb. London:' Sigma, 1947, 259.

41. 244* The OrganizcItion of Science, and Technology

. . , . 360. Greenberg, Danier S. "Germany:Booming Research Effort Turning jte ",'' Spacf and Computers," Science/ CLXIV(April 18, 1969), 281-283. ;1 361 .. HOmmOnd, B. "Universities Encroaching on the Max Plancks," Science Journal, V (February, 1969), 6-7.

362. Horner J."The Council for Science and Technology of Western Germany," Nature,LXXX-1-ftlebruaty 21, 1959), 512 -5"13.

.363. . "The Technische HochschUlen of Western Germany," Nature, CLXXX (December 28, 1.957),,1445-1448

364. Irving, David..The German Atomic Bomb.' New York: Simon a nd Schuster, ,1968, 329. Reviews oItI book* Eugene Rabinowitch, Werner Hei- sinberg, and Hansl. Seuss'oppearIn thelkilletin of the Atomic Scien- tists, XXIV (June, 1168), 32-39.

365. Kenyon,-Richard L."The FIAT Review of German Science;" Chemical dnd Engineecing News, XXV (April 7,1 947), 962-963.

366. Luscher, Edgaf."Physics in West Germany," PhysicsToday, XIX (August, 1966), 46-54.

367, McElheny, Victor."Wist Germany Debatesa Cultural Crisis," Science, .tXLV I I (ebruary 5, 1965), 5i19-591; "West German Research Spending: Plans for 1 966-1 968," Ibid., CXLVII (April 2, 11965), 59-60.

368. Marks, D."West German Science Expands," Science Journal; Vo (Octo- ber, 1969), 11.

369. Michaelis, Anthony R. 'The Restoration of SciXce in Germany," New, Scientist, XVII {March 21, 1963), 64-649.

370. National Science Foundation. International Science Reports, No. 2; The Organization 6f Science in Germany.Washington, D.C.:- U.S I' Government Printing Office; 1963, viil, 121.

371. Nature."Science and Technol ogy in Western Gerinany," Nature, CLXXV I I Febryory 18, 1 956), 316-318.

, 372. OECD'Oberver."SciencePolicy in Germany and the United Kingdom," Observer, Number 24 (October, 1966), 30-34. e

The Oripnizat)on of Science in Western Europe 245

373. Organization for "Economic Cooperation and Development.Reviews of National science Policy: United Kingdom and Germany.Paris: OECD, 1967, 259.

374. Pfetsch, Frank. "Scientific Organization and Science Policy in Impirial Germany, 18711-1 914: The Foundation of the linperial Institute of Physics and Technology," Minerva, VIII (October, 1970),35' -580.

375. Ringer, F. K.The' Decline of the German° Mandarins:The German Ac- ademic Community, 1890 -1933:,Cambridge, Massachusetts:Harvard University Press' 1969, 528.

376. Roberg, Norman B4 "Medical Reform in West Germany," Journal of the American Medic, Association, CC Way 15,1 967), 603-498. et 377. Sciencetuncil of';West Germciny. "Recommendation's of the Science Council for the DevePopment of Scientific Institutions in Western Ger.- many. Part Ii. Colleges and Univeclities;" Minerva,I (Autumn; 1962), 87-105. O 4 378. . "Suggestions of theniercce Council on'the Pattern of New Universities in Western Germany0-MinerVa, I :*Minter,1963),217-225. Ro 379. Science Policy News. "Higher Education 9nd Research in a Divided Germany," Science PalicyllienwsiT(January, 1970), 81-83:

386. -Shoemaker, T.' i"Backbone of Geirman. Science," Science Newt; XCV (April 19, 1.969); 386-387. -,, . Vec . ; 1 381. Stein, B. R."AcadefilicRes4arth irGermpny: A New Support Program," Science, CLXV (September 12, r969),, 1'096-1100.

. . 382. Stubbs, Peter."Impressicthrof/Aucle& Germany," New Scientist,xxxyi dt (October 26, 1.967), 228-230. . ...

. . , . 383. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cuttural Organization.Sci- ence Policifuui Organization of Research io the Federal Republic of Germany. Paris: UNESCO, 1 969, 95.

-384. Valery, N'."Germany's Science Boom Gets Wnder ," New Scie.gist ancticience Journal, L (Mt, 20, 1971), 47)&472.

I .t

246 The Organization of Science and -Technology

385. Valery, N.- "The Re-Birth of German Science," ScienceJournal, V (March; 1 969), 82-87.

386. Walsh, J."Max Planck Society;Filling a Gap in*German Research,". Science, CLX (June 14, 1968), 1209-1210,:

Other Countries: Articlesdnd Books 4,

387. Albareda, J. M. "Organizoion and Trends of Scientific Research in Spain:Consjo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas,"impact of it cienceon Society, XV (Number 1, 1965), 41-55.

8$011 Bonnier, J:H. "Z .1ek(;''.0.,the Netherlands Science Foundation," Science, CX III (February 23, 1951), 197 -201. , A 389. Blount, B. K. "Consejo Superior de Investigotiones Cientificas, Spain,' Nature; CCV (January 23, 1 965), 3407341.:

'390. Greenberg, Daniel S. "Denmark: A Late bet Hurrying Entry irl Science Policy Planning," Science, CLXVI,-(Otatoer 31, 1969), 586-588. , \ 391.* 4111 "Science in.lialy:Reform Effort Takes a Strip Turn Left- ward," Science, CLXV11. (March 27;1 970), '1.704-1706. .t 392. Halsey, A.. H. 'Stienceand,Government in Swealen: Impressions froman - OECD Confencepg Minerva, II (Autumn, 1.96 ), 54-60.

.393.r Jamison, A. ."Swedish Science7 Saying What ShId Be Done," Tech- nolegy Review, LXXIII (April1 971), 12-13.,

394. Julius, H.691-:"Scientific Policy in the Netherlands,`" Minerva, V (Sum- mer, 1967), 507 -519.

395, Luck, James M. Science in Switzerland. New ork: Columbia Univer- sityfress, 1967, 419.

396. Lundbergh, Holger, ."Swtderi's, Atomic Enerjy Program," Bulletin Of the Atomi cientists, XV (May, 1959), 21

397. McElheny, Victor."Research Climate in Italy," Science,tXLV (AugUst 14 1964), 690-693; "Part Ibid., CXLVIllpril 9,1 965), 205-207,.

2 3, 7\147 The Organizcition orScience in Western urope A

398. Major, Robert."Organization of-Scientific Activities in Norway," Sci- ence, CXXIX '(Marc, 694-700. 4.1

399. Michelson, Borge."National Developments Based on Science: The Case.fir of Denmark," Impact of Science on Society, IV (Spring, 1953), 29-54. j 1 400. Minerva. "Recommendation's for a Norwegian Research Policy," Minerva VII (Spring, 1969), 465-489.

401. . "Science Policy in Italy: A Policy for Scientific Research," Minerva, II (Winter, 1 964), 210-224.

t 402. . "Science Policy in Italy:The Reform of the Organization of Scientifictesearch in Italy," Minerva, II (Winter, 1964), 225-231.

403. . "ScienVific Research and Economic Development in Spain," 4, Minerva, III (Spring, 1965), 385-391.

404., Nature .4'"Switzerland: Searching fora Science Poncy," Nature, CCXXXI (May 28, 1 971); 224-225,

405. OECD Observer."Belgium's Policy for t1Sciences," OECD Observer, Number 20 (February, 1 966), 6-9.

466. "Norwegian Science Policy," OECD Observer, L (February, 971), 27-31. . 407. "Science .POlicy Itai5u7m OECD Observer, NUmber 42 (October, 1 969),'27-31. '4# `A, 408. Organization for Economic Cooperation arid Deyelopment. Reviews of National Science Policy: Austria.Paris: OECD, 1971, 246.

409. ' . ,Reviews of National Science Policy: Belgium. Paris: OECD,

410. . Reviews of National Science Policy: Greece. Paris: OECD,

7T9E76,71. , 4 , 4

411. . Reviews of National Science Policy: Italy.Paris: OECD, 1969,209.

40, 4

I, ../ A . 248 The OrganizatiOn of Science and Technology , .

- 4 412. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Developtent. . .. Reviews of National Science Policy: Norway.Paris: OECD,1970, 194. 4.

413. .Reviews of National Science Policy:Sweden.Paris: OECp, 1964, 66.

414. Randers, GOnnary. 'The Dutch-Norwegian Atomic Energy Project," Bul- 4 letin of the Atomic Scientists, IX (December, 1 953), 369-371. '4.

415. . *Planningformic Physics in Norway," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, VI (May, 1950), 14.

0., 416. Scandinavian Research Information Notes. Published in English since 1966 as a semiannual bulletin by Nordforsk, Stockholm.

. , 417. Science Policy News. "Netherlands:Structure of the 9overnmetyt Or- r , ganization farScience and Technology,"Science Policy News, XI i (March, 1971), 58-6g.

418. . "Norway:Proposals to Reorganise Research Structure," Science Policy News, XI (May 6, 1971), 73-75.

419.E -. "Scandinavia:,Information Coordinating Body," Science Policy News, III (September, 1971), 26-27.

42Q. Shore, H. 'The Problems of a Small Scien tific Community: The Norwegian Case," Minerva, VII (Spring, 1969), 399-425. . Ik, 421. Vai go, A. C."Scandinavici's Response to the Science Boom," New Scien- tist, XXr(June 2, 1 966), 600-601.

422. Wendt, Frantz.The Nordic Council and Cooperation in Scandinavia. Copenhagen: Munksgoard, 1 954 247.

. Ins J v, 04:.

r...... 4.

, 4

4 2 L.,fl" .)'.

it -1

The Organization oitecience in Western Europe 249- ,

LEADINGQUESTIONS

1.What have been the historical relationships betweengovernment and science in the United Kijagdom?.1-Sow do these relationshipsh compare with those characteristic of the United States, France, German, orthe Soviet Union? 2.What is the "two cultures" Thesis of SirChasesP. Snow? .1s its argument valid generally for modern society, for Englarrd,-or for alimited segment of 6British society? Whatrecent developments in the U. K. seem likely to influence the "two cultures" dichotomy in that,country in the future?

3., What are the principal components, of the machinery for the formulationand execution of science policy in the German government? How do theycom- pare with instruments of science policy in the United States, France, United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union? lc 4 In wha respectl has the relation of science'and technologyto government

differed 'n France froni its relationship in the English-speaking countries? . To who,Lexten have French gdvernment-science relationships, provideda model or other countries? f. 5.What obstacles have stood in the way of greatercolliborationbetween the Western European nations in the field of science and technology?Has the degree of cooperation'been increasingor decreasing? 6.What role has scientific and Technological research and development played in the unification of Europe since 121.15?What has been the contribution of European regional agencies for nuclear research and space technology? 7.What are the causes of the "Technological Gap" between Western Europe and the U.S.A.?Is it really one gap, or are there several gaps?Viihateffo'rts are being undertaken, and could be undertaken, to narrow' itsixterit? . What has been the function of the independent research institute in tile development of EUropean science? Are these comparableor analogous to institutions in the United States, the United Kingdom,or the Soviet Union? 9. HOw far can smaller European nations affordto invest in advanced scientific .and technological research and develOpment? Are they threatened by tech- , nological "imperialism "? What are their alternatives? 10. What valid.comparisonsor generalizations can be made regarding public support for science and technology in Western Europe and in the United States and the Soviet Union?Do the major Western.European states tend to spend a higher or lower proportion of their national incomes on scientific research and development? TOPIC 09 INTERNATIONAI.TECHNOSCIENTIFIC COOPERATION

From its very beginnings science, as an intellectualenterprise, has transcended political bouAdari es However with the growth of political ideologies, and notably with the growth of national states and nationalism,communication among scientists and scientific organizations has been complicated byinternational politics. It therefore follows that the organization of.worldscience has developed upon international lines.International scientific and technical organizationsare generally organized upon the basis of national membership(unofficial as well as official)`.There is a tendency, however, for the. organizationsassociated with the United Nations to assume an integrated worldcharacter rather than to emphasize .their multinational basis (World Health Organization, World MeteorologicalOr- ganization, and Food and Agriculture Organization).

Antecedents of permbnent international scientificorganizations were international scientific congresses, beginning inmid-19th century, and the establishment 411 of international associations of scientists.In 1875, establishment of the Interna- tional Bureau of Weights and Measuresnear Paris marked the beginning of permanent, operational, international technoscientific organizations.Today international technoscientific cooperation is organizedooround (1)temporary emission-oriented tprogram's, .(2)permanent nongovernmental professional associations, and (3) intergovernmental agencies. The firstcategory comprises temporary congresses, committees, or programs constituted fora specific duration, such as the International Geophysicill Year and the International BiologicalProgram.Representing th' second type of organizationis the International Council of Scientific Unions and its constituent bodies.But there are many other technical, scientific, and professional organizations thatserve in various ways to strengthen the matrix of the in- 1 ternational scientific community. The thirdtype is represented by the United Na- tions and itsaffifiates, and administers continuingscientific and technical programs. The global extension and impact of the technoscientificculture make fhe growth of international and void organizations forscientific and technological purposes al'mosr inevitable. t4nagement in theoceans, in the atmosphere, in outer space, in the great international river systems lies in largemeasure beyond the capacity -national governments.The construction of feasible and effective organizations for the worldwide management of scienceand technology is one of the great challenges to human intelligence today.

The voluntary character of international cSoperaTionis o source both of strength and of weakness to scientific and technologicalefforts on a global scale.Coop- erative efforts, such as the World Weather Watch,serve the self-interest of all nations; but whenever Cooperation impingekwponnational military or economic tr advantage, its existence becomes pricarious.The future of worldwide operation-. al efforts in science and technology in allprobability lies with transilationator- ganizations responsible toa representative international body such as the United Nations rather than directly to nationalstates.

241 A

252 The Organization of Science and Technology

TOPIC 09 INTERNATIONAL TECHNOSCIENTIFIC COOPERATION

Selected Basic Readings:

-1 Haskins, C. P. "Science and Policy for a New Decade," Foreign Affairs, XLIX (January, 1971); 237-270.

Kovda, Victor A. "Search for a U.N. Science Policy," Bulletn of the Atemic, Scientists, XXIV (Match, 1 968), 12-16. -,.

Russell, Clifford S. and Hans H. Landsberg. "international Environmental Prob- lems--A Taxonomy," Science, CLXXII (June 25, 1972), 1307-1314.

Salomon, Jean-Jacque4."The Internationale4of.Science," Science Studies,I (January, 1971), 23-42.

. . . Skolnikoff, Eueene B."Technology and the Future Growth of International Or- ganizations," Technology Review, LXXIII (June, I 971), 39 -47.

Supplementary and .Substitute _Readings: 4 . Fox, W. T. "Science, Technology, and International Politics,"International Studies Quarterly, XXI (March, 1968), 1-15.

Gardner, R. N."Can the U.N. Lead the Environmental Fisrade?" Arnericar, Journal of International Law,IXIV (September, 1970), 211-214.

0 EC DObserver. "International Technical Cooperation: Evaluation and Perspec- tives," OECD Observer, Number 29 (August, 1967), 3-6.

Pluhar, J. and B. Starnovsky. "Problems of International Cooperation in Re-'t search," Scientific World, XII (Number 1, 1968), 21-24.

Richardson, J. "UNESCO: Super-Ministry with Problems," Science Journal, V (August, 1969), 7-8. . r',.. Salon*, Jean-Jacques. "Introduction to Some. Aspects of International Coop- eration," in International Scientific Organizations, ed. by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.Paris: OECD, 1965, 11-36. .

A .242 TOPIC 09 INTERNATIONAL TECHNOSCIENTIFIC COOPERATION 253

TOPICAL OUTLINE REFERENCE KEY

I. Science and Advanced Technology as International Enterprises 1,25, 162, 190, 198

A.The universal character of scientific knowledge

B. The mobility of scientists and scientific and tecliplogical concepts

C.International diffusion of technology

lipThe Necessity for International Techno- scientific Cooperation 30, 32, 45, 74, 127, 132, 149, 218, 25,1, 288

"A.The ultimate indivisibility and,limitatiorit of the planetary environment and the biosphere 40, 45, 155, 203, 292, 299

B. Limitationslof national political controlover ----- the air and the oceans and over physical and . biological interactions in the biosphere 18, 122, 151, _ 186,269 $ C.Int I cooperation becomes necessary when 'a phenometon

1.Transcends political'. boundaries and cannot be controlled by_unitatece4 action (e.g., weather reporting or modification, control of nuclear fallout, international telecommunications, fur seals, whales, oceanic conditions generally) 1127, 28, 86,100, 123,124,148, 175,184,202, 2 259,261, 26 2Acj 111

to do.

254 The Organizationikof Science and Technology

7,; 2. Could only in; part be controlled unilaterally, and international cooperation could greatlyease the burden and enhance the effectiveness of national action (e.g., medical quarantine,protection of atory birds, exploration of outer space, aviatit'n safety standards) 18,.81, 136, 200,221- 3. Could not be dealt with unless intellectual' and material resources that are dispeesed and unevenly concentrated around the worldare brought into some form of cooperative relationship (e.g., technical assistance efforts to countries sufferingtram physical, economic, and social deterioration) 140,262,276, -301 j

III: Early Efforts toward International Organizationfor 7 Purposes of Science or Technology 163

A.Early collaboration in observation and exploration 1. Bessel's Sky Chart Project (started 1824) 2. International Polar Year, 1882-83

B. International congresses 1.1 847 International Congress of Economists-- Brussels z 2. 1 848 International Agriculture Congress-- Brussels 3. 1 851 International Health Congress--Paris 4. 1 853 International Statistical Congress-- Brussels 5. 1 860 International Congress cif Chemistry-- Karlsruhe 6. 1 862 International Congress of Geodesy-- Berlin

C.International associations 1.1 861 Universal Society of Ophthalmology Paris *

244 NInternational Technoscientific Cooperation 255

2. 1872 International Meteorologidal ComkteeLeipzig 3. 1 9007nternational AssociatiOn of AcademiesQottingen

I D.International bureaux 1. 1875 International-Bureau of Weights and Measures--Paris 2. 1 92rInternational Hydrographic Bureau--Monte Carlo

E., Research stations

1. Naples Zoological Station-1870 e- 2. Jungfraujoch Scientific Station-- 1 930

F. ScirSc organizations 'under the League of ns 254

1V. Contemporary International Organizations 179, 240, 248, 249, 272

A.International organizations- -U.N. group (ultimate universality?) 40, 97, 298 1. United Nations--its committees and

affiliated organizations , 118 a . United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Orgpn- ization, UNESCO - -1945 41,50,146,2_9, 236 b: Food and Agriculture Organization," FACE- -1945 98, 13 9, 140, 225, 304 c. World Health Organization, WHO-- 1 946 3, 77;73, 174, 213, 3t0 .d. World Meteorologica4Organizationy WM0-1 947: 46, 204 e. International Atomic Energy Agency, / IAEA --1 956 5y 153, 173

245 lib

256 ' The Organization of 'Science and Technology e

f. International Civil Aviation _Organ- ization, ICAO

B...6 Other intergovernmental-international organizations 1. International Computation Centre, 1CC-- 1 961 2. International Institute of Refrigeration, I IR :--1 920 Y. International TelecommtalnicationUnion, ITU 69,218 4. Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative . Organization, IMCO 5. Permanent Commission of the International Fisheries Convention--1 946 6. Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, ,IOC -- 1960 -61

C.International scientific unions and associations 1. International Council of ScientificUnictrls,- -

founded 1 91 9 as the International Research Off

Council and re-establishedas ICSU in 1 931 1 , . 4,1 2,89, - 29 r .4" a Fifteen (1 966) constituent unions 93 b. Fifty-seven (1964) national members - (represented by national academy, research council, or directly by a governmeni) c. Scientific committees (1) Committee on Space Research, COSPAR-- 1 >458 38,256 (2) Scientific Committeeon Oceanic Research, SCOR--1 957 (3) Scientific Committeeon Antarctic Research, ,-- SCAR--1 958 4 (4) Scientific Committeeon Problems of En- ilonmenl, SCOPE - -1970 306 d. interiion committees .(limited task and duration), (1) International Geophysical ComMittee,CIG ,44 1 959

(2) Committee on Frequency Allocationsfor Radio. and Space Science, IUCAF

24,; o t ,

Ilkk . , * International eahnoscientificooperation 4 - . - . . eSpecial committees , . 4 ' .0).Comite' Specia4de Ittonee .- . 1 4G4ophysique Internationale, 0t .CSA GI .1, 0 ...e. (2) Carnmittfte for the International ' Years of the)- Quiet Sun, IQSY--x 19 45 256 2 (3).0 for the International, /. . . ° Biolo ogramm SCIBP 242 /1*" .... . ,f. Termane t seces

, Q- (1)%ICSU Abstracting Board-.1953 , . (2) Federation of AstronOmiail and - 1 ...-*-..-1, Geophysical Services, FAQS-- 1956 *2. Other international uniontlif. ederations,,, and asso`ciatiohs 248, 305 .4 a Semi-govornmentalio-son o governmental invqlvement or:support: p.g./internafinal Union for the Conservation. of.plature aridi Natural ResoOrces, IUCN; International Uhion of F,orest Research Organizations 4; 6,,230 b.. Non - governmental profession' al: Cauncitfor Inte*rnational Organization .P: .of Medical 5ciences,t1OMS; The Wei-. national College of Surgeons; Union 6f

, . Intefnational Engineering Orepnizations, 01E0

V.The Process of biternaitortai Cooperation and Control , .23, 34,'179 i . , 306,. 311 A. The strui.ture of, international coolieration. in science andtechnology ,., .293,. 309 1. Internationalorganizaiions (limited partici- ; pation) ,- ' % 4 110"Th n lit ,, ...L.International organizations (potentia / univeral participation) . 97 ci ripnited Nations and affiliated . 1.or,Piztitittns: ft. ,.. 62,42 b:. Other intergovernmental rganizatians, "' .22 -3, international semi-govErnment I orgdnizations 6-, 4.,:hatei.narional non-governm nI orvniiiions ,.,...___ a -"Snam.4- ..- :4,, . 1- ',4) lt, / 4_' e 0 d

.1* 1.0 _ .

258 The Organization of Science and Teohnoky 141P; 0

5.,InternatiOnal scientific unions 6. Regiondorgamizations for science and technology 22,- 90, 95 ' 7. Cooperation and communicatiomeamong r. v i duo) scientists 8. CYoperation between universities and other

Tcientific institutiorir#different countries , 185 .

B. methods of internationalkobperatiOn and 207, 306, 307, 11. control 309, 310 , 1 Treaties . . 1 93, -294 si a . Treaty on Nature Protectton and' Wildlife Preservatiortin the We;tern . . Hemisphere 11 94) ' 294, 303. b. London Conve ton 'on Oil iPollution (1 954) 4, 290 c,, Treaties for control of narcotics- "(1 946, 1961) 99, 254 d. Geneva Conventionon FiAing and Conservation of the Living iResources of 1$1.- _lir High Teas (1958) 259, 263 e . The Antarctic Tredty (1 959j) 184 sw. f. NuclearTestBan Treaty (1963) 193 g. international Treation thelPeaceful Uses of Outer Space (1 966), h. Nuclear -Non-prOtiferationireaty(),970) w 1 93,7209, 23j: I t. SeabedArms Control Treaty (197`1). 2. Interomornmental agreements 1%49 a. V.S.-Japdn Scientifra. Cooperation. Program 111 b. NetheriandsrNorway Atm* Energy oject 1. . 3.'llitnicalcooperation ana assistance programs 44, 75, 101 4. Concurrent action- Ili based on treaties 2)r informal executkrgreemeruts a-. Conc4ent law: enforcement \ b,. Concurrpht action proiectsq-7.g., anti i- i malaria campaign 5. lntirnational cooperative scierific efforls 617, 109, 110;

L. .- 150

24 I International Technoscientific Cooperation 259

VI. Some Cases of International Scientific ,Cooperation

A.International cooperation in scientific research--special programs 196 1. International Polar Year, 1 932-33 2. International Geophysical Year,, 1957 -58 126, 2150 4 , 3, International Years of the Quiet so Sun,1 91,65 7, 143 4. Inferno iondf Biological Progra 7 56, 57, 120,177, 191, 288 11 5: International Hydrological Decade 6. Indian Ocean Expedition

41) 17 obal Atmospheric Research Program-- GARP 116, 243 8. 'International Decade of Ocean Exploration 88, 187, 241 9. The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (1972) 4, 63, 64, 107 306, 309, 310 B. International technical rration-- continuing efforts 30, 32, 67, 76, ,-I .. .6 92, 147; 279, 282 i 1. Outer space exploration 17, 38, 43, 58,` . 61, 79, 105, 2 ., .- 46, 170, 205 Z. Peaceful uses of atomic energy 3%81,33, 172, ,., 187, 201, 235

'3. Allocation of radio-wave bands 7Q . Commiinivtionsatellitesteflites 31., 70, 1,23, 165, : - , V 168,261,262, I .t ) 268,277,278, . 5: Protection of endangered, species 1114175,227, 254,.302,303 6* Improved food production ' > . . 68; 78, 140, c . 266, 284, 304 7. Economic development 271, 274; 276 P , 8. Disea\e prevention and control 5 36, 156, 166, . r 1 99,33, 234, 281, 301 . 9. Education 55, 76,118, 270 .t2 .. ..- IP 1 IL 260 The Organ Inition of Science and Technology

e 1f* Public administration 15,171. 11.-Scientific Information 21, 26,124 1$2, . -212 I' 12. Weather forecasting 47, 176;243 - 13. Environmental monitoring 4, 40, 63, 64, I. 129, 148' 1*. Seismology-- , 130 15. Information services-:-UNISIST I 11, 273

VII. Prospects for Ultimate International Controlover e Applications of Scientific and Technical Knowledge wit -Respect to / A. ilitary technology 24, 11 2,124, 1 93,

290, 209, 210, - 21 6, 221, 23-1;, 255, 257 B.State of.the global ecosystem 13, 46,460, 107, 1,15, 119, 129, 155, 202, 203, 265, 269, 275, 285, 299, 304 308 A 1. The atmosphere 59, 204, 243,- 244 2. The oceans 10, 20, 53, 88, '103, 145, 152,, 21 4,220, 228, 2,37, 38, 280, 90,291. 3. The polar 'regions 14, 37, 184232 4. Natural resolrces 74, 104, 122, 264, 271

C. National population policies 63, 64, 264

D. The outer space environment 38, 41, 105,147, 169, 219, 222, 224, 232, 237, 253

1 25t)

a A

International Technoscientific Cooperation.

* %4I

VIII. Problemsof,f IntertiOnal Scientific Cooperation . 35; 94;142,1'51, T63, 164, 255; 260, 286, 287,

A.National sovereignty., exclusiveness, and self=interist -52, 102,1 6Fe .1 93, 200 1. Military or security considerations 49, 209, 210, 216 2. N Tonal rivalry (U.S.A.-U.S.S.R.) 8, 54, 124, 144,- 'NJ 231 -3. Fear o pLecedent-setting 209 . 4.:Fear;and suspicion of "scientific'' imperialism- 16, 98,135

B. Political indifference .04 '255 1. Refusal of governm.ents to lendsu port to ,international scientific activi legal and political grounds 2. Resistance bf political leadership tos' 4 commitments where no political payoff is in sight

C.Ideological resistancel'and social conservatitm 1. Population control 281 2. Efficient food production 284 3. Natural resource exploitation 104, 262, 266, 28Q., 4. Obsolete educational systems 76, 118

D.Inadequate:organization wi.thinnational 6 governments for effective cooperation in scientific mattets 163, 192, 271

1.Science in advanced,nations-under political. restraint ik So ' 2. Division of responsi ity for scJentific activities P.in various countries Er different Ministries and agencies of goverpment. Delegation frain the same nation to different conferences can be subject to inconsistent instructions 3. No real scientific establishment in many "new" nations

4 262 he Orbanization of Science anctiechnology

4. Organizations tend to followown laws-of grOwth. Increasing expenseposes problertis especially for smaller countries .4"

E.Inadequate technoscientific or techcreconomic --t solutions to the control problem 1. Atomic waste disposal 128, 133 2. Weather modification control 8281 4'. Drug use 99,254

F. Lack of international machinery for effective control'over political or economic misuse of science or technology 117 1. Misuse or deuction of rreplaceable - national reso rites,.'e.g., oceans, wildlife:, .°topsoil t ,175, 25 2. Activities irter space 35,219

p V.

0. ?

44,

I lichnoscientific Cooperation 263

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. a 6

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121. _Noce, Raymond L. "Water: A Common Problem, f' Bulletin of the Atomic 'Scientists, XXI (January, 1965), 32-34.,

122.. . 'Water Resources: A Global Problem. with Local Roots," Environmental Science and -Technology,1 (July, 1967), 550-560.

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% 272 /The Organifation of Science and Technology

* 1 23..Nature. " s in Principle;" Nature, CCXXXI I July 23, 1971) 213.

'Neellk.124. Nei I di Robertand) J. P. Ruiriel. "A Comprehensive Barton Nu, esting," a .Science, CLXXV (January 14 19772), 141 -416.

. 125. Noyes, W.Al 6%0, Jr,."The Place of the Scholar. in InternatiOnctl Aff6irs," American Scientist, XXXVIII (January,t950),1 20-126.

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Perspectives," OECD Observer, Number 29 (August, 1967),3-6. a Ipr . 128. 4C . "OECD Convention on -Liability for Nuclear Dainage,". OECD Qbserv,er, Number-22 (June, 1966), 36 -39.

1'29. . "OECD and the Environmnt," OECD Observer, LIII(Au- , gust,1971), 1-26. *, ,. 411) 1 30. Oliver, Jack.ond Leondrd Murphy. "WWNSS: Seismology's Global Net- work of 'Obwrving Stations," Science, CLXXIV (October15, 191), . -.4454-261,.

* = 131. Organization for .ECononlit., Cooperation and Development. "The Inn u- ence of'Sc i ence and Technology n. Present -Day Foreign Policy,"'Science Poky ,Information, III (October, 1967),47-48.

, , . -. 1 32: .'.1.1141544e0 for European CooperationinResedrch,""ficience Po icy Information,111(Octobw, 1967), 42-44.

133. dtborn, Frederick H."Control of Atomic Energy: An International Prob- ). rem," BUlletin`of the Atomic Scientists,V (August-September, 1949), 4 251.254. . . ,. . i *I. , . I. if. 134. Parsons, E.International.Techrrical Cooperafitn:. Evalbation-and Per- spectives," OECD Observer, Number 29 (August, 1:967), 3-9.

135. Peavey, Ross C. and Lawrence M. Gould."Antiirctica, Internationol Land of Science,' UNESCO Courier, XV (January, 1,962),.9-14. . . _. , 136. f;ercy, Chides H."Ihternational:dopdration in Space," Congressional Record, CXVII (March 16, 1971), S3270-S3271.

262 4

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137. Peters, Randolph and Nicolai Herlofson. "The Future of International . $ Science," New Scientist, V (September 1 4, 1 961), 665 -667.

138. Pttrullo, E. "Government Sponsorship of Overseas Research," American Psychologist, XXIII (February, 1 968), 1 08-111.

139. Phillips, Ralph W.'Food and Agriculture Organization Completes 15 Years," Scice, CXXXII (September 30, 4960), 871-881. ,

140. . "International Cooperation to Improve World Agriculture4" Scientific Month.lLXXIX (September, 1 954),154-164.

141. Pijoan, M. and F. Trowbridgevon Baur. "Science as the'Common Ground 4, for 'Relations between Nations," Scientific Monthly,LXIII(August, 1946), 1 37-1 40. 4

- ...... 142. Pluhar, J. and B. Starnovsky. . ''Priblems of International.Cooperation in Research," Scientific World; XII (Winter, 1968), 21-24. ,- k, . , 143. Rush kov, Nicola Land Boris.Si I kin. "TheNears of the Quiet Sun," UNESCO fr . CouriereXIX(September,1966), 22,28..-- .. S 14,-Rabinowitch, 'Eugene. Sr ''On the Sochi CoRference," Bulletin of theAtomic Scientist's, XXVI (April, 1970), 18 -20.

145, Reve I le, Roger. "International Cooperatioel Marine Sciences," Science, CXX,V,I (December 27, 1957), 131 9-1 323. - 1 Richardson, J."UNESCO: Super-Ministry*vittProblems,' Satepce Jour- .'/.' nal, V(Augult4,1 969), 7-8. 14 i

`147. Roberts, W. 0. 'After the Moon, the Earth!" Science, CLXVINanuary . -2, 1970), 11-16. , \ 4 . -4-0/ " .148. Robinson, George D."Global Environment Monitorng," Technology Re-. vie*, LXX1II (Mciy, 197J),19-27.

149. Rogers,William. "Growing Ties between Science and Foreign Policy," . Department of State 1)ullatin, LXIV (June 14, 1971), 776.-778. .90 1 50. Rosenfeld, Stephen St. "SovietaAmerioan ElLchanges.-7-fif7for-Tat Good- will," Science,CXLIII (Mar'ch 27, 1964), 141,0 -1417. 1. At . Al.' 4" .. ,,1111 . 23j \.A 274 fib The Osganitation of Science and Technology Iv

151. Rosseau, Ch.* les.."Scieritifi'c Pr *ogress and tiirEvolutionof International ° Law," Impact of Science on Society, V (June, 1954), k1-92.

152 Roth, W. V., Jr.'International Conference on Ocean Duinping,,"1Con- .9ressional Recerd, CXXII (April 1, 1971), S4J83-S43 86. I . 153. Rubinstein, Alviri Z."On IAEA's Futur,." Bulletin of the Atomic Scien7 Lists, XXI (January, 1965); 25-27. , - 1 154, Rugg, Dean S "The International )vaplof the World," Scientific Monthly, 0 : LXXII 1951), 233-240. _ 155. Russell, Clifford S.and Hans H.,Landsberg."Internotiohal Environmental Problems - -A Taxonomy," Science-,CLXXII (June 25, t971),'1307-1,31 4.

156. Russell, Paul -F. ntemati al Preventive- - Medicine,';Scientrfia Monthly, LXXI (DeceMber,1-950) 1

-157 Salam, Abdus."Interaction at Trieste,' New Scientist, XXVItl (December

2, 1965), 672-674%_

* ,

158 1 "The International Center for Theoretical, Physics," Physis Today, XVIt) (March, 1965), 52-53.

159. "A NG/ Center for PhysiCs," Bulletin of the Atomic Scien- tists, XXI (December, 1965), 25-27. .0."' 160. . !'The United Notions and the International Worl,d of Physics," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists,IXXIV (February, 1968), 14-15.

1 61. Salomon.. Jean,Jacqeies. "International Scientific Policj,,': Mingiva, (Summer, 19644, 411-434. .a"

162 It' 1,1Thitliternationaleof Science," Science Studies,I. (Jon- uary, 1 971), 23-42. , , 163. :. "Introduction to Some Aspects of I nttna fi ona I Cooperation; q in International Scientific Organizations, Lily Organization for f- : cdnomk Coopet.4 and Development.Paris:, OECD,' 1965, 1.1.36.7 . , . . . o 11 . 1 64. . -."Problems of lnternati [Cooperation 1n$ Scientific and Tec ;col-Research" OECD Observe r,' Special Issueon Scienceo(Feb- , rue r, 1966)143-48; AM" I ..4; i -- .' . J , International Technoscientlic Cooperation 275

. - 165. Samuelson, R.J. "INTELSAT:, Wing High; but FutureCourse Uncertain," . Science, CVIV (April 4, 1969); 56-57'. - NO 166: Scheele, Leonard A. It .- ."Pmblic, Hearth and Foreign Policy," Annolstof the American AFademy cif,Politicar ar(dSocialScience, CCLXXVIll (No- . ',member, 1951)}, 6/-72. f .-W

, f. It 167. Schilling,Warner R."Science, technology, and Foreigri-Rolicy," Jobroal ei IF it 1110f,hiternational Affairs, XIII (Vlinter, 1959), 7-18. i 168. Schromm,;Wilber.. "tommunicyti on' Satel I ites:The New Music of the Spheres," UNESCO Courier, XXl (February, 1968.),.24 -29. .

...... 169. Schwittz, Leonard E.. "When is Inernbtional Space CooperatioInter- , national?" Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XIX(June, 1963), 12 -}8. .. 170. Science.,"Soviet- American Conference Urges Search.forOther Worlds," Science, CILXXIV (OCtOber 8, 1971); 130-131.-

. , 1Z1. Se ce l'Oficy News."International Cooperation in Sbcial Science Re- . . search and Poi i cy,Organi zatiafv, " Science Policy News,I (March, 1970), ti -97-99: , _ -....

172. Sea6;6710'101'714_r-The-Prom f.the International Atomic Energy A7 §enay," 'Scnce;'CV11 (alb 13i 96) 226430.

173.' Sharpe, Bernard W. "Niklear Safeguards:. TheAEA Program," Physics' Today,XXII '(November,'1 969), 33-37. .

lb, .._ 174:. ShiMkin, Michael B.. "The (orld Health Organttation," ScienceCIV. (September' 27, 1 946),,281-483. t-----ile 4 4 , \I' , , 175: Simon,143be1. "Or Whales and Whaling," Science, CXLIX (August 25, .1 965)1i 943 -946. ' I, , ' A 176 Singer, S. Fred'"The First Global Weather Research:Its Questions arid Possilipiities,. Astronautics and Aeronautics, VI (May,'1 968), 3d-3. , : . 4 li, . 177.Sissakian, N. M. ..., "International,Cooperalidnin ti4BiologicalSciences,"- Impact of. Science on Society, XII (Number 3, 1962) 146 -156. J 1-78. "The-International Prospects of Science, " UNESCOCourier, . --0..-.-. . . . XV111101a.rcii, 1'965), 4 -8. - , . .f 2E 11. 4

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4 . 276 The OrganizatiOn of %lance and Technology

179. Skolnikoff, Eugene B.,"Te hnology and the Future ,Growth of Inter tional Organizations," Technology Review, LX},(III (Julie, .971), 39-47.

180. Smith-Ross, R.- L. , "Allocajion of,Frequencies for Radio Astronomy and

Spcice Sciences," Nature, CCIII (July 4, 1464), 7711. .

.., 18.1. . "The International Zia ientai c Radio Union," Nature, CXCIX

(August 3, 1963 436-437. . . ? . ? , s . c 112. Spence., D., L."International Transfer of Technology," ModeAge, XII .) (Winter, 196P-68), 14-23. ,.., 1

.. , 183. Struve, 'Oro. 'The International Astronomical Union,' Science* CXVII (March 27, ,1 953), 315-318.

184. Taubenfeld, Howard 3.. "A Treaty for An'tarctica-," International Concil:' .,11=IMiation, Number 531 (1961), 245-322.

185. Thornton,Gerard.. i"Overseas Acti4tie,s of the Ro?alSociety, "4 Scientists, V11.(July 14, 1940), 118-120. ` t.; 186. Todd, W. 4. a nd John Voss.'The Consortium of Academies: A New . Way to Found International Scholarly Institutions,"1Bulletin of the A- tomic Scientists, XXVII (February, 11971), 29 -32.

187. United Notions Educational, Scikentific,and Cultural Organization. "Peaceful Uses of the Atom," UNESCO Courier, XXI (July-Augtist, 1 968),

- . 188. .U.S. Deportment of Cprnierce News.iiE DS Nr'ar4c1 Lead Agency for Non- , togement Of-Data 'Gathered in International Decade of Ocean Explora-1 . 4 tion,"11.S. DepartmentAf Commerce News (August 11, 19.71),1 -2'

. , . b. 189. Vi ice B. "Role of Council for International Or.ganizations , in cat Science," Science, CXXIII (February. 24, 1 9561'337. 1 ., 1.e 1 90. V'on Akuralt, Al exander. international and National-Aspects of Science," Physics- Toda?, VI (April, 1953), 4-6. - ,1 14 , 191. Waddington, Conrad H. "MObilizing,the World't Biologists," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XIX (Nkvembei, 1 963); 39-41., g 0 . , , '; . 1 92..r. Waksm'an, Selman A. "Penalty of Isolat' /11' Science, CXXV cfrarch 294.1 957), 585-'587. 146 ' C r. " " International Technoscientific Cooperation 277 6

te a i93. Walsh,John."Arms Control and Disarmament: SALT, CCD, CTB, MBFR, etc Science, CLXXV (January 21, 1972), 281-282.

194. "ESRO: Space Sciences Research in Europe Suffers Growing Pains," Science, CLVIII (October 13, 1967), 242-243.

195 , . "EURATOM: After 10 Years, Still M sing the Way," Sci- ence, CLVIII (October 6, 1,967), 95-98. ,. 1 96. "International Science Activiqes: Some New Vistas Open," Science,ILII (line 1-7, 1966), 16 05-160V.

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, ..., 202,' Wison, T. W., Jr."Thetnvironment: Do the Polluted Clouds Havea' I,- . - Silver Lining?" Futurist, V (February, 1971), 26 -29. , fr .2 03. \Almon, A."Pollution as an International l'ssue," Foreign Affairs,XXVII \t(Octiber, 1.968),, 164-175. 401 , . (.. 204.,World Metebrological Oronization. '!First Session of the *Joint GARP "Organizing Committee, WMO Bulletin, 'XVII (.July, 1968), 126-1,30. p % 205 Wright, dristophei. "Scientific PFogiess and the Governrhent. of Outer Spoce I of International Affairs, XIII (Winter, 1 95 9), 78-92. Jo *4 106: - ' "United Nations andiEce," Bulletin of the AtomicScien- tists, XVIOMay-June, 1961), 23rPro.

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278 The Organization of Science aritafechnologyi

207.,Ziman, John M."The 'Winter foliage' Format,' Science, CLXXI (Jan- , uary 29, 1971), 352-354.

.208: Zwemer, Raymund L.'The UNESCO Program for Scientific Research," AIBS Bulletin, VII (January, 1957), 8 -10.

General References: Books

209. Barnaby, C. F., ed.Preventin the Sead of r Wea . London: Souvenir Press, 1969, 374.

210. Barnapy,C. F.and A. Boserup, eds. Im; mations of Anti-Ballistic S stems. ondon: Souvenir Press, 1969, 246

`.Behrman, Dbni91. Web of Progre : UNESCO at Work in Science and . Technology.Paris: UNESCO, 1964, 103.

212. Serkner, LloydV ,Science and Foreign Relations: International Flbw of , Scientific and Technological Information.' Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of State, 1950, -170.. It

/I% 213. C.Berkov,Rol;er. The World Health Organization: A Study in Decentralized 4- laternatio Administration. Faris): Minard, andiGeneva: Librarie:Droz,:l 957, 17.

2514. etorgeseethzabeth M.The Ocean Regime,Santa BarbarakCalifornia: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, 1968, 40.

o 1 215. Braunias, Karl and Peter Meraviglia, eds.Modern 'Science and the Tasks of Diplomacy.(International Seminar forDiplornats, Klessheim, 1964). Graz,Austria: Verlag Styria, 1965.4 (Note especially David A. Davis, "Geophysics and Its Impact on International Affairs," 103116.E

Bush, Vannevar. Modern Arms and' Free Men. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Press, 1968, 273.(Original eitionipublishe'd by Simian and, Schuster, 1949.). . 2 ) 7. Clx2pman, J. D.,ed.The International 'River Basin. Vancouver:Uni-. . \ versify of British Columbia, 15113, 53.

. . 218. Codding, G,orge.A:The International Telecommunications Union: An Experiment in International Cooperation. 'Leiden; E .J. Brill, 1952, 505. , ( . .', . t ti

111 International Technoscientific Cooperation 279

219. Cohen, Maxwell, ed.Lay; and Politics in Space:Specific and Urgent Problems in the Law of Outer Space., Montreal:McGill University Press, 1964, 221.

, 220. Cristy, Francis T., Jr. andAnthony Scott.The Common Wealth in Ocean Fisheries. Baltimore: Johhs Hopkins Press, 1966, 296.

221. Edwards, David V.Arms Control in International Politics.New York: Holt, Rinehart', and Winsto?, 1969, 200.-

222. Frutkin, 'Arnold W.International Cooperation in Space.,Englewood Cliffs, New Jerseyv Prentice-Hall, 1965, l86-. Pr t 223. Goldsen, Joseph M., e0.,....._9)fter ,Space in Wort Politics.New York: Praeger, 1963,480.

224. Haley; Andrew G. Space Law and.Government.New YOrk: Appleton- Century-Crofts, 1963, 5a4.

225. Hambidge, Ggve.The Story of FAO. New York: Van Nostrand, 1955, 330.

226, HcIskins, Caryl P. The Scientifi,cRevolution and World Politics.New York: Harper and Row, 1964, 115.

227 Hayden, Sherman S. The International Protection of Wi I dl ife. New York: Columbia University Press, 1942, 246.

228. Institute for Politics and Planning.Multi-National Investment in Ocean Activities.Arlington, Virginia:Institute for Politics and Planning, 1969, 89. . , C- 229. International Counci l'of Scientific Unions. A Description ofthe Interna- tional Council of Scientific Unions; A Descriptionof the Council, of Its , Commissions, and of Its Affiliated Scientific Unions and Commissions with Some Account of Their Hi,story and Scientific Activities.Cam- bridge, England: University Press, 1950.. T 230. International Union for Conservaon of Nature and Natural Resources. IUCN --Yearbook *1970 yRobert IStandish. Morges, Switzer- land: IUNC, 1971, 98

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280 The Ordanization of Science and Technology

231. Jacobson, Harold K. and Eric Stein.Diplomats, Scientists,andRoliticians The United States and the Nuclear Test Ban Negotiations. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan tress, 1966, 538.

. . /232. Jessup, Philip C. and Howard J. Taubenfeld.Controls for Outer Space--- and the Antarctic Analogy. New York: Columbia University Press,

1959, 379. . It .. * , 233. Johri'E;Fogarty International Center fat Advanced Study in the Health

41.6 Sciehces. Bethesda, Maryland: Department of 'Health, Education,and Welfare, 1971, 14.. '

.234. . National Institutes of Health Annual Report of International Activities, Fiscal Year 1970. Bethesda, Maryland: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1970, 147. -' 1

235. Kramish, Arnold.The Peaceful Atom in Foreign Policy.New York: Harper and Row, 1963, 276.

236. Laves, Walter H and Charles Thompson .UNESCO: Purpose, Progress, Prospects.BI mington: Indiana University Press, 1957, 357.

237. McDougal, Myres S.and W. T. Burke.The Public Order of the Oceans: A Contemporary, International Law of the Sea. New Haven, Connecti- cut: Yale University Press, 1962, 1226.

McDougal, 'Myres S.,Harold D. Lasswel I, and Ivan A. Vlasic.Law and 1 Public Order' in Space. New Ha:/en, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 11)4, 1.147.

239. Morgan, Murray Doctorsto the World. NI& York: Viking Press-,1958, 271. . ,

240. -Murra, Kathleen O. International Scientific Organizations: A Guide to Their Library, Documentation, and Informatian Services.Library of Congress Publication 2- 64648. Washington, U.S. Government

Printing Office, 1962, 794. .

241. National Academy of Sciences . National Aeademy of Engineering. 'An Oceanic Quest: The International DeCafle of Ocean Exploration; 110 Washington, D.C.:National Academy of Sciences, 1969, 115..,

\...... , International TechnOscientific Cooperation 281

242. Nqtional Academy ofSciences - National Research Council.National, Academy of Engineering, Division of Biologyand Agriculture.; U.S. Participation in the InternationaL BiologicalProram.Washington; / D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967,6.

243.1' . Geophysics Research Board. An Outlibe of International Programs in the Atmospheric Sciences. Washington, D.0 U.S. Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1963, 95.(NSF Publication 1085)

244. Committee for Global Atmospheric Reseorch`Program, Di- visionofvision Physical Sciences.Plan for U.S. Pariticipation in the Global Atmospheric Research Program". Washington,D.C.:-U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969, 79.

245. Needham, Joseph.. Science anOnternational Relations. Oxford: Black; melt, 1949, 30. O

246. Noyes, W Albert, Jr.Science on the National and International Scenes. "or Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1956, 92.

247. Ogburn, William F., ed.Technology and International Relations. Chi- cago: University of Chicago Press, 1949, 148.

248. Organilation for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment.Nternational Scientific Organizations. Paris:OECD, ,1965, 286. Supp ement, January, 1966, 86.

249. . Ministers Talk about Science- -A Summary and Review of the First tMinisterial Meetingon Science, October 1963.Edited with an introduction- and notes by Emmanuel G. Mesthene, Secretary of th Ministerial Meetingon Science.Paris: OECD, 1965, 178'. /Note especially article by Jean-Jacques Salomon, "InternationalSqientific Organizations," 57-87.)

250. The OECD at Work. Paris: OECD, 1964, 148.

251. . Science and the Policies ofovemmentr: The Implications of Science and Technology for Nationaland International .Affairs. Paris: OECD, 1963, 55.

252: Polach,,Jaroslav G. EURATOM:Its Background, Issues, and Economic Implications.Dobbs Ferry, New'York: Oceana, 1964, -232. 271 a -IP

282 The Organizationof Science and Techno)ogy

253.'Rabinowitch, Eugene and Richard S. Lewis, eds.Man on the Moon: The Im ct on Science Technol ,and International Cooration. New York: Basic Books, 1969,04.

54. Renborg, WWI A.International Drug Control - -A, Study of International Administration by and thrOug4 the League of Nations.Washington, D.C.: Carnegiej Endowment f 6r International Peace, 1947, 276., a. 255. Russell, Bertrand. Common Sense and Nuclear Warfare. NewYork; Simon ' and Schuster, 1y59, 92.

g56. Schwartz, Leonard E. International Organizationiand Space Cooperation Durham, North Cdrolina: World Rule of Law Centek 1962, 108.

25,7. Singh, Nagencira..Nuclear Weapons and International Law. New York: Praeger, 1959, 267.

258. Skolnikoff, Eugene B.Science, Technology,fndAmerican Foreign Policy. Cambridge, Massachusetts: M.I.T. Press, 1969, 330.

. \ 259. Small, George L.The Blue Whale. Londom- Columbia University.Press 1971, 248. -4....." .. . . 260. Sullivan, Walter.Assault oti the Unknown: TheOnternational Gt °physical 11 Wear. New York: McGraw-Hill, 460. - . . 4 .. . . 261. Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on Internationl Satellite Comm4Lica- Hons.- Communicating by Satellite. New York: Twentieth Celfuri Rind, 1969, 79. .,

... 262. . Tshe Future (3( Satellite Communations, Resource Manage- went an the Needs of Nbtions. New York :. Twentieth Century Koh 1971, 17. Ale 263. United Nations."Convention on the High Seas, Geneva, 29 April 1958,," , in United Nations Treaty Series, CDL, Number 6465 New Yak: U- nited Nations, 1963, 156.

264. . Parrs Presented at the International Thchnic Conference on the Contervrition of the Livingitesources of the Sea: :Rate, 18 April to 10 May, 1955. New fork:' United Nations, 1956, 371.(Note !socially pbpers by Remington- Kellogg,"The Intemdtional Whaling -J. Commission," 256-261'; M.J. Girard, "Note on the General Fiiheries Councilfarthe Mediterranean," 262-265.) 272

. International Technoscientific--Cooperation 283 .

265. .United Nations.Poliution.of the Sea by Oil: ,Results ofan Inquiry Mode by the United 'Nations Secretariat .1 New York:United Nations, 1956, 235. t 266. . Advisory Committee on the. Application of Science and Technology: to Development.International Action to Avert the-Im- .pending. Protein Crisis:Feeding the Expanding World Population. New York: Unitesi Nations, 1968, 106. a.\ .

, _ . 247 . United Nations Educational,SAieniific, andCultural, Organization.Bi- lateral Institutional Links in Science andTeghtibtogy. Paris: UNESCO, 1969,4., . 2 68. Communication in the SpaceAge: The Use.of Satellites by b - the Mdss Media: Paris: UNESCO, 1968, 200.

269. . Intergovernmental .Conference of Expertson the Scientific BasisFor Rational Use apa,Conservation of the Resources of theBiosphere: .Final Report, Paris, 4-13`1September ,1 9681.Paris: UNESCO, 1 968, 71. .. -4 270.- ' . Main Trends of Research in the Social and Human Sciences: Part I, Social Sciences. Paris: UNESCO, 1970, 820. ,.. . \ 271. . Manual for Surveying National Sdientific and Tic hnological . Potential. New Yo'k: UNESCO, 1 970,-251. 0

272. . UNESCO -Handbot d£4international Exchanges,Parisi e .%. . , / 1 UNESCO, 1967, 1102'. T- .

- 273;'United NationsIducati,onal, 'Scientific, and CulturalOrganization and, the International Council of Scientifit lOons.UNISISI--Synopsis.of the Feasibility Of a World Science Inforpation'System.Paris: UNESCO, 1971, 92.

--274. United Nations Industrial Development Organization.WAITRO---World- Association of Industrial and Technological Research Organizations. Report of the founding meeting held in Vienna, 26r30 October 1970. I Vienna, Austria' UNIDO, 1971, 54.

275. U.S. Congress. %. International Environmental Science. Proceedingsofthe Joint Coll uium before -the Committee on ,Cbmmerce, U.S.. -_,enatd, andtheC mmittee on Science and Astronautics, U.S. House of Repre- sentatives, 2nd Congress, 1st Session, May 25-26, 1971. Washington, D.C.: U.S.60 'gent Printing Office, 1971, 241.

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276. U.S. Congress.House.Committee on Foreign Affair*:Deficiencies in °. the Magagementand Delivery of U.N. Technical and Pre-Investment Assistance. Report of a Staff Survey Teani /3f the Committeeto the 92nd Congress, lstkssion, March. 25, 1 971'. Washington, D.C.: U .5.Gov- ernmetit Prinfling Office, 1971, 50.

277. . Committepon Foreign Affairs.Subcommittee on National Security Policy and Scientific Developments. Foreign Policy, Implica- 4 tions'of Satellite Communications.Hearings before the Subcommittee ' to the...91st Congress, 2nd Session, April 23, 28; and 30, 1970. Wash- ington, Government Printing Office, 1970, 212. . .

278. . Cornmiftee.on Foreign Affairs.Subcommittee on National Security Policy and Scientific Developments.Satellite Broadcasting, Implication's forioreign Policy.Hearings before the Subcommittee to the 91st Congrelt 1st Session, May 13-22, 1 969. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969, 317.

6 ,279. . Committee on Foreign Affairs.Subcommittee on, Nafionul . Security Policy and Scientific Developments.Science, Technology, anckArnerican Diplomacy: The Evolution of International Technology. . Prepared for the Subcommittee by Franklin P. Huddle,Science Policy- Research and Foreign Affairs Division, Legisliativelleferene Service, Libraryof Congress, 91st Congress, 2nd SE's; .December, 1 970. Mash -

ington, D.C.': U.S. Government Printing Officq, 1970, 70. 3

280.4 . _Committee on Foreign Affairs: Subcommittee on National Security Policy and Scientific' Developments.Science, Technotogy, and American Diplomacy:Exploiting Resources of the Seabed.Pre- pared for the Subcbmmittee by George A.Doumani, Science Policy Research :Division, 'Congressional Research Serv'ico, Libraryof Con- Oess,,92nd Congress, 1st Session, Ju ly,1971 **Washington, D.C.:U.S.' tiGovernment Printinyk Office, 1971, 152. .

281. . 'Committee on Foreign Affairs.Subcommittee on National Security Policy and Scientific DevelOpments.Science, Technology, .and American Diplomacy: The Politics of Globs) Health.Prepared 'for theSubcommittee Freeman.H. Quimby; Science Policy Research Divi,ioh,Congressional Research Service, library of Cosgress,,, 92nd Congress, 1st Session, May, 1971. Washington,. D.C.: U. Gover meet Printing Office, 1971, 79.

274 );" -

International Teahnoscientiffc Cooperation 285 t '----,. 4 t * ...... , .e . . 4:282. U.S. Congress.House.. Committee on Foreign Affairs. Subcommittee on 44- tlational Security Polic5, anOcientific Developments. Science, Tech- nology, and AmeriCan, Diplomacy: A Selected,,Annotated Bibliogrphy of Arc les, gooks( Documents, Periodicals, and Reference Guides: re- pared' for the SubCorreittie by Genevieve Knezo,Sciente Policy Re- search and Foreign Affairs Division,Legislative Reference Service, Library of Congress, .91aCongress; in# Session, March, 1970. _Wash-

!now, p.c.: U.S. Government PH AN, Office, 1' I, 69. . ,.. _ ' f ji 283. = ..-cornmiffee on Forein,Affairs.Subcommittee on National Security Policy and Scientific Developments.Science, 'Technology, -cm&American Diplomacy: Towarda New Diplomacy in a Scientific Age.Prepared for the Subcommittee by Franklin P. Huddle, Science Policy leesearch and:ForeigritAffairs Division,Legislative Referenceig* Service,. Library of'Congress, 91st Congress, 2nd4ession, April, 1 Ob. 40 Washington, D.C. ': -Li :S. Government Printing !Office, 1970, _28. I' ; - . iq , ., r, k sga - ''' \ ..:'t 284.. .- r . Cordmittee caForeign Affairs.Subcommittee ol"-, National .Secucity Policy ancl;Stigitific Developments: Symposium on,Science and Foretan Policy: The Green Revolution..Hearings before the Sub- committWte the 91st-Congress.,- 1st Session, December5,.1969. Wash- .ingtonuO.C.: U.S; Government Printing Office, 1970, 238. t -2851 .'Committelon Foreign Affairs. Subcommittee on International P . . Oeganizatinsancl Movements. .S.:. .Participation in 1972 United No- , ..4 tions Cocierence on liurpan Environment. iearipgi-il before the Subcom- mittee on Hove 'Resolution 523 and House 9 Resohition 562 to the 91it *it Congress,gress, lst'Sesn,1",lovember 13, 1969.Washington, D.e...u.s. Government PrintingOffice, 1970, 13.'

4 . A 6 *4. . 286., t 4 Q. Committee on ScienCe and Astronautics.InAnational' Science Policy.. A Compilation of Papers Prepared for the h Meet- ', ing of the Panel on Science and Technology, 92nd Congress, 1st Sessiork FebruCtry,4971:Wash-ington; U.SoiGoviamment Printing Of- fice, 1 971I 66. s . ,... \ . . 287. . - Committee on Science and Astronautics.International Science Policy. .Panel On Science and Technology, Twelfth Meeting, Proeeedings befoseythe Com?nittee tothe 92nd Congress, jst Sesfion, January 26728, 1971. .Washington,v.c it U.S.Rotornent Printing Office, 1971, 373.1.: a.

. s ' 2 W'C.A 111r. / %. - I -

286 The Organiiation of Science and Technology

288. 'U.S.,,,,Congress. douse. Committee on Science andAstronautics..1.sb- oomn'sita tee on Science, Research, and DestelopmeshHouse Joint Res- ti. olution 589, International Biologi?al Program.Hearings before t!e .Subctimmiitee to the 91stCongress; C; 1stSession, Si 6-7, 1969. Wash- 'ington, ref,, . :U.S. CovernmentCovernment Printi464flp 69, 193. -4! Y . q 289. . Committee on Science and Astronautics.Subcominittee ori Science, Research, and Qevel opm;nt. Partitil potion Medera I Agencies in InternatiOnal*Scie.ntat Programs.PrepareOfor the Subcommittee by Freeman ft; Quimby,. Science Policy Researchand Foreign Affairs (M ' vision, Legislative Reference Serivce,Li blary a I dangress, 90th Congrest, 1st Sesiian, 1967. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government,Printing0f- tee, 1 967, 167. ' I _- 4. 290: U.S. Congress.Senate.Two,ConVentions end AtmendmentvRelating to l'ollution of Sea,6,/ Oil. Messaf from the President-Aft he United . States transmittffig twi3. conventions done in Brusseisat theInternational Legal, .feral&on 14,41The Pollution Damage, 1 96 9; 91st Congress, 14. 2nd ion, Mai 20, 1970. ' Sentheavecotive Document G.' Wash- ington, : 'U.S. Govefnment Printing Office, 1970, 50. . , p' . Comrr)ittee on Commerce. Special Studyon United Ncoloras Suboceanic Lands Policy.Hearings before the torimittee to.the 91st Congress, 1st Session, September 23, 24,-October 3, and,;Novernber 21,

Washington, P.C.: U.S .1969. GO.vernment °Printingdifice, -1 970, . . 186. ir ,

. . , . ./.S. Department of State.The United States-Japan Committeeon Scietr tific Cooperation,.Departmenrot State Publication 8210, East Asian and Pacific Series 158, International Scientific and Technological Af- fairs. Washington, D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, 1967, 70;

sidb. 293. U .S.Library of Congress. Reference e part nt .General Reference and Bibliography Division. Inter a Scie'fic Organizations:A Guide to Their Library 2ocumentation, divilp0r ma t ion Servir. Wash- ", . ington, D.C.: U.S. Covernment Printing Office, 1962, 794. ,

United States Treat); r t 294P'; eries.981t.1' "Conventionon Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere," in Treaties and 'Other International Agreements of the United States of America, 1776 -1949, Volume III.Compiled under the direction of Charles I.6vans. Wash ington, D.C.: U.S. Department of State, 1969, 630-660.

27C)

a 4' e_ :

/*A

46. 4 4,

*International Technoscieritific Cooperation'. 287.

. . 295. Vahlei C. W., Jr.'Planning and Coordiriating Oceanographic Programs. Walngton, Oper,ptions and Policy Research, April' 1 969, 55.(Publications Board 182 602) . f 296. Vaughan5o. Thomas W.,' et al,International Aspects of Oceanography. Washington,ci ,c. : Foundation, 1957, 225. ,.- 297. 'Walsh, Warren B.Science and International Public Affairs: * Experi- r melts in International Scientific Cooperation. *Syracuse, New-York: International Relations Program, Maxwell School, SyracuseUniversity, 1967, 161. ,,

298.,Waters, Maurice, ed.The United Nations:, International Organization and Administration. New '631-k: Macmillan,1967, 583.

$ 299. Wilson, T .W$r.International Environmental Action: A Global Survey.--- 'New York:- Dunellen, 1 Sr/1i 3O4.,

300. World HbalthOrganiiaign.The First Ten Yearsief- the WorlekHealth Or ganization. Geneva: WHO, 1958, 538. fix'r 0.4 , 301. -.. National Environmental Health Programmes: Their Manning,- grganization, and Administration. Report ofa WHO Expert Oakimittee. ..,, Geneva: WHO, 19704_56. ... fi . to - .. 302.World Wildlife fund.All Life' ori it th.Second International Congress C I of the World Wildlife Fund, London; November 17-18, 1970.Morges, Switzerland: World WildlifeNnd, 1970, 116. "F"Thy f 4 303- . World Wild Life Yearbook 1970-71; ed. by Peter,Jackson. Morges, Switzerland: World Wildlife Fund, 117.1, 300.

304. Yates, Lamartirt. So Bold -an Aim: ten Years of Inptinational Coopera- tion, \toward Freedom from Want. Rome: Food and;AgricuitiireOrgan-

ization;.1.955, 174. , .

. . 305: Yearbookof International Organizations.. Tenth Eaition, 1964-65. Brussefs: Union of International Organizations, 1965.(Nate Part IV, Chapter 14, pp. 112-1215.) .

fs 0 ,

a ea. .d.

ott

is 288 'The Organization of SCience and Technology s

\ ,S Addendum: ,.. . 4 , \I ' ,. , i 0 0 306. Caldwell, Lynton K.,. in Defense of Earth: InternationalProtection of the Bios here.itoomington: Indiana University Pres*, 14972?295. 12 307: de S,eynes, Ph i I ipPe "The United Nations CommitteeonNatuti Resources end Ifs Challenge;' T chill,'ical Forecasting and Social Change, III

(Number 2, 19), I . . , ,,, , . . . . . , 308.,Falk, Richard A.Tliis'EndangeredPlanet: Prospects and Proposals for Human Survival. New York: Random House,,1971,. 495.

*it . . 30,. Intetnatienal Institute far Env iron mental Affairs.The Human Environment: Science and rnternational Decision-Making.New York"! International iInsfitute.for Environmental Affairs, 1971, 31. .t . .-. .. -. 310. Natiar41 Academy of $c ientes. National Acadliny of Engineering. Envi- r°1 . o, ronmenta I "Studies., Board.Institutional rrrang_ements for International. , ir. virorrnent61 Co9perat ion: A Report to the Cl ipartmentof State by fhe' . Corrimiitee for Jniernational EnvironmentalPrograms. Washington,. D.C.: NationalNational Academy of Sciences, 1972; 74.7

.- . .1 . 311. 1.1...$. Congress.. Senate. COmmittee on Commerce 1972 Survey of, Environmental Activities .of International Organizations. Prepared .., .byfhe Committee! viith.theassistance Of Hervey R. Sherman and Howard A, Brown,EnviroAietta l' Pal icy- Division,Congressional ReseStch Service, Librisry of Congress, 92nd Congress,- 2rid Seision, Februarje, 1972; 187,.. . .. r it

i "

.1 Nr

2,7'm

I .

-St 4 4

t Internatiqnal TichnosciAentific Cooperation 289 ,

4.EADINGeESTLONS

1. What are the principal.cbtegories into which international organizationsfor science and technology are customarily groupecie Whatare the principal criteria for their.classifitati4n?

1 4 2.-: To what extent doe's the, United Nations functionas an international organization 'for" -stienteAtife'ciinology?

,3.What have been the principacontributiOns of UN CO k, theadvancement of science and technology, and how have its scientific 'activities beenorgyn, ized? . .'

4.What are the prospects for inteenational ,scientific and technologicaforgani- zations a,coriring an identity independent of thesystem of national states? ere a significance in the_term "World," in the name of-several organiza- .tions? What problems or d6'ngersor advantages might ree-08;front a world ;scientific organization th; has independent of national governments?, t 5.What has been the role of ngovernmental professional associations_in the iVernatione orgenizatlort7sciehce and technology"?'WrObt have been the itt centributiOni:of.these association?

In view of `the generally highpr f Science anliscientists, whataccounts for the relatively low priority a international scientific cooperation by many governments? What international cooperation are-most widely.resisted and why? 17, In wit'', matters issinternational.scieatific cooperation most urgently needed today? Whaf are the prineipal'beirriers to this cooperation?.

8.What sppcific measuies-mighlre taken to strengthen'international'scientific cooperation ?'What foernsofooReratiok appear to.have worked most effectively 'thus tar? : . . 110 . . 9.What has been the contribution of internationalsci ntificiconferee 'and seminars to international ipoperation?Are' gatherings like .the Pugwash Meetings significant? P. . - , . .. . . 10. at art the impliaAionsfor internationalrelations in tire highly differential atof scientific and technoloaicatdevelopment in the "advanced" and newly emerging nations?Is technoscientific "imperialism.". a possible consequence of the inability o erdeve I oped countries to cope/with science- induced prob- (ems and the rre tty for recotekto technical-assistance from more ,"advanced" . . societies? 2'7.)ill k W .,... .

Topic 10 TECHNOSCIENCE IN THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES . ; Moderrocience had its genesis, in Western-Europe' in an historical period coin- cident with the rise of netionaliim andthe expansion of European political control to nearly all parts of the world. The Science broUght from Europe to the non-Eu- ropean world wcis not only an (Wei% force, but was also atiOrect of an alien cmd. threatening civilization, iln ab few casesMost notably in.. Jaan-L.-sciencewas \

, seen as separable from otPler, aspects of Western civiliiation.Jzipan became a modern Scientific artzi technological Power while retaining many of ilk values and character. istic of .itraditional civilization.' , 4 As*rnItny formetCole*Pendencies gitned natioN'status after W`orklWar II, efforts were made through international technical assisnce to develOp science and technology in these new nations-. lorticipating in thiias:sistancewere the United Nations and their Ifiliated organizations; maltilateralgioups such as the Organization for Economic Coopercuitin and Developmentethe Narth Atlantic Treaty Organization, 'and the American 344Iiancfor PrOgress; and bilateral arrangements of which the Ai so-called foreign aid program'Of the United States was the principal ex'ample. In

ak I 1961, the Utifeci Nations sponsored at Geneva-a Conference on Ore Applicationr' ,ofScienceand-rectibology for the Benefit ofthe Le*,,,, Areas, with 94.'- governmentlerefresenteci.The eff*fs tticit havegong' developing scientific-- competente in *e-new nations hay.e beersiihpressive.Onforfunately,1he results- have frequently been disdppointing.,---- ... A .basic reason for the slowness of the scientific Ahoy olife to take-root in the non -Westernworld is .pxhaps becausescience ifselPhas been an aspect ofWestern , .culture.Unless, as iAllopon, science found an accommodating conjunction of valuesert could not establish itself 'turing the ,nineteen sixties,xties, there was a rapid development bf technplogic capability ict the People's Reffiklic of China,(. but.the status of science in C na has been difficult ,to assess.; Science in the Western world hatbeen the out rowth of at least three ceritirri es of, cul tura I change. It is notiurprising that most w.nationThave found it difficult to make this transi7 io.,'-.,

tion in °single generati . Moreever, it should also be remembered thatsc4ence, . /... is not els yet a major rotest or influence in the lives of large numbers of people

even in the m technot ientifieally advanced 'countries. . , 1 A secondary factor., infording 'tile grooh of science in the new nations has. been the,bias of the aid- powers toward economicajothe prime,mover Of, -societies. A widely j3revoiling a mption Of international tschbiCaLassistance has. been tliat ifnational economies can activated to reach some specified."take- Cff"pOint, development of the 'more aelvo cedatpects of the fechnoscientific Cul, tUreoutomatically will follow.Unfortupotely*, economic planning as it hds been , applied in most of the new and developing nations does not apPeqr to have irnablbd,..

them to.gentra. I ly improve the quality of life for their 'peoples or rt3have protected- *... -orir9provectThe v.iabiliry of their biopbysiccil environments:Specific successes. . 'have been OdhieVed, but thetechnosckItific suPirculliwioaktugh wilich the future state of thoe world.may be determined if-still overwhelmingly concentrated In the nations which\eve it birth. .. :

4. S

292 The Organiption of Science and Technology 4.-

4- TOPIC 10 TECHNOkIfitICE IN THE 15EVELOPIN49UNTRIES

, Selected Basic Readings':,

, , , Boffey, Philip M."Japan (I).:* On the Thmhold. ofanAge of Big, S'cience," Science, CLXVII (January 2, 1 970), 31-35! 6"Japan (1,I):. University Turmoil Is Reflected in Researchl: Ibid.(January 9, 1 970);147-1'52; !Japan (III)iIn= dustria I Research SfruggTes tClose the Gap," Ibid. (January 16; 1 970), 264 -267.

Borlaug, Norman E. "The, Green Revolution: For Bread and Peace," Bulletin of the Atort Scientists, XXVII (.lime, 1971); 64; 42-48.

/Ps 46 Brown, H."Science, Technology and the Dev loping Countries," Bulletin of the

Atomic Scientists,. XXVII (June, 1971), 10 -14. ,

a . . . . Moravcsik, Michdel V."Some Modest Propoials," Minerva( IX (Jd nuary, 1971),- 55-65.- 7 4 . A. . ,Signer, Ethan and Arthur W.Gal ston. "Education andSdience in thipa " Scienael CLXXV (January 7, 1972); 15-23.

SuFiplementary Substitute Readings:

Baldvin, Qeorie 6."Brain Drain or Overflaw,",Foreign Affairs,;XLVII. (January, 1970);. 358-372: a

a `Blacken; P. M.415r",cieffe and-Technology inn Un I Worrd,C Science and Culture, XXIV (January, 1 968);16-24.. .

, . . . ) Detsau, Irin. ,"Social lidlorsAffecting Science and Technology in Asia," Impact-

of Science on,Scifiety,'XIX kianuorlitMarch; i969),4,3=23. .'Si,

. iD . Mboycl,-Thornas J."Technology in the Development of Africa: A Critique," I pact of Saienti on Societ?,, XIX (October- December; 1969), 131-3-19. . r , . .. Minenta. * "Science in UnderdevelopedCountAries:Wdrld Plan-of Action for the ''.. ` 7ATT,..p Ication of Science and Tethndlogy to Development,' Mill a, IX (January, . c..' ' , . 1971), 101 -121. ,, 0.

Paddock, William C. "1-row Green Is the Green R Ol'ution7"-AlkliAltin:: '\.,:

(BioScience), XX (gagust 15,1970), 897-902. .

t , Ir ,

44 i

**4 ti e = 4 TOPIC 10 TECHNOSCIENCE IN THEbtVELOPiNGCOUNTR1E 293: ,

4I44 TOPICAL L OUTLINE REFEREIceE KEY

Influence of Science a hnoliskgy upon the Processes of National velOpment--cultural' Economic, and Politi ;69;98, 107, - 108, 124, 150, 15? A Science and tec°logical ovption acculturating foices,, ,1,46 .1. In Western society (cf. Topics 02,pnd 03) 2: In nor Western traditional societies , 47,'114

on of Western societies under the , impetus of technological development , 1 ColOnialism as an adjUnct of techno- _. icigiCal -develOpriti-nf 170 . a . Mercantilist Systems , b. kow materials ancarkeis in

,- . _ industrial-economies 135, 144 - c. Exporting unemployment 1O4-' 24- Thoe :White awl's, burdenthe cultural ik mission ,of the-West *, 115 . . a . Neligiow -mis-sioni ai vectors of Western indliktry ones'cience. .. . .b. T Cultural role Of international- .- . bust _a c. The cultural mission of eduCCoion: foundations, universitiek,Inter-

nations! technical "alsistance . . '. . F'-,.

C.Primacy of political leconpmy over science girt e

,-) the ,development process - . 26, 49, 53( 79 .. ,-- 1. The.domination df economic theory in the West . '', It2. a. COpifalism and ktsinodificaiiiins reflecting" do econornic perspective on society b. Marxism as a Western heresy-1-the primacy of politics. over' economics in pn iciebiogj, . of economic deterrninliny 210,.22;

I 4, 0 S / 4 2Q(1 1 . a 4

. 294 The Organization of Scienceand TeChnology"

. .,--- . . 2. Conflicting interpretations ofthe'relajionship of science.and technology to .the development process--cm'ospect of conflict botwein Wes- tern ideologies in the new and "underdeveloped" nations , . _ 69, 73, 97,-181 J. Resistance to "the scientific culture" inIca- ditional sdlieties 44, 80, 116 a. IdentifiCation of science with Western influence 170; 253 b. Religious and traditional rejectipnof i. , science in authorittiricin politiCal syste*ms 51. c. Marxist rejection of scientific objectivity in areas dominated bpolitical ideology (cf IsTic 07). 22( t4 , . D. Adaptation of traditional societyto science l. The emergence of Japanos a techno- ,scientific- -state (256 through 27ft Z. Science acid technology in mainland-China b 182 through 2n

Extension of the Benefits cf Science and Tech- noiogy to the New Nations-'7International Technical. Assistance (See clisa Topic, 091 211, 33, 39, 68, 69, 73, 79, 80, 123, 139, 145. A.United-Nations technical assistance 89, 146 1.. The U U.N. expandedprogram 46, 2. Work of the affiliated agencies a . UNESCQ 177,313 I. b.WHO 4 c. FAO' 'd. IAEA 3. The Geneva Conference of 1963 126,146,158 159

B. United States technical. assiit9nceprograms 22, 25, 30, 33, 59, 68, 84, 90, 4,126, 128, 134, 157, 158 C. Technical assistance by European andpcivancecl Asian states--e.g., Israel and Japan 118713t 2S3 ;

elk

1 Technoscience i*he Developing punYries 295 * %

D.- Technical assistance by, the Sov iet-East turOpean.bloc dIP4P 33,161

W. "Development" as a,Vehiclefor the,Transfer 4.. and Application of Scienceand . Technology 1, 8,"10, 26, 64, 85, 99, 101, 1021. 103,10, 1241125, 134, .138, 143, 145, 146,.149 'A. 'MAnirigs and assoptioni ofthe deVrlop- Merit eoncept 14, 36;69, 91,, 10?, 122, 129.- 111,8*- 1. Emphasis heavily economic 6, 9,12; 51, 531, . 74, MO/ 11 1 2, 127,j530 76 2.."Modernization"as a socio- political goal of development 92, 115, 143: 3. Neglect of cultural andecological values 6, 52, 1,09', .115; t 4 .116, 150 4. Critics of economic deVelopment 52 - *, B.Limited Influence of Scienc \ ment 55,151 t1.. What is,trartgerred isnot "sci but rather the expertise of parti Far' specialists in particular sciences and technologies 54,' 73, 97 2. Development decisions often politically, inspired ore not receptive to "scientific" Areservations 114 3 Relatively few peop%, indeveloping . countries capable of making oriticalat= sessment-of theirown needsand options 65,1'06, 142, 148;1 52 c 4.. Motivcifions intaid-givingcountries rriietl; scierSte seldom a dominant factor

R. 134 296: The Organization of Science and 'technology . . e *

IV. Nobrems of Deve,loping Science and Technoiogyin te New NatioIs 6,13/ 37,, 40, 54, 55, 63, 64, 67, 69, 71, 72, #03, 106, 125,330, 302 A.Cultural orientation 118, 140 1. Political acceptance of freedom of i dry . 't rand of critical appraisal of technology , often absent 35 2. Need for social -recognition of scientific-0 cra"technical work aid trainingas "hilt status" and attractive to the educated I you,th . , 97 Lack of local opportunfty results ina ''brain -,4 ,icirain" to industrialized nations 5, 23, 56, 11, 81, 87, 84, 96, 4., 1 1 104, 113, 120, _ 2791 B.. Erivir'onmental problems 3`1; 51, 1: inadequate criteria for estakilishing Air:cities in development '.1-8, 38, 40, 70, / 98, 11'4, 148 2. Traumatic effect of %leap fromItribalism to urbanism--the case of CentralAfrica 122; 159, '171 Narrowing margin of Opportunityresuling from a , or destruction a now meritsandresOurces 24- 4 National rivalry a rertarnertion r to international cooperation on yoretneotal lissues', ' 21; 88 . International rivers 159 b. Wildlife and, natural areas, 24 c. Pcipotation policy -%.,\,.. 75; 78, 132, - . I V. ,' . ; 5. Growing awarerils* of environmental -hazards- 4i. ° in, the developing counties' r . 51, t A C. 7 Institutional support .-. -- 66, 71, 83, 85 . 1.*The educational base for, scienceand technology -- 4. 4 transferrid curricula and teaching methods Often- . ,

4.- inappropriate .- . , . 11, 15, 29, 48, .6 137 . fr 4 2E4'5* ,

a . t n .0

Technbscience in the bevelopingCou ntries, 297 \ 2. Higher ecrucation, the deivelorerit of (51- scientists, engineers,.and biomedical ; t- proffssionals 14, 29, 60, 102, 228, 245 3. Limited availability of funds for sup-. porting scientific research 2, 40, 61,85, t 87 4. The role of government in the.advance- rnent and control of science and technology usbany nonexistent, uncertain,I. or opportunisti6 11, 63; 72; 86 5. Need for external reinforcement from politically acceptable source, e.g., 'international rather than bitateral Ass- sistance . 25, 28

n 4

If e

O'' p r I I .5.

. Technoscience in the Developing Countries

r BIBLIOGRAPHY

General References: Articles

1. Allen, Thomas J. and S. Cooney ."The International Technological Gate- keeper," Technology Review, LXXIII (March, 1971), 37-4.3.

2. , Anderson, R. S. "Are Conferences o4 Science in Poor' ations.a,Usetless Extravagance?" Science-Forum, IV,Mecember, 1971),12-15.

3. Apter, David E."New Nations and the Scientific Revolution," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XVII (FebrUary, 1961),.60-64.

4. Ascher, Charles S."Current Problems in World Health Organization's Program," International Organizations, VI (Winter, 1952),27-50.

5. Baldwin, George B."Brain Drain or Overflow," Foreign Affairs, XLVIII (January, 1970), 358-372._

6. Baranson, Jack."EconomicandSocial Considerations in AdciptingTech-- no logi es for Developing t ountries, " Te chnologY and Cui tyre, IV (Winter,

1963), 22-29... .

7. . "National Programs for Science and Technology in theUn- derdeveloped Areas," Bulletin of the Atomic Son'entists, XVI (Muy1 960), 151 -154. ew 7.4) 8. . "New Technologies for Developing Areas," Bulletin of the

Atomic Scientists, XVII (September, 1961), 2752,77. .

9 tame°, J."Economic Implications of Electrification in Under-Developed Countries, "Economic DeveloOment and Cul tural Change, II (Jun'', 1954); 371 -379., ar .1

41k1 0. Bar-Zakay, N. "Policymaking and Technology Transfer:The Need for National Thinking Laboratories, " Po I icy Sciences, II (Summer,.1 971), 213 -227.

11. Bergmann, E. D. "Technical Strength fcsr.a New NatiOri,:' Science and Technology, Number 72 (December, 1 967), 62-69. .

4 12. Beringer, C. :'Aid for Research in Aceicultural Development,' OECD

°Dwyer, Number 32 (February1 96'8). 12 -15. , V . 2S A . The Organization of Sciatic* and Technology

11. Bhabha, H. S. iScienCeand the Probleini of Development,".Sclence, CLI .. (February 4, 1966), 541-548. . -* .-

__, 40 , . .1 4. 00, Bhathal, R.7-."Science Policy in.the DevelopingNations," NatUre4

CCXX XI I (A .23, 1971), 227-22 9...... , . , , , . - 1 15. Black, Mak. "end -Lease Program for PhilosophyandScience,.. &len-. .rtific, Monthly, 17.XI (September, 1945), 1654-.172.

16. Bloc*,P. M.-S."The Ever Wilerang ,Gap," Science, CLV-(February 24, 1967), 959 -964. 11

17. . "New Science in Old Technology," Bulletinof the Atomic ill Scientists, XVII(February,,1 961), 53-.54.

. .. , 18.: . "Planning for Science and Technology in Emerging Countries, " New Scientist, XVII (Februjry 14, 1963), 345-346.

19. . "Role of the Technologist in the Modern World,"Nature, CCX14 (December 3, 1966), 975.2 t . 20. . "Science Technology in an Unequal World," Science and Culture, XXXIV (January, 1968), 16-24.

21 Blount, B. K . "Science Will Change the Balance-of Power," NewScientist, . II (June 27, 1957), 8-9.

22. Borlaug, Norman E."The. Green Rev.olutian:For Bread and Peace," Bul- letin of the Atomic Scientists, X)NII (June,11711, 6- 9,'42 -48..

23. Bowden, Lord: ,Migrant SCientist," New Sc' 'XXI .(MarCh 5,. 81964), 594-596'. ;

24. Brenan, J. PIP M; "The Value of Floki to Underde,ieloped,Countiies," Impact of Science on Soeiety, X1,1 ((Number 2, 1963), 121,-146. . . ., ...... , .1. 25. *own, Harrison S. ScienCe, TechAolagy, and the DevelopinaCorintries,". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVII (Juneil 971), 1044.\ : . . . I .1 = . 26. . Science-,\ITechnology,and World DevelopfneAtA-Jviietin ..',. of the,Atomic Scientists, XIV (December,) 958), 409-412 .-..'

27. Broyin-, Roy E."Medical Problems& the DevelopingCou'nries," Science, CLI II (July 15, 1966), 271-275. . .,,,,,e. 4

OP Technotcience in the Developing Countries 30)

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67. Margolis, Howard. "New Research Programs:Help for Underdeveloped I NaYiOnS .and for Underdeveloped I ndustry at Home," Science, CXXXV I (Juhe 1, 1962), 765.

68. Martin, Roscoe C "Technical Assistance; The Problem of Implementation,"

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73. . "Technical Assistance and Fundamental Research in Unsier- 4 developed Countries,!' Minerva, II (Winter, 1964), 197 -209.

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89. Sai, F. T."The Health and Nutrition,of the 'Less Developed Arens,"Im pact of Science on Society; XIII (Number 3, 1963), 213-232.

. 90. Scientific Research."IDA and the Universities: What Next?" Scientific Research, 111 (January 8, )968), 23-27.

91. Shits, Edward. VScieptific Development in the New-States,"'Bulletinof the Atomic Scientists, XVII (February, 1961), 48-52. I 92. Tannous, Afif I."Positive Role of the Social Scientist in the Point Four Program," Scientific Monthly, LXXII (January, 1951), 42-49:

93. Thacker, M. S."The Dedication Decade," Irnyact of Scienceon Society, ° XIII (Number 3, 1963), 175 -180.

94. Thiesenfiuse, Ws C."Bvilding New Nations:Compensation for. the' Brain Drain.,." Current, XCVI (June, 1968),-48-52,

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95.. Trombe, Felix. "Some Aspects of the Uses of Nbtural Raaiation, Especial ly in the Developing Countries," Impact of Science On Society, XV (Num-. ber 4, 1 965); 247-260.

96: Turn`ham, D. "The Employment Problem in LessDeveloped Countries,' OECD Observer, Number 49 (December, 1974), '6 -10.

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98. White; Stanley."Status Symbol br StimUlus?" New Scientist, XXX (May 26, T966), 542-543.

99. Wu, Chi-Yuen."Opeiational Research for Developing,Countries," Inter- national Review 'of Administrative Sciences, XXXVI (Number 2, 1970), 99-108.

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101. Zaheer, 5,11. "The Development of Science and Technology in Under- developed Countries,Scientific (June; 1968), 9-12.

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196. Inglis, David R."The Chinese Bombshell," Bulletin of theAtomic Scien- tists, XXI {irobruary, 1965),19721..

197. Klochko, Mikhail A.Soviet Scientist in Red.China. New York: Praeger, .1 964,-213.

198. Kwok, D. W. Y.Scientism in Chinese Thought 1 900-1 9k. N..ewHaven, Conneeticutt Yale Ueiversity' Press, 1965, 231.

199. Lail, Arthur. S."The Political 'Effects of the Chinese Bomb," Bulletin Pf the Atomic Scientists, XXI (February, 1965), 21-24.

200. McFarlane, B."Mao's Game Plan for China's Industrial Development," Innovation (August, 1 971), 3 -13.

201. Macioti, M. "Chino Uses Science Policy 'to Walk on Two Legs'," Sci- ence' Policy News, 11 (May, 1971), 70-71. 4

. 202: . "Hands of the Chinesee" New Scientist and Science Journal, L (June 10, 1971'), 636 -639.

203, Margolis, Hoivar,d."From Washington: The Bomb in China," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, X(pecember, 1 964), 36-39.

Ma ru, R.Research and Development in India and China: A Comparative Analysis of Research Statistics and Research Effort.-OccasionalPaper No. 1.Lund, Sweden:Research Policy-Program; New DelCenter for the Study of Developing Societies, 1969, 71.

. 3 I 316 The Organization of Science and TeShnology

205. .Murph Charles H. "Mainland China's Evolving NuclearDeterrent, "' Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVIII (Jandary,1972), 28-35.

206. Needham, Joseph. Science and Civilization in Ancient China.London: Cambridge University Press, 1 954-1 965. 0. I 207. Needham, Joseph, with Wang Ling,et al. Clerks and Craftsmen in China and the West:Lectures and Addresseson the Historyf Science and& Technology..Cambridge, England! Cambridge UniversityPress497 0, 4704- s. , -.. I / . 208. Needham, Joseph, with the collatoration ofWang Lingand Lu Gwei-Djelri. . Science and Civilization in China. Volume .4:Physics and Physical . .TechilolOgy.Part 3: Civil Engineering and Nautics. London and New York: Cambridge University Press, 19714 932.

209. Oldham, C. H.G. "Science in Mainland China: )k Tpurist'sImpressions," Science, CXLVII-(February 12, 1965), 706-714.

210. . "Science Travels the Mao Road," Bufletinof the Atomic Scientists, XXV (February, 1 9694 80483,.

211. Orleans, Leo A. Professional Manpower and Education inCommunist China. Washington, U.S. Government !Canting Office, 1969, v) i., 260.

2. Pei-Sung, Tang.Green Thraldom: Essaysofa Chinese giologist.London: Allen and.Unwir4, 1949, 127.

213,'Ryan, William L. and Sam Summerlih :"The China Cloud: America's Tragic Blunder and China's Rise to NuclearPower.Boston:, Litt*, Brown, ,1948, 309.

214. Scientific Research. "Two Kinds of Scientists in China:Maoists-Do Well," Scientific Research, II (October, 1967), 71-72. . s . ..0 / . 215. Shapley, Deborah. "Chinese Science: What the China Watcher's Watch,"- Science, CLXg11.(August/13, .1 971), 615-617. .

216. Signer, Ethan and Arthur W. Galston."EdUcationandSciencein China," Science, CLXXV (January 7, 1 972), 15-26.

304 A

Technoscience in the Developing CeUntries 317 '

217. Suttmeipr, R. P. "Party Views of Science: The Record of theFirst De- cade," China Quarterly, Number,41 Ottober-December,1970), 1 46- .168:

218. Suyin, Han.China in the Year 2001. New York: BasicBaal*, P967, 268.

219. Thompson, H. W.. "Science in China," InternationalScience anpl Tech- nology, Number 18 (June, 1 963), 86-95..,

220. Uchida, G."Techfiology in Ch ina,Scientific American, CCXV (Novem-` beri 1 966), 37-45.

221. Wang, Chi. "Nuclear Research, in Mainland China;"Nuclear News, X (May, 1967), 16-20. VIP 222 Wu, Yuan-U. The Steel Industry in Communist China.New York; Praeger, for the Hoover Instituteon War, Revolution, and Peace, 1965, 334.

223. Wu, Yuan-U and Robert B. Sheeks.The Organization and Support of Scientific Research and Developmentin Mainland China. New York: Praeger, 1970, 594.

India and Pakistan

224. Baranson, Jack.Manufacturing Problems in India: The Cummins Diesel Experience.Syracuse, New York:Syracuse University Press, 1967, xix, 1 46.

, . 225. 'Baenaby, F 's Viewi," New Sci entist and Sc-i'ence foulnal, XLIX (February 4, 1971), 268 -269:

226.. Gilchrist, Huntington."Technical Assistancefrie the United Nationsas Seen in Pakistan," Interrobtional Organization,XIII (Winter, 1959), 505 -519.

227. Internotiokal Science and Technology. "India's Development Str International Science and Technology,Number 22 (October, 1963), 93-98.Interview with Homi J. Bhabha, Chirmah of India's Atomic Energy Commission.

305 '1 318 The Organizcition of Science and Technology I V

228. Kahn, Mohammed A."Educ9fion and Research -in Pakistan," Impact of Science on Society, XIX (lanuary-March, r969), 85 -92.

.229'. Maheshwari, P. "India\ ScientifiC Policy-..-Scice' and.Government," Minerva, III (Autilmn, 1964), 99-113.

.230. Minerva."Indian Science Policy," Minerva, II (Summer, 1 964), 51`9-530.

231: "Indian Scieritifio Policy," Minerva, II (W' r, 1964), 242- '256;"A Scientific Policy.Resolutien," Government 6fIndia, Mai.ch 1958,242-244; "Recommendationsofthe Confei;Ence Heldon the 18th and 1 9th July 1958, under the Auspices of the Miilistryof Scientific Research and Cultural Affairs, to Consider lmplemen-tationof the Scien- tific Policy Resolution of the Government of India," .245-246;. "Ad- .10 dress," Dr. Humayan Kabir, Augus$ 4, 1963, at a Conference of Scien tilts and Educationists to review the Implementationof the Scientific Policy Resolution- of the GovernMent of India of 1958,247-256.

232: Morehouse, Ward.Science in India: Institution Buildingand the Organ-. ts. izational,-SysteTs for Research and Development.Bombay:Popular

Prakalhan, 1971, 144. .

233. librehouse,' Ward, ed.Science and the. Human -Condition in Indkand .Pakistan.New York:,* Rockefeller University Press, 1968; 230.

.234. Mukerjee, Dilip., "Indian Science: Policy, Organization,and Applica- tion," Minerva, II (Spring, 1964), 360 -369. A

235. Ncncia, Krish. "Will India d'o Nuclear ?" Bulletin of the )4tornic Scientists, XXWII (December, 1 971), 39-41.

236.,Notional Academy of Sciences-National Research,CounCik,East Pakis- s tart, Land and \goer. Development as Related to ,Agriculture. A R port of ctn.asl hoc Panel of the, Board of Sbience and Technology for In- ternOttona I DiTeloprAeot of the National Acodemy.of Sciences-National Research Council'prepared for the Agency for International Develop- ment. WashingtoneD.C.: Office of the Foreign Secretary, National' x' Academy of Sciences, 1 971, 67.

A 237..Pakistan., Ministry of IndustriEs."Report ohe Scientific Commission of Pakiitan,i Minerva, I (AUtumn, 1962), 757 6. . 5.

f. N

Techn9science in the Devekpin9 Countries 11 319 , AA . . \ , .5, 238: Parthasarathi, Ashok. "Appearance ant:laity in IRdiariSciince Policy," V Nature, CCXXI. (Miirch 8,' 1969); 909-1,1. :. Ii. 1 239. Rahman, A. "National Laboratories in/ln,dita," Natyre,C011_,___ (August 8, 1964), 582'.584.,.' ., ss - - ,. , r : . , 240. Rahman, A., N. Sen, and N. R. Raragopal; -"Scientific Scientists in' In-. dia," Noture,'CCIV (DeCember'-26, 1964),125b-1252.,- , 'I. /1. 241 . Rqnganatkan, As.'"Scierfaeilt Wadern Inc:flab" 'knPact of Sciinceon Society,- IX (Number 4,1 959), 2) 8-230. 4 _ _ i-- 1 --.... . 1242. -Sa lam; Abctus:' "Pakistan:,'. .. The. Catelor. TeihnologiCai ;Deveropment," 11 I. BUINetin 'of the Atomiccientists!, XXilMa'rch, 1964Y, ,2-5.... m, , - A . 'Y' i II ' i 4 , - . - 243.. Sciehtific Research...."Shortof Science Fun India i5ares,8asic,Researir U , , .. ScientifiC Research, II (Qcfcrbei.;-1.967),(2 . .. \,., , . , . L 5 , i t, 244: Singh, Aigiit."Scien'tifix Research iitiridiakBu' II eti,n Of the 4t6reksScien-:

fists, 01 (Februpey,-19y),. 41 -43. -", --. -: , ..,. , -', Ia A r I '245. Strau..ss, Herbert L."Sien,ce fducationinjndia," gulletin-of;, the.Afomic- -''. Scientists, XXV,I1 s(March, 1971), 0. '3.. %. ." .. ; .r- $ . , --,--- .- .. '': ",.

246 Swaminathan,.;/.. S. ''Scientificand,1 trial Research inInditi," Aer-. . .1can,Scientisf,,Llf (October;;1§.51);.62.1-638. .

, .., 1,.,,, .1 . , . !, It .. . , 247 United Nations Education pc..Scientgic, and CUItuid (0i.ga-Ki ZatilIn'South .. _ .". a Asia`Science Cooperation Ofifice: S,cientifrc-Iristitutionsand Scientists , in Pakistan. New Delhi:- UNESCO, A 958, 5b1.... 1.- t i...... ;248. Watson, Ernest,C..Organization ofSclentificActititlei in 'Wash= - .

:.-4- ington, D.C.National Science'roundation,q67,.29. _____ . . . . L , . \ , .' ' 4v. . 249.-Wilson, Patrick; Science in,SouthAsi,,Post and Prese,fit: A Preliminary - . Bibliagraehy:ol.Writings en Science in Indiii4akiStan, and Ceylon, i New York: State University. of New ,Yook, Ssterfe EdUcationi, Depart-

ment, 1966, 100. , I . . . 1 I Japan 51

.250.. Aviation Week andSpdce Technology."Japanese Aerospace Inpiustry Nears' Parity with the West," Aviation Week and Space Technology, XCV (No; vember 1, 1971), 34-37. . I 3 0 7 c

e ,

320 The Organization of Science and-Technoogy ,

(2-51. Aviation Week and2Space Technology."kealigned National Space Pro- gram Adopted by Japaneie," Aviation Week and SpOce Technology, -XCV' (November I, 1 971), 6446.

252. Boffey, Philip M."Japan (I): OritheThresholdofimAgeof Big Science," aience, CLS(V.II (January 2, 1 970),, 31-5; "Japan (II):University Turmoil is Reflected in Research," Ibid... (January 9, 1970), 147-152; "Japan ()1Industrial Research Struggles to Close the Gap," Ibid. (January6, 1970), 244:267.iA

253. . "Research in Japan: U.S.Army GrantsCausd/Controversy,." Science, CLVIII (November 44,1 961), 748-752.

254. Campbell, Louise."Science Japan," Scienee,CXLIII (February 21, 1964), 776-782.

255. Fukushima, Yaichi."Japan'sfive-Year Science Plan," New Scientist, XXIfic (October 21, 1 966), 1 78,1 80.

256. Glass, H. Bentley."The ..14.0(.4se Science Education Centers," Science, CLIV (October 14, 1966), 21-228..-. . 257. Hall,George R. aqRabert E. Jo' Transfers Of United StatesAlyo- .space.Technology to Jaiyan.',. Santa Monica, California: RAND Cor- poration, 1968, 95.,

258. ioi, Ryukichi "Japah and the Nuclear Age," Bulletin 'of the ,Atomic Sc?entists, XXVI (June,-.1 9Z0), 35-39.

259. International Sciente Notes."Japan's Science and Technology: Trends and Forecasts," International Science Notes, Number 24 (March) 1970), 1-5.

260., Japan. Science and Technology Agency.Japanese Sciende Policy In the 1970's. A Repgrt of the Council for Science and Technology. Tokyo: Planning Buriau, Science and TechnologyAgency, Prime Min- ister's Office, 1971.

261. ..Science and Technology Agency: An Outline. ,Tokyo:. Panning Bureau, Science and Technology Agency, Prime Minister's Of- fice, 1971.

'4 p

'Technoscience in the Developing Countries 321

262.,Japan.Science and Technology Agency,. Summary of WhitePaper on Science and Technology--New Demands onTechnical Innovation. Tpkyo: Planning Bureau, Science and TechnologyAgency, Prime Min- ister's Office04 971, 76. *

. , 163. Jequie "Towards a Technological Policy; The Japanese Model," Science Policy News, III (Jy_ty) 971), 1-5.

264. Karsh, Bernard and Robert E. Cole. "Industrialization and the Convey= genice Hypothesis: SOme Aspects ofContemporary Japan," Journal of Social Issues, XXIV (October, 1968), 45-63.

265. Kots;rnai, Taku."Science and Freedom in the Orient," Bulletin of the A- tomic Scientists, X (June, 1954), 209 -210;

266., Liverme, Arthur H., ed.Science .in Japan. Washington, D.C.: Amer- .icon,ssociation for the Advancement of Science, 1965, 486.

267. Long, T. D. "Policy an in Japanese Science: The Persistence of a Tradition," Miner,VII, (Sari 1 9,i)9), 426-453.

268. . "Science Poli y in Japan,' OECD Observer,Number 28 (June, 1967), 32-37.

. . )59. Makay, Afit "An Outsider's View ofSci.ence in JajDan," Impact of Science on Society, XII (Number 3, 1962, 177 -2021

270. Nakano, Chie.Japanese Society.Berkeley:University of Cali-fomia 11 Press, 1970, 158.

41. .27T. OECD 'Observer '114 Energy Policy ofJapan," OECD Observer, Num- ber 48 (Octoveril 97 0), 15 -18.

272: Organization 'for Economic Cooperation and Development..'Reviews of National Science Polity: Japan.Paris: OECD, 1967, 231.

273. Physics Today."Physics in Japan:. Budgets Still Meager Despite Econom- ic Boom," Physics Today, -XXIV _(August, 1971); 69-71.

274. :Tuge, Hideomi, ed. Historical Development ofScience and Technology. in Japan: Tolcyo: \ Society for Icternational Cultural RelatiOns, 1961, 200. 30P 32-2 The Organization of Science and ethnology

275. Yoshino, M. Y. Jan's Marla erial Sstem: Traflan anInnovation. Cambridge, Massachussets: M.I.T. Press, 1968,

Latin America

276. Adams, R. N."Politics and Social. Anthropology in SpctnisAmerica,"

Human Organization, %XIII' (Springt 1964), 1-4. ,

277,, Hawkes, Nigel. "Chile:Planning for Science Faces Obstacles Oldand New," Science, CLXXIV (December 17, 1971,1217 - ,1219. \

278. Mexico. Office of the President."The National Councir for ScienOcind Technology," Mexican Newsletter, Office ofthePresident, separata 2, 1971, 15.

279. Nussenzveig, H. Moyse's."Migration of Scientists from Latin America Science, CLXV (September 26, 1969), 1328-1332.

280. Ryder, Walker D."How Cuba Manages Its Science," New Scientist, XLIV (November 13, 1969), 339-341.

281. . "Lessons of Castroi Cuba," New Scientist, LII (December- 30, 1971), 262-265.

282. SchulMan, Sam."Intellectual and Technological Underdevelopment:A Case Study--Colombia," Social Fortes, XLV1°(March, 1968),3P9-317.

283. Strassman, W. Paul. Technological Change andiconomic Development: The Manufacturing Experience of Mexico and Puerto Rico.Ithaca, Nv York: Cornell University Press, 1968, 353.

284. Tel lex, T. "Mexican Science: A New Era ?" Bulletin of the At1,Scien -; tists, XXIV (April, 1968), 46-48.

285. United Nations Educational, Scienti fic, and-Cul tura I Organization. Guide- line for the Application of Science and Technologyto Latin America?) i5TWOFTment.Final'Report of the Conferenceon theApplications of Science and Technologyto the Development of Latin America. Organ- ized by UNESCO with the cooperatioh of flit EconomicCommittee for Latin America, Santiago, Chile.September 13-22 1965. Paris: UNESCO, 1965, 250.

3i0 1

Technoscience in the Developing Countries 323

286. United Nations Educational,, Scientific anciCultural Organization. World Directory of National Science Policy-Making Bodies, Vol, 3: 'Latin America.Paris: UNESCO, 1968, 187. 0.

Middle East.

287. Ason,Samuel K "Physicsin Egypt: A New Type of Lend- easel" Bulletin of the A mic Scientists, XVI- (October, 1960), 317-32'1-; 335.

288. Greenberg, Daniel S."Mideast Science Gap Widening," Science Policy'

Reviews, IV (1971), 21727. 4

289: Ismail, Abdeq."Current 'trends in Science Policy in thenited Arab Republie'Impact of Scienceon Society, XII (Number rl 962),:1 03- 118.

, 290. Langley, 1<. M.Industry' in Iraq.Cambridge, Massachusetts:Harvard University Pressel 961, 313.

291. Lenczowski, G. Oil and State in the'Middle East.Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1 960, vp. Biblio.

(292. aubain, Fahim I.Education and Science in the Arab Work]. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1966, 608.

293. Rahnema, Mavid."Iran: Science Policy Development," Impact of Science on Society, XIX (January-March, 1969), 53-61.

294. Tauber, Gerald E.Scientific Endeavor of Israel:Teaching, Resources, Research. New York: Herzl Press, 1961, 80.

295. U.S. Department of State. Science and Technology irr Israel. Depart-1 ment of State Airgram No. A-448 from American embassy, Tel Aviv, November 28, 1970. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of International Com- merce, U.S. Departmenfof Commerce, 1970, 4.

296. Worthington, D. B.Middle East Science: 'A Survey of Subjects Other than Agriculture.London: Her Ma jesty's Stationery Office, 1946, 239.

297. Zahlan, A. B."The -Alquisition of Scientific and Technological Capa- bilitties by Arab Countries," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXV (November, 1969), 7-1 0.

311 A 6

324 Thetrganization of Science and Technology .

298.. Zahlcin, A. B. "Science in the Arab Middle East;',:- Minerva, VIII(Jan- uary, 1 970), 8-35. . ,

Southeast Asia

299. Bhathal, R. S. "Science and Government in Singapore," Bulletinof the Atomic Scientists, XXVII (January, 1971), 20-21; 38.

300. . "Science and Technical Education in Asia,"New Scientist and Science Journal, L (June 24, 1971), 729-730.

1301. Cortes, J. R."Factors Associated with the Migration of High-LevelPer- sons from the Phil iPpinesto the U.S .t.," Science Review, XI (January- February, 1 970), 3-17'. N 302. Dessau, Jan%-"Social FactorsAffecting Science and Technology in Asia," Impact of Science on Society, XIX (January-March, 1769), 13-23. .

303. Eversul I, Frank L."Korean Scientists Organize," Scientific Monthly, LXV (September, 1947), 243-245.

304. Galston, ArthurW. anclEthan Signer. "Education and Science 4n North Vietnam," Science, CLXXIV (October 22, 1971), 379-385.

305. Hemptinne, Yvan de, ed.' "Science in a Changing Asia," Impact ofSci-

ence on Society, XIX (January-March, 1 969), entire issue. 41

306. Hermann, R. A. P "Sow Noteson the National Science Policy of the Philippines," Philippine Science Review, XI (MaPch-Apri I, 1970), 13-20.

307. Kim, Kee -Hyong."Korea's Strategy for Science and Technology, 't Impact,

of Science on Society, XIX (January-March, 1969), 98-98. OE

308. Nicholls, Frank G. and P. Cheosakul. "Harnessing Scie ce to Develop- ment in Thailand," Impactof Science on Society, X (January-March, 1969), 75-84.

309. Noble, Glenn A."Science Education in Korea," Science, CVII (January 9, 1948), 31-32.

312 it

TechnoscienC,e in the DeNieloping Countries 325

310. Pecson, Geronima T."The Good and Bad of Science and, Technology,': Impact of Science oh Society, XIX (October-December, 1969), 363-: 370.

, - 311. Rose, Steven apd'Hilary Rose."ScienCe in North Vietnam," New Scien- tist and Science_Journat XLI)f._ (January 21, 1971); 134-136.

312. Schenck, Hubert G."Impact of Sciences in East Asia,Bulletin of the Atomic SCrentists, XIV (September, 1958), 273-275.

313. United Nations Educational, Scientific, andCultural Organization.Na- tional Science Policies in Countries of South and South-East Asia. A 4 comparative studybased on the proceedings of the Third Regional Meet- ing of Representatives of National Scientific Research Organizations of South and South-East Asia at Canberra, Australia, February, 1964. Paris: UNESCO, 1965, 45.

314. National Science Policy and Organization of Research in the Philippines.Paris: UNESCO, 1970 116'. .

315.White,Gilbert F. `"The Mekong River Plan," Scientific Avineri cab, CCVI II (A-pril, 4 963), 49-$49.

3.3 .*

Technoscience ire the Developing Countries 327

LEADING QUESTIONS 4: 4 What have been the principal effects of science and science-based technology on n9n-Western traditional .cultures Is there a "scientific culture" distinct and separable from Western traditioI culture?

2. Have certain of theseeffects been inherent in contradictions between science and traditional culture, or have they followed frOm the manner of the introduction of science and advanced technology, or both?

3,What were the objectives of the .United Nations Conference the Applica- tion of Science and Technology for the Benefit of the Less eloped Areas? What wore the achievements of the conference? Whatere its significant omissions?

4.What factors seem to influence the extent, to which science and ;dvanced tech- nologyare accepid (or rejected) in traditional societies? What may explain the contrasting reception of Western science in Japan, China, India, Indonesia, and 04 Arab.states?

Is science, as a method of thought, consisfent with the political assumptions underlying the creation of new "sovereign" nations in Africa and Asia?

6.What are the principal obstructions to the development of science in traditional cultures where there is no overt opposition-to science per se--in much of Cen- tral and South America, for example?

7.What are the rndre important institutional arrangements for introducing and cultivating science in newly emerging nations? E what international organizations or agreements have been developed to assist this process?

8.Are scientific and economic developmentsolwayi compatible in the new nations--or have there been conflictingeffects? Can you cite sPecific examples of incompaiible objectives? . ti Can the development process be made amenable to broad-based scientific concepts and methods?If so, how might this be accomplishedand where should the initiative be located?

10. Given the p'resent exponential growth of science and advanced technology in Westernized countries, is there any red( prospect that the new nations can "catch up" with the more advanced societies--or will the knowledge gap widen ?

t. 3.14 --,

'POLICY PROBLEMS OF -SCIF,t10E AND TECHNOLOGY

T efive topics -comPrising this section coversome of the larger problem areas of public policy that have resulted'from the advancement of science.and 'technology.In Topics 11,_ The Politics of Science and Technology, and 412,. Administration of Research and Developmentrerriphasis is on estciblising thildirection, prior- .ities, and'al locations of money 'for sciegific and technological development in the United States. in the-remainingtopics of this section American experience is also emphasized, but attention is given,to policy problems in other national Contexts.Topic 13 is closely related as it examines methods of controlling the direction of technoscientific development and its effectson planning for the tested application bf selected technOlogies. Topics 14, Science, Human Rights, and the Role of Law, and 15, Managing the Tech- noscientific Superculture, dearw,ith policy, problems growing ouf of the impact of science and technologyupon thelives of individuals. Advancements in medicine, engineering, genetics, pharmacology, and indt4stria I chemistry have given rise to 'novel circumstances in whicX the rights of individuals and of kwciety.cannot ,-always be defivetd by historical precedent. 'The focus of all topics

sin'this section ii upon problems, generated. by the growth of technosc ;eve, and the policy issuesthattriscin consequence of .these problems and of the efforts of society to cope with them.

"*.

411 .

.1 6 .

I 31'5' 4.

* tr

TOPIC 11 THE POLITICS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

V Although the formal structures of government- science relationshipsmay be studied comparatively,it is more difficult to compare (in any detail) the actual' course af politics through which a nation's policies for science and technology are shaped. In any nation, the development of science and technology has been influenced by unique factors of history, institutiorys, and personal leadership. Science policy is seldom shapedprimarilyout of concern for the advancement of knowledge. In the United States, no less then in other countries, considerations of national security, economic growth, fear of illness, and international prestige have influenced the..direction of science policy.

In the United States, the politics of science during the 19th centurywas strongly ,influenced by riValty among several leading scientists. Political attitudes toward thenderal role in science reflected popular beliefs regarding theproper functions of government in general, and the Federal government jn particular,' The principal scientific functions of government were in pursuance of other objectives, chiefly military in the years beforethe Civil War.In the post-Civil Warlears, agriculture became a major focus for applied science and, at the close of the century, file conservation of, naturql resources emerged as a related-field for the application of scientific knowledge.

It washot until science assumed the proportions of a major national enterprise in the.yearsfollowingnWorld War IIthat it become a significant political issue.. Its increasintLfmportii4Ce explains its growing pcil itical involvement- -a relationship that sore sc'entistfliave been reluctant to concede. In the immediate post- War eripctquesti sof how' to manage the recently liberated Aprgy of theatom were .1) mount, followed by debate over thenature of a notiRnal'instilutian to promotthe'41'vane ment of science. The Atom Energy Comession 41946) and the National..Science Foundation (1950) were Outcomes of these political issues. Thispost--War era also saw the expansion of the National Institutes of Health into one.Of the world's greatest biomedical research establishments.

SuccessLof the Soviet Sputnik in 1957 stimulatednew efforts to strengthen Aysicalscience and led directly to the Space Program and establishment of the .National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The structure of advice andco- ordination for Federal science pOl icy became a pol itical issue, and led to structural innovations.Buf increasingly, the politicrof science and techhologr reiflect;ed public concern over the Wise use of knowledge. Among the political issues cif. fecting the direction of science policy have been nuclear fallout, pesticides, environmental pollution, ciciingerousOrugs, Supersonic TranspOrt, and the national investment in basic science. ArgUments have been advanced from several sources fora ,Ifi-level review of the 'consequences of scientific and technical innOvatibn By the early nineteen seventies there' was widespreadconcern in most scientifically advanced countries over priolities in scientific research and development, and for better ways to determine them.(See. Topic 12)

IF 44 7 IS7 316 0 332 Policy Problems of Science and Technology

IMP TOPIC 11 THE POLITICS OF SCIENCE AND TECH OGY,

Selected Basic Readings: gume, Stuart S. "Science Policy and Science Policy Research; Nature,CCXXVII I (OCtober 17, 1970), 215-218.

Greenberg, Daniel S. "The New Politics of Science," Technology Review,LXXIII (February, 1971), 41-45. 'IS

Long, T.D."The Government of Science: Comparative Approach," -Science Studies,I (October, 1971), 263-286.

Pitzer, Kenneth S."Science and ciety: Some Policy-Changes Are Needed," Science, CLXXII (April -16, 1971), 223-226.

Price, Don K."Science at a Policy Crossroads,". Technology Review, LXXIII (April, 1971), 31-37.

Supplementary an crSubst itute Readings: .

Etzioni, Amitai and Richard Remp."Technologic'al 'Shortcut,' to Social Change;' Science, CLXXV.,(January 7, 1972),. 31-38.

Jensen, Edwood V."The Science of Science," PerspectivesinBiology and 'Medicine, XXII (Winter, 1969), 274-28q,

Kass, Leon R."The New Biology: What Price Relieving Man's Estate?" Science, CLXX IV (November 19, 1971), 779-787.

King, Alexander."Science-Policy, Economic Growth, and the Quality of Life, 't

, Science Policy NeWs, II (July', 1970), 1-6.

Leitenleerg, Milton. "The Present State the World's Arms Race," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVIII (January, 1972), 15-g1.

Orions, Harold* "Social Science Research Policies in the United States," Minerva, IX (January, 1971), 7-31.

31it t.

Iffk.

TOPIC 11 THE POLITICS,OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Q '333

TOPICAL OUTLINE REFERENCE KEY .

. ,

I. Politibs and Science inn the UnitedStates 175,-178,285,356, 359

A.Historical relationships (Cf. Topic 06) 26,289, 326, 358 ; 40 B.'Contrasting values of science and politics 153 1. -Scientific enterprise involvedinthe sociopolitics;31 mqtrix of the times, but with its own valves and assumptions 371, 381 2. Politicalandscientificcriteriafor truth- -a contrast 308 3. Defining the public welfare-- differing approaches oficience and of politics 204

C.Mutual dependence of sctence and politics frc in the technoscientific_society ,,41 145, 148, 177, 213;290,291,314, 350, 391, 418

JI.Thl Politics of.the Contemporary Structure for. Science Policy 56,74,75, 76, 275,330,303,345

A. P'rec.urss of a new status for science 44 1. Changed international position of the United States 53,311 2. Vannevar BushRlirtto the President: ScienceThe Endless &Antler, 1945 409 3. Scienceand.Public Policy, report of the President's Scientific Research Board, John R. 5teel'man, Chairmao; 1947 4 1 1 4. Establishmentof *the Atomic Energy Commitsion, 19466 . 299 5. Establishment of the Natibnal Scien,ce J Foundation; 1950 4, 90, 394

31.: %b.

334 , Policy Problems of Science and Technology

B.The changing role Of science in American society 2,.'52, 298 1. Heavy increase in defense-related R & D 129,198,315,317, ' , , 380, 391, 403 2. Relationship to economic growth (Cf. - Topic 05) , 267,327, 335,392 3. Recognition of the value of basic science c. 82,119 4. Role of immigrant scientists in the development of indigenous sciencecompe- tence in the United States 78,152,179,292, . 294 4___," C.Post-Sputnik reorganizatiorl and development, 1957 _ 44;247, 314. 1. The Space Program, NASA, 1958 249,336,339, 393,'- 394,400,401,410, 412 2. Newproposals fora department of,- ence (Cf. Topic 06) 3. Government stimulation of science education (Cf. Topic 05) 151,162,230,340, 381 4. The new structure of science advice (Review Topic 06) 1, 6, 61, 79 a .Special Assistant tb the Pres ;dent_ for ,Science, 1957 91 b. Federal Councilfor Science and Technology, 1959 c. Office of ScienCe and Technology; a, 1962 d-. Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1962 '"'Note summary in Pen ick,The Politics of Americarr-Science-,-2 356

5. 'Concentration of scientificprograms , and support 34, 95, 165 .a. In paPiblcular sciences and technologies .141,222,224,343 b. In particular geogiaphicickations: 28, 300 - c. In particular institutions 28, 234 6. Inadequate opportunity for public par- . ticipation in the consideration of alternatives and setting of Priorities 35,-73, 262, 316, 318 31" ff

The,Politi f Se fence and Technology .335

7. Hatarqs and safeguards of American .

. science policy from 102, 106 _ a. Manipulation by highly organized . *and influential ,groupsfor group= centered interests -- military, .inUui-- trial, academic s 45, 48, 80, 113, . ,, ,,. 117,172, 246,2560 . ,. 270, 294 305, 320,. % 4 420 - , A 7 b. Neglect of areas of research of great-'

. '7 . est social need in favor of areas of , .",: .....,40 , highist interest and prestige 29,108, 120, 138,r , : 141, 224, 251, 267; ;. 414

Ill.The Larger Dimensions` of'Science Policy 1424,68,89,105, 112,124,128,1,14, 144,184, 244, 254, 255,289300,354 361

..'A.'Co rnpetiflionfor available mnds' t 262,290,328,414, , . , , . . - - .. 420 .. 1. AdvantageOus position of /defense and energy- related science.and technology 9, 55, 114, 125, 158, 198,253,297, 310, 328,360, 366, 383,-386 2. Health research: medicine versus basic Biology 108,150,225,284 334 ASP 3. Handicaps of social and envillinmental studies 39,40,81,83,131, 132,146,163,189, J 219, 245,257, 269 1122, 333, 344 4. Limited sources of supp6rt for basic as opposed to applied research 62, 63, 135, 207

B. Responsibility for formulation of public ,,pdlicy for science and technology. 56, 1.71,193;197, . 329, 418 3Zu

41. . . . , . ..,. ! . .., i

336 Policy Problems of Scieillb and Techfialogy

1. Relatingscience polit to science ad- . vice 42,, 69, 109, 130 2. Vetermining the extent to which scion- iif ic knowledge will influence political decisions, 115, 368. fixik; responsibility in the R tri- angle, e.g., government, universities, indu.stry 127,162,318,352

4. Responsibilities of theYederal and State . 'governmentsthe _case of- the U.S. Atomic Energy Agency vs. Minnesota 14 5. Surveying, assessing, and interpreting the status of science and technology _(Cf. Topic 13) 29,351

IV. Policy Problems in the Utilization and Control of Science and 'achnologc-Some Illustrative Cases 51,108,236,263, 266,281, 284, 287, 304, 309,337, 341, 348,365,W, 378, 382

A.Public policy and the integrity of the scientist t 1. The Robert Oppenheimer Affair 276,278,301,325, 330, 374 2.- The AD-X2 Battery Addictive Case 3. Fjuor'itiation of water supplies./ 41- 191 4. The Krebiozen Case 5. Blacklisting of scientists by HEW 155, 156 6. The Franklin A. Long incident . 15, 16 7. Rachel-Carson and theagricultural

scerAsts 33,85,159, 268 ea 8. Standards for nuclear radiation 67,70,160,182, 218 9. The Velikovsky controversy 10. The Agri-statistics Case

B. Social' sensitivity and scientific curiosity 258, 302, 377 1. Darwinian Evolution: The Scopes Trial

4 321 The Politics Science and Technology .337 .

.2.1rGenetics.af human differensot 98, 126,16'8,194, . 282,312 4r 3. Genetic engineering , 58, 101,143,154, 208, 354 4. Sexual behavior of human beings . 11, 58, 142` 5. Social research as "spying": Project Camelot . 92, 306 6. Reformistresearch,e.g.,Public Interest ....- Investigations 4. 7. Experimentatic;ns with human subjects 259, 355

C.Alteration of the natural environment 4 430, 31, 38, 43,56, 60, 245,274, 277, . , 296{324,362,373, . , \V--- 375 1. Air pollution 170, 235 ' -g. Water pollution 17, 27, 84, 133 3. 'Solid wasfes 77, 186, 407 4 P-esticides/ and herbicides 33, 85, 86; 157, ., 159, 169, 220, 226,. 241-, 389 5. Inorganic fertilizers 104. 6. Scientific forestry . 7. Rainmaking 134 8. Defoliation 71 9. Supersonic Transport i '47,138,185,243, 176, 383, 397 10. The Trans-Alaska Pipeline 7, 8, 149 11. Experiments in sp ace: Projects Argue, Starfish, and West Ford 12. Nuc lear radiation 32, 67, 188, 217, 218, 232, 239

D." Social" drUgs, science, and morality: 51, 280, 295, 321 1. Tobacco t .

2. Marijuana' 231, 372 . 3. Hallucinogens and 1.SD../j 142, 250,261,279

4. Alcohol 51 -

E. Use of data processing techniques to collect and disseminate information on allciti- zens -- possible invasion of privacy -25, 80, 140, 187, 192, 346,364, 390, 404, 413, 416 32 4 f , 4 4 f°8 Policy Problems of Science and Technology

F. Choice,ernphasis,ond alternatives in tech

nological development . 46,234291, 417 '1. The SRace Program: objectives, methods, duration . 10,20,23,224, 242,247,336,400, 410, 412 . 2. Transportation: specific modesversus public systems 3,13 37, 47, 136, 138, 200,210,216, s 229, 240,266,383, . 408 3. Automation and cybernetics: machines .versus manpower 21, 413, 416 it 4. Weapons technology: cost- effectiveness, realiability, and Morality 45, 96, 103, 125, , 158,167,,180,246, -248, 265271,273, 283,290,305,332,

---,, ) 384, 385,399, 405 5. Energy: how much, from what, for what? 32, 47, 64,97,149, 238,398,406, 419

4 , ...

.. 30649 4.1f) The Politics of Science and Technology a 339

'BIBLIOGRAPHY.

General ReTerences:Articles

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3. Agnew, Spiro T. "Urban Fast Mass Transportation," Congressional Record, C.XVII (September 14, 1971), E9562,-E9564.,

4. Allison, David. "The National Science FoundatiOn," International Science and Technology, Number 52 (April, 1966)pr76-86.

5. Alpert, Harry. "The cbovernment's Growing Recognition ofSotial Science,"- Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, CCCXXVII (January, 1960), 59-67.

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7. Asp in, L. "The Bordeh Report on the Trans-Alaska Pipel ine," Congressional _Record, CXVII (June 15,1971), H5226-H5228.

8. . "Why the Trans-Alaska Pipeline Should be Stopped," Congressional, Record, CXVII (August 6, 1'971), E9.062-E9064.

9. Aviation Week and poce Technology."Special Report on Satellite Com-. mun icat ions, " Aviation Week and Spcice Technology, X CV (August 23, 1971), 28 -95.

10. Bean, A.L. ,"The Value of Manned Flights to the Moon," Impact of

Science on. Society, XXI (April-June, 1971), 105-112. .

",---"'"- 11. ,Jessie."Technology, Science, and Sex Attitudes," Iact of Science on Society, XVIII (October-December, 1968), 213- .

12. Bethe, Hans A."Disarmament Problems," Bulletin of the Atomic Scien- tists, XXVI (June, 1970),, 99-102.

324 a. #

F 340 Policy Problems of Science wad Technology

13. Blume-, Stuart S."Science Policy and Science Policy Research,"Nature, CCXXVIII (October 17, 1970), 215-218.

Boffey, Philip M. "Radioactive Pollution: MinnesotaFindsAEC Standards Too Lax," Science, CLX1.11 (Mardi, 7, 1969), 1043-1044;1046.

15. Boffey, Philip M. and Bryce Nelson. "NSFDirector: Nixon Admits He , Was Wrong," SCience, CLXIV (Mai2, 1969), 532-534.

16. "N SF Directorship: Why Did Nixon Veto FranklinA. Long?" Science, CLXIV (April 25, 1969), 406-411.

17. Boyles Clarenct L."Oil Pollution of the Sea:Is the End in Sight?" Biological Conservation, L(July, 1969), 319-327.

18. Brezino, Dennis W."Wanted: A Science Policy Dbctrine,Scientific Research, IV (December 22, 1969), 22-24

19. Brodine, Virginia. "The Secret Weapons," Environment,XI (June, 1969), 12-26.

20. Brown, Allan H."The Post - Apollo Era: Decisions Foc ing NASA,"Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXIII (April, 1967),11-16.

21._ Buckingham, Walter."The Human Side of Automation," Cybernetics,IV (Number 1, 1961), 56-70. ( '22. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientii'ts. "Disarmament and Arms Limitations: Pugwash-Assesseient' Bulletin of theAtomic Scientists, XXVII (March, 1971), 20-23.

.23. . "Men on the Moon:An Assessment; Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXV (September, 1969)., entire issue.

24.. Bundly, McGeorge'. "The Scientist and National Policy,"in Knowledge and Power: Essays on Science and Government, ed. by SanfordA. Lakoff. New York: Free Press, 19AP-420-431!

25. Carter, Luther J."National Data Bank:Its Advocates Try to Erase 'Big Brother' Image," Science, CLXIII (January 10, 1969), 160; 162.

.26 Chase, Edward T."Politics and Technology," Yale Review, LII (March, 1963),' 322-339. 325 a

The Politics of Science and Technology 341

27. Cheever, Daniel S. "Marine SCience and Ocean Politics," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVI (February, 1970), 22; 29-34. a 28. Clarke, Robin.. "How the 300 Ge V Decision WdsMade," Science Journal, V (March; 1969), 4-5; 7.

Al. 29. Cohn, Victor."Shaking Up The System," Technology Review,LXXIII (July-August, 1971), 8-9.

30. Cole, LaMont C.. "Can the World B,e Saved?" AIBS Bulletin (BioScience), XVIII (July, 1968), 679-684.

31, . "Thermal Polkition," A1BS Bblietin (BioScience), XIX (November, 1969), 989-992.

32. Commoner, Barry."The Myth of Omnipotence," Environment, XI (March, 1969), 8-13; 26-28. . 33. Conway, Gordon, et al."DDT on Balance," Environment, XI (September, 1969), 2-5.

34. Cooper, Joseph D. "Onward the Oanagecnent of Science: The Wooldridge *Report," Science, CXLVIII (June 11, 1965), 1433-1439.(Reportbn the NationsInstitutes of Health)

351 Cowen, R..C."How Elitist Must Responsible Science Be?" Technolog Review, LXXIII (February, 1971), 6-7.

36. Cox, Hiden T."Sc ientiits and Publ ic Policy;' AlBS Bulletin (BioScience); XIII (February, 1963), 14-16.ap

37. Craig, W.,S."Not0Question of Size," Environment, XII (Juni,"1976), 2-5.

38. Darling, Frank F. "Man against Nature," UNESCO Courier, XXII (January, 1969), 24-40.

39. David, Henry. "Behavioral Sciences and the Federal 'GovernmaiN" Americ.an Psychologist, XXIV (October, 1269), 917-922.

40. De G.azia, Alfred. "The Government in Behavioral Science: Some

Notes,' American Behavioral Scientist, VICritical I (May, 1964), 254). tr

342 Poilicy Problems of Science and Technology

. - 1_, . 41. Del coigne, Georges C.and G. Rubinstein. "Nonproliferation and Control: Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy," Bulletin of theAtomic Scientists, XXV/I1 (February, 1971), 5-7. s 1 42. Doem, G. Bruce." 'Big Science', Government, and the Scientific Community in Canada: The ING Affair; Minerva, VIII (July,1970), 357-375.

43. Dubos, Rene."The Biosphere: A Delicate ,Balance between Manand Nature," UNESC,0 Cowrier, XXI (January, 1969),7-15.

. 44. Dupree, A'. Hunter."Central Scientific Organization in the United States

Government;"Mirterva, I (Summer, 1963), 453-469. .

45. .Dyson, Frede'rick J."Arms Control and Technological Change," Con- gressional Record, CXVII, Part n (August, 1971),E87881-E8791.

46. . "The Death of a Project; Science, CXL1X (July9, 1965), 141-:444.,

47. Eads, G. and R.R. Nelson._ "Governmental Support ofAdvanced Civilian . Technology: Power Reactors and the Supersonic Transpprt,"Public

, . Policy, XLIX (Summer, 1971), 465-427.

48. Elliott, Carl. "The Relationship between Industry,Its Research, and Government: The Legislative Point of View," Research Mailagement, V111 (March, 1965), 65-75.

49. EIIuI, Jacques. "Tecghnique, Institutions, andAwareness," American BeTiavioro) Scientist, X1 (July-August, 1968),38-42.

50. Engstrom, Elmer W. "Science, Technology, and Statesmanship,"American Scientist, LV (March, 1967), 72-79.

51. Etzioni, Amitai and Richard temp. "Technological 'Shortcuts"to Social Change," Science, CLXXV (January 7, 1972), 31-38.

'52. 'Ezrahi, Ymon. "The Political Resources of American Science," Science Studies,I (February, 1971), 117-133.

.53. 'Feinstein, Otto."American Itholars Analyze U.S. Foreign Policy)," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XVI (December, 1960), 395-399.

32'7 1

The Politics of Science and- Tec hnology 343

54. Feld, Bernard T. "The Sorry History of Arms Catrol," Bulletin of the

Atomic Scientists, XXVI (September, 1970), 22-26. .

55. Feldman, N.E. and C.M. Kelley.."The Communication Satellite--A Perspective forthe 1970s," Astronautics and Aeronautics, IX (Septermber, 1971), 22-29.

54. Fetry, Wilber H."Must We Rewrite the Constitution to Control loch- -riologyr Saturday Review, LI (March 2, 1968), 52-54.

57. Firmage, Edwin B. "Thi Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons," American Journal of Intematipngj Law, LX111-40:taber, 1969), 711446.

58. Ftaccar,a, Marco. "The Implications of Genetics for Procreation and p Marriage," Impact of Science on Society, XVIII (October-December, 1968), 259-271.

59." Friedlander, Michael W. Find Joseph Klarmann. 164QWMany Children ?it Environment, XI (December, 1969), 2-8.

60. Frost, Justin."Earth, Air, Water' Environment, XI (July-Atigust4,1969){ 14-33. '*. . 61. Galloway, Eilene. "Scientifia Advice foongress: Analysis of Three. Proposals," in Knowledge arid Power:. Eys orilkience and Govern-AA ment, ed. by Sanford A. Lakoff. New Yor :FreePrfss;1966,359-34.1r -A

62." Gibbons, M., S. Metcalf, and D. Watkins.'Basic Research: A Nation's .,------Burden or Benefit ?"" Science Journal, .VDecembe1741970), 7144. . . ,. . .,P.4. . 4, . . .r.o.., 63. Gibbons, M.et at."Val of Curiaiffy-Oriente4:1 Research," Nature, . 3 4rwer. CCXXV (March 14, 1970), .10064- . - . .

64. Gillette, Robed'."Schlesinger and the AEC": New Sourarif of Energy," Science, CLXXV.(January 14, 1972), 147-151.

sob 65. Gimlin, Hoyt. "Food Additives,"' Editorial Research Reports (December 26, 1969);957476.

66. Glast, H. Bentley. " SIentistsin Polltics," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XVII (May, 1962), 2-7.

a y 5 d

r t

Policy Problems of Science and Technology

wit 67. Gofman, John W. and Arthur R Tampl in. "Radiatigg.: The ilrivisible Casualtir," Environment,. XII (April, 1970), 12-19.

68. Goldsmith, Maurice."The itkutonamy of Science: Some Thoughts for Discussion;w1oliti Quarterly, XXXVIL1 (January-March, 1967), 81-89.

69. Green, Edith. ."Legislating in an Age of Science,"in The Scientific Revolution: Challenge and Pro ise; ed. by Gerald W. Fibers anciPauf ' Duncan. Washington, D.C.: ublic1 Affairs Press, 1959, 30-36. c ; 70. Green, Harold P." Assurance' of 'No Undue Risk' SroSeentist andCitizen, X (Arne-July, 1968), 128-440.

71. Greenberg, Don iel S.,"Defoliation: AAAS Study Delayed by Resignatier_ from Committee," Science, CLIX (February,43, 1968), 857 -859.

72. ."How Sclence end Government Wprk Toget1;ef-in Waairn9ton,"

.Research Management, Viii (March, 1965), 81-89: . t - , . 73. . "Maliole: TheProjeiThatWent Awry," in Knowledge and , , . Power: Essays on Science and Government, ed. by Sanford A. Lakoff. ... Nev York: Free Press, 1966, 87-111. .- Ai' c..11 4 74. ."TIF o itics-of Scien4e,.1 TechnolkyRevie;v! LXXIII (Februaiy,171), 1-45-," r V- . . ,..:... 75.4. .. "The Pant ;Cs of Pure S"c ience Saturday Revillif, L (Nave710er . 3, 1967), 62-69...- . . s . . /.., a . IP ."The Press ancrtbe Politics of Science",. Technology Review, . . 1 .LXX (May, 1960, 10-11.f 4g: .

. 0 : * ' . Gr instead, Robe R "No Depost, No Return," Env ironmerit, X I (November, ° 1969),'17 -23, - 10: , 78., Grubel; Herbert T."ForeiglyScientists in the United States," Bulletin to .of the Atomic Scientists, OVI (April, 1970), 9 -1'2.

. , . . .':is ,. . 79., ' Hardier, Philir "Federal Science Poilcy," Science, CLV (March 3, \ : -19671, 1063-1066. ,- , )4-- vf---- a2a

1' I.. lb

. The Politics of Science and T ology 345

80. Han Ion, Josei:sh.;'The Implications of Project Cambridge; New Scientist and Scjence Journal, XLIX (February.25, 1971), 421-4211 . . 81. Harris, Fred R. ".P,oliticdt Science and the Proposal for a National Social Sciemcb Foundation," American Political, ScienceReview, LXI

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82. Havens, \yawn ,Jr. "Nuclear ResearCh as a Source Of Technology,!(,..../ PhysicslOday, (XI (September, 1968), '47751.

83. Haworth, Leland J."Suppori.ofPolitical Sciene by tire Nat ionalcience Foundation," American Politica Scien few,LVIII (December, 1964), 1086-1088. 4i 84. Hedgpith, Joel W. JThvOceans: sAorld "Environment, 1970);40-46. s. . 85-. Henkin, )1armon. "DDT ari Vial," Environment, XI ( '1969), d 14-1t34-36. , iff . . '0 .1 86. "i'Froblems,in PPM,' Environment, XI (May, 1969), 2445; )sr 32-33; 37. p

s 87,. Hohenemser, Kurt:, "Onward and Upward/I; -Environrdent,I 'XII (May, * 1970), 22 -27. t . . - 4 .4 88. Hohenems`er, Kureand Julian MCCoull ,1 "The Windup Car," Environment, s XII (June, 1970), 14-21; 32. 4I

89. H-aloman, J. Herb4rt."Govel-nment and Science:,Flow Science Policy is Developed,," 5ci'ence, CXLIII (J.anu'arx 31, 1964), 427, 429.

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92. Horowitzruing L."The Life and Death'of Project Came Ibt '," Trahsaction, III (November-December, 1965)/4.3-8. , , -t . 93.' I4osmer, Craig., "Whatever F1'appened toFederatFunds?" Physics To4aYe ,../, . - XX I "(June,. 1968), n-27. 4 iiik NI to 4 410 A 346. Policy PrObl%ms of Science and Technology

b , 94. HUH,'E.W. Seabrook. "The Political Actibn;' InternationalScience and Technology, Number 64 (April, W67), 7634-1,764.

95. Hutchinson, Eric."Politics and Higher Educdtion," Science, CXLVI '(No,/ember 27, 1964), 1139 -1142.

96. Imai, Ryukiehi. ,"Japa -arid the...World of 5ALT," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVII (December, 1971), 13-16.; . . , 97. Inglis, David R. "Nuclear Energy and.the MalthuOan Dilemma," Bulletin of the AtOmic Scientists., XXVII (February, 1971), 14-18. , .. . r 98. Jensen,, Arthur R. "RaCe and 6'ergtielkof Intel ligence: A Replyto Lewonfin," Bulletin of theAtomic Scientis, XXVI (May, 1970), 17-23,

99. Jensen, Edwoo'd V. "The Sdence of Sciences" Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, XXII (Winter, 1969), 274-289. . . 100. Jordan, Walter H. ''Nuclear Energy:Benefits versus RiskV" Physics M Today, XXIII (May, 1970), 32-38. 1

104 Jost., Alfred. "Reproduction (II); Hurrian Control of ReproductiveProcesses," .,,tirImpact, XX (October-December, 1970), 267-278. 1.1 .112. Kantrowitz, Arthur. "PropOsal for an Institution for Sciekific Judgment, ", 'k Science, CLVI (May 12, 1967), 763-764. `,

1.03. -Karbr,.Phillip A."The Nixon Policy Ilf CBW," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVIII (January,'1972),2-25; 27. V `II 104. Kardos, Louis T. "A New Prospect," Environment, XII (March, 1970), , 10-21; 27. - lir - 105, Kash, Don E."ForceiAffOctirASciencePolicr," Bulletin of the Atomic --.... . Scitntists, XXV (Apri1,21969), 10-15. r'

106. . "Is Good Science Good Politics?" Bulletin of the Atomic 4. Scientists;XXI (March, 1965), 34-36.

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4. 7. 108. Kass, ,Leon R."The New Biology: What Price Relieving Man's Estate?" Science,.CLMY (November 19, 1971), 779-787.

v'Y 109. KeLr, James R."Cdngress and Space: Overview or Oversight?" Public Administration Review, XXV (September, 1965), 185-192.

110. King, Alexander."Science Policy, Economic Growth, and the Quality of Life," Science Policy News, II (July, 1970), 1-6.

111. Kinzel, Augustus B."The Engineer GOes to Washington," 'International. Science' and Technolog Number 42 (June, 1965), 49-52.

112. Kistiakowsky, George .-"National Policy for Science," Chemical and Engineerin4News, L (January 22, 1962), 120-124. : . .;

111 113. Klass, Philip J."Independent Research Due Closer Sirutiny," Aviation Week and Space.Technol=ogy,xal (Maich16, 1970), 21-22.

114. . "Recoil Satellite Assumes Dual Role," Aviation Week and Space Technology, XCV (August 30x 071), 12-13;

115. Kofmehl,'Kenneth. `:"COSPUP, Congreii, and Scientino AdviteP Journal

° of Politics, XXVIII .(February, 1966), :1Q9-420. .0 116. Kvom, Roger A. "COMSAT: Thelnevilable, Anomaly,' in Knowledge and Power: Essays on Science and'Grovernment, bvScinforc10. Lakoff. New YenTc: Tree 146, /71-292. f IOW 117. Lakoff, Sanford A. "The Scientific Establishment andAmerican Plural ism," in Knowledge and Power: -Essay; ontScienae and Government, ed. by Sanford A. Lakoff, Iklew York: Free Press, 19&S, 57T-392.

k - 118. Langer, El inor.. " Chemical aria Biological Warfaretl I): The Weapons and the Polies," Science, CE.V (Ainuory 207 1967), 299-303o, . 119., Lang! ish, John."Daps Industry; Neekr Scien'ce?"-Scienci Journal,, Va (December, 194)7-81-84.

12. Lecwilt, Thomas W. The futUre of the Sockeye Program On the Reusable Shuttle," Air Force Maar:mine, LI I I (Deciamber1970, 58-61. we

.121. Lederbit Joshua."Biological warfare: A Global Threat,"American 'Scientists, LXIX (Morph-April, 1971), 195-197.

332 4 Policy Puib lams of Science and Technology

122. Lederberg, Joshua."A Freeze on' Missile Testing; Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVII (March, 1971), 4-6; 43.

123. Leich, Harold H."Scientists and Engineers in a Civil Service System," Public Personnel Review, XXVI (January, 1965), 35-39.

124. Leiserson, Avery."Scientists and the Polk? Process',' American Political Science Review, LIX (June, 1965), 408-416.

125. Leitenberg, Milton. "The Prose* State of the World's Arms Race," Bu ligkin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVIII (January, 1972), 15-21.

126.,Lawontin, Richard C. 'Further Remarks on Race and the Genetics of r Intelligence'," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVI (May, 1970),

127. Lindveit, Earl W, "Si.ieri ,tdpcation, and Palitics," Educational Record; XLV (Winter, 1964), 41-48.

128. Long, Thomas D. "The Government of Stience: A COmparativeApproaoh,", -SCIence Studies,I (October, 1971), 263-286. 411, 129, Low, Ian."Science and Weaponry," New SCientists, XXX VIIFebruary 29, 1968), 464-465. , .1' 130. Lowe, George E."Congress ar*I Scientific Advice," Bulletin of the AforniaScientis,XXPrfletember, 1965), 39-42.

131: Lundberg, George A."The Senate Ponders Social Science," Scientific Monthly' LXIV (May, 1947), 3974411.

132. MacArthur, D6Ref1d M. "Current Emphasis on the Department of Defense's. Social and Behavioral Sciences Program', American Psychologist, XXIII . (February, 1968), 104-107.

133. McCaull,.fuI ion. "The Black Tide," Environment, XI(NovemTher, '1969), 2-16.

134. MacDonald, on J.F. 'Science and Politics of Rainmakin6' Bulletin of the Ato Scientists, XXIV (October, 1968), 8-14.

McElheny, Victor K. "Can Scientific UnpredictabAity Become;Pyblic Policy?" Technology Review, LXXI (December, r968), 10-11.

333 Thie Politics of Science and Technology '3.49

.136. Macinko, John.".,TeTailpipsvarobter4 EnvironmentXII (June; 1970), 6-13.

137. Macy, John W., jr."The Scientist in the Federal Service," 'Science, v Cni,V111 (April, 1965), 51-54. `.

138. Magruder, William M."SST: Lessons in All That Pain,"Astronautics and Aeronautics, IX (July, 1971), 16-18.

139. Mainzer, Lewis."The Scientist as Publ lc Administrator," Western Political duarterly,XVI (December, 1965), 814-829.

Malik, Rex."Thi Data Bank Society: Can We Cope?" New Scientist and Science Journal, XLIX (March 4, 1971), 497-499.

^1, 141. Mandelbaum, Leonard:"Apollo: How the iinited States Decided to Go to the Moon," Science, CLVIII (February 14i 1969), 649-654.

142, Mann, Thaddens."Reproduction (1): Sex, Drugs and Eihics," Impact of Science on Society, XX (October-Decem r1970), 255-265. 0 143. Mascall, Eric L."A Theologian's View of Scienc ," New Scientist anti Science Journal, LI (August 19, 1971), 417-419.

144. Massey, Harrie."Evolution of a Policy for. Science," New Scientist, AXI1 (Novimber 24, 19*, 422-429.

. 145. MOther, Kirtley. "The Common Ground of Science and Politics," Science, CX.VII:(February 20, 1953); 169-174.

146. Mead, Margaret.'Public Policy and Behayioral Science," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXV (Efecember, 1969), 8-10.

147. Mesthene, Emmanuel G: "dan'Only Scientists Make Government Science Policy?" Science,,,,CXLV (July 17, 1964), 237-245.

148. '"The Impact of S,c iffnceon Public Pol icy; Public Adminispatian Review, XXVII (June, 1967), 97 -104.

149..Moler, Murray. "Emphasis on Protection Will Maki Big Alaskan Pipeline Better, Safer," Congressional Record, CXVII. (September 23, 1971),' 514918-514919.

.3 5 4

C 4

350 Po tidy Problems of Scpnce and Technology ti

150. Mondale, Walter F. "The Implications of Biomedical Research and Tech- nology;' Congressional Record, 00/11(April 29, 1971), S5912-55929.4

151. Morse; John F "The Federal Government and Higher Education: General* .and' Specific Concerns in theYearsAhead," EducationalRecord, XLVII (Fall, 1966), 429-438.

152. Murcier, Alain."Brains for Sale," BulloOln of the Atomic Scientists,' XXIV (March., 1968), 38-. "Is 153. Nader, Claire."The Technical Expert in a Democracy;' Bulletin of the 111 Atomic Scientists, XXII (May, 1966), 28-30.

154. Nagle, James J. "Genetic Engineering'; Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVII (December, 1971), 43-45. .

155.. Nelson, Bryce. "HEW Blacklisting Issue IgnitesAgain," Science, CLXVI (October 17, 1969), 357.

156. "HEW Security Checks Said to Bar Qualified Applicants to PI--4-1-5717cience, CI.XV (July 18, 1969), 269-271.

157. Nelson, Gaylord. "Herbicides and the Genevo Protocol," Congreisional Recoid, CXV1I (March 24, 1971), S3797-,S3800.

158. Nicholi, R.W. "The Coming SALTing of Defense R & D," Innovation, XXVI (November, 1971),.46-57.

159. Niering, WRStam A. "Effects or Pesticides;' AIBS Bulletin (BloScience), XVIII (September, 1968), 869-875.

160. . Novick, Sheldon. "A Mile from Times Squarer; Environment, XI (Janoary- February, 1969), 10-15;39. 11 ac 161. . "A New Pollution Problem; Environment, XI (May, 1969),

162C. Orions, Harold. "Developments in Federal Policy toward "University Research," Science, C14/ (February 10, 1967), 665-668.

163. sittlekl, Science Reseilich Policies in theUnited States," 4 Minerva, IX (January, 1971), 7 -31. 335 The Politics of Science and Technology , 351

164. Ossowskce, Mqta and Stanislaw Ossowski."The Science of. Science," Minerva, In (Autumn, 1964), 72-82.

165. Page, Howard E,"University Science Development dne HundredMillion Dollars Later," Educational Record,XLIXISSummer, 1968), 250-256.

166. Pauling, Linus. "Genetic and Somatic Effects'ofHigh-EndgyRadiation," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists,XXVI (September, 1970),3-5.

167; Perl, Martin L. "SALT and Its Illusion,"Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVII (December,"1971),

168. Peter, William G., III."Ethical Perspectives in the Use of,Genetic KnOwledge," BioScience,q1XXI (November15, 1971),1133-1137.

169. Peterle, J."Pyramiding Damage," Environment, X1 (July:Auguit, 196;34-40.

170. Peterson, Eugene K. "The Atmosphere: ACloudedHoriL;Environment, XII (April, 1970), 32-39.

171. Pitzer, Kenneth, S."Scier>e and Society: Some Policy Changes Are Needed," Science, CLXXII (April 16, 1971),223-226.

172. Possony, Stefan and Jerry Poumelle."The Technological War," Con- gressional Record, CXVI I (May 25, 1971),E5012-E5016.

173. Price, Derek J. de Sol la."The Scientific Foundations of Siiertie Policy," Nature, CCVI (April 17; 1965), 233-238.

174. Price, Don K."The Established Dissenters," Daedalus,XCIV (Winter, 1965), 84-116.

. "Purists and Politicians," Science, CLXXII (January 3, 1969), 25-31.

176. . "Science at a Policy Crossroads," TechnologyReview, LXXIII (April, 1971), 31-37.

A -4* 177. . "The Scientific Establishment,'! Science, CXXXVI(June 29, 1962), 1099-1106.

336 35? olicy Problems of Science andTechnoloay

178. Price, Don K. ,J. Stefan Dupree, and W. Eric Gustafson."CUrrent Ttends in Science Policy in the United States," Impact of Scienceon Society, X (Number 3, 1960), 187-211.

179. Psacharcpoulos, George."On Some Posit4ve Aspects of the Economics of the Brain Drain," Minerva, IX (April, 1971),231-241.

180. Pugwash Continuing Committee. "SALT and International Security," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVII(December, 1971Y, 17-19.

181. Rabinowitch, Eugene."Decision Making in the Scientific Age.," in The Scientific Revolution:Challenge and Promise, ed. by Gerald W. Elbers and Paul Duncan.Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, rifr 1959, 23-29.

182. Radford, Edward P., et at:"Statement`of Concern," Environment, XI iSeptember, 1969), 18-27. f

183. Rathjens, George W."The ABC of ABMs," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVII,(March,-1971)-,

184. Rettig, Richard A."Science, Technology, and Public Policy," World Politics, XXIII (January, 1971), 273-293.

185. Reuss,, Henry S."The .Garw1n SST Report: A $425 Million Misunder- staoding'; Congressional Record, CXVII (September 16, 1971), H8553-; H8558.

186. Risebrougb, Robert and Acsinia Brodine."More Letters in the Wind," Environment, XII (January-February, 1970), 16-26.

187. Rose, Michael."The Social Control of Computerized Data-Banking," j Technology and Society, VI (March, 1971), 104-107.

188. Russell, R. Scott."Contamination of the Biosphlerew*Orn Radioactivity," Biological Conservation, II (October, 1969), 2-9.

189. Salomon, Jean-Jacques. Science Policy for the 1970's," OECD Observer', LIII (August, 1971), 3-9.--

MI*

190. Samuelson, Robert J. "The SST and Government:Critics Shout into a Vacuum," Science, CLVII (September 8, 1967), 1146-1151.

3- a

The Politics of Science and Technology 353.

191. Sapol sky, Harvey M. "Science, Voters, and the Fluoridation Controversy Science, CLXII (October 25, 1968), 427-433.

192. Sawyer, Jack and Howard 'ScheChter. "Computers, Privacy, and the National Data Center: The Responsibility of Social Scientists; American Psychologist, XXIII (November, 1968), 810-818.

193. Sayre, Wallace S."Scientists and American Science Policy," Science, CXXX I U (March 24, 1961), 859-864.

194. Scarr-Salapatek, Sandra. Illace/Social Class, andIQ; Science, CLXX IV \ (December 24, 1971), 1285-1195.

195. Schilling, parner R."Scientists, Foreign Policy, and Politics," 'American Politictl Science Review, LVI hJune, 1962), 287-300.,

196. Science. "Secrecy and Drssemirlgtionin Science and Technology," CIWnce, CLXIII (February 21, 1969), 787-790.

197. Science Forum. "Who Should Make Science Pol icy?" arid "The Lamontagne Report: Science Policy in Canada isa Legacy of Failures; Science Forum, IV (February,. 1971), 2-4. 6 198. Scientific American. "Unreordered Priority; Scientific American, CCXXV (July, 1971), 42-43.

199. Seitz, Frederick."The Governmental Science Administrator," Pt ysics Today, XIV (August, 1961), 36-38.

200. Shaffer, Helen B."Jumbo Jets: New Travel "Era," Editorial Research Reports, Number 11 (September 10, 1969), 669-688.

201."Shannon, James A. "Science and Federal Programs: The Continuttv Dialogue," Science, CXLIV (May 22, 1964), 1976-978.

202. Shapley, Deborah. "Plutonium: Reactor Proliferation Threatensa Nuclear Black -Market," Science, CLXXII (April 9, 1971), 143-146., 43. Shea Kevin P. "unwanted Harvest;. Environment, XI (September, 1969), 12-16; 28-31.

204. Sherwin, Chatmers'W. "the Management of Science in the Public Interest7 Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XX (June, 1964); 9-:12. 4 330 r

Olt

354 \ Policy Problems of Science and Technology r 205. Shils, Ward A., ed. "American VisaiPcklity and Forlrign Scientists," Bulletie\ of the Atomic Scientists, VIII (October, 1952), special issue.

206. ., "Scientists, Administrators, and Politicians: The Report of the Ric:man committee," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, X (December, 1954), 371-374.

207. Shipman, George A. "When Is Research Research?" Public Administration Review, XXVIII (November-December, 1968), 556-558.

208. Sinsheimer, Robert L."Genetic Engineering: The Modification of Men," Impact, XX (Octoberecember, 1970), 279-291.

209. Skolnikoff, Eugene B."Scientific Advice in the State Deparliment," Science; CLIV)(November 25, 1966), 980-985.

210. Smith, Bernard. "Ideal-Urban Transit," Astronautics and Aeronautics, VI (September, 1968), 68-71.

211; .Smith, Bruce"The Non-Profit Research Corporations in the U.S.A.," New Scientist, XXX (June 30,-1966),858-860. , 4- 212. SnoVi, Charles P."Government, Science, and Public Policy," Science, CL1 (February 11, 1966), 650-653.

213. Staley, Eugene."ScientificD'.A,lopmentsand Foreign Policy;' Bulletin of the Atomic Scientist*, XVI-(January, 1960), 7-13.

214; Stone, Michael G. and MalcolmWarner."Politics, Privacy, and Com- puters," Political Quarter! XL (July-September, 1969), 256-267.

215.-Stratton, Julius A"Science and the Process of Managethent," Research Management, V rch, 1Q64), 79-90.

216. Swihart,. John M..'OurSSTandEconomics"stronautics and Aetonautic's, VIII (April, 1970), 30-51.

'217. Tampliq,Arthur R. and John W. Gofman."The Radiation Effects Cols- troversy;' Bulletin of.t.twAtomic Scientists, XXVI (September, 1970), 2; 5-8.

18. Thompson, Theos J. and Bibb."Response to Gofman and Tamplinr The AEC Position," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVI (September, 1970), 9-12; 48. The Po Wks of Science and Technology 355

219. Truman, David B. "The Social Sciences and Public Policy,"Science, CLX (May 3, 1968), 508-512.

220. van den Bosch, Robert. "Pesticides; Prescribing for the 'Ecosystem," Enviniment, XII (April, 1970), 20-25.

221..Van Doren, Charles N."U.N. Involvement in Disarmament: The Case of the Non-Proliferation Treaty," American Journal of International Law, L-X-IV (September, 1970), 191-1,94.i 222. Viorst, Milton. "The Political Good-RN-tune of Medical Research," Science, CXLIV (April 17, 1964), 267470.

223. Vohra, Hans R. "Ministry of ScienceU.S. Style," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVII (January, 1971)72932.

224. von Braun, Werner."Man and Space Exploration; Congressional Record, CXVII (February 24, 1971), El 1 11-E11,14. it 225. Wade, Nicholas:- Cancer NIH Backers Mount Late Defense in House," Science, CLXXIV (October 8,. 1971), 127-131.

226. . "Decision on 2, 4, 5- T: Leaked ReportsCompel Regulatory Responsi ility," Science, CLXXIII (August 13, 1971), 610-615.

227. Walker, Eric A."National Science Board: Its P late in National Policy," Science, CLVI (April 28, 1967), 474-477.

228. Walsh, John. "Antipoverty R & D: Chicago Debacle Suggests Pitfalls Facing OEO," Science, CLXV (September 19, 1969), 1243-1245.

229. Watkins, Harold D.-"SST Faces Congressional Hurdle," Aviation Week and Space Technology, XCI (September-29, 1969), 16-18.

230. Webb, James E. "Education in the Space Age," Educational Record, XLV (Winter, 1964), 33-40. f31. Weil, Andrew T., Norman E. Zinberg, and Judith M. Nelsen."Clinical Psychological Effects of Mirijuana in Man;' Science, CLXII (ftecember 13, 1968), 1234-1242.

232.. Weinberg, Alvin M. "Impact of Large-Scale Science on the United States," Science, CXXXIV (July 21, 1961), 161-164.

340 356 Policy Problems of'Science and Technology

233. Weinberg, Alvin M. "Nuclear Energy and the Environment," Bulletin of the Atomic ScieAsts, XXVI (June, 1970), 69-74.

234. "Scientific Choice and the Scientific Muckrakers: Review Article," ktinerva, VII (Autumn-Winter; 1968-69), 52-63.

235. Wendland, Wayne M. and Reid A. Bryson. "Atmospheric Dustiness, Man, and Climatic Change," Biological Conservation,II(January, 1970), 125-128.

236. Wheeler, Hqrvey."A Center Report: Man's Doingand Undoing," Center 'Magazine, II (November, 1969), 32-49.

237. Wiesner, Jerome B."Hope for GCD?" Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXIV (January, 1968), 10-15.

238. Wilson, Richard. olitics of Nuclear Power in the United States," Nature, CCXXX II (October 15, 1971),:- 453-454. .

239. Woodwel I, George M. "Radioactivity and Fallout: The Model Pollution," AIBS Bulletin (BioScience), XIX (October, 1969), 884-886.

240. Worsnop, Richard L. "Lfrban Transit Crush," Editorial Research Reports (July 8, 1970), 507=526.

241. Wurster, Charles F.; Jr. "Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticides and the World Ecosystem' Biological Conservation, I (January, 1969), 123 -129.

General References:Books

242. Aerospace Industries Association of America, Inc. Aerospace-and the U.S. Economy: Ifs Role, Contributions, and Critical Problems. Wash.ingtoh, D.C.: Aerospace Industries Association off' America, 1971, 68.

243. - . The Supersonic Transport, Fantasy and Fact. Washington, D.C.: Aerospace industriesAssociation of America, 1971,-9.;

244. American Foundation for Continuing Education at Syracuse University. Science and Public Policy, ed. by Louise B. Young and William J. Trainor. DAbs Ferry, New York: Oceana, 1971, 626.-

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The Politics of Science and Technology lt 357 - 45. Anderson, Walt, ed.Politics and Environment: A Reader to Ecological trYsis. Pacific Palisade:, California: Goodyear, 1970;3&2.

24.Armacost, Michael H.The Politics of Weapons Innovaticin.: The Thor- ."" , Jupiter Controversy. ew York :Columbia University Press-, 1949, 304'.

247. Augenstein,' B. W. Policy Analysis inthe National Space Program. Santa lv?onica, "California:RAND Corporation, 1969, 100. .

248 Bader, Will B.The-United States and the Spread of Nuclear Weap ons. New York: Pegasus, 1968, '176.

'249. Baird, J., et al. Some Major Impacts of the National Space Program-- Final Report of Pilot Study.Stanford, California: Stanford Research Institute, 1968,48. (N69 12564)

250. Barber, Bernard.Drugs and Society. New Yolig: Russell Sage Foundation, 1967, 212.

1,-251. Barber, Richard J. The Politics of Research. Wilshington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1966, 167. It 252. Bornaby, Charles F., ed. Preventing the Spread of NuclearWeapons. London: Souvenir Press, 1969 374.

253. Barnet, Richard J.The Economy of .Death.New York: Atheneum, . 1969, 201.

254. Bass, Lawrence W. and Bruce S. Old, eds. Formulation of Research Policies. Washington, D.C.: Americah Associatioo for the Advance- mer7i7or Science, 1967, 210.

255. Bauer, Raymond A. and Kennet_ h Gergen, eds. , The Study of Policy Formation. New York: Free Press, 1968, 392. 4

256. Baurhgliver, John S. The Lonely Warriors:Case- for the Military.7: lndalt ial Complex.. Los Angeles:Nash, 9701, 237.237 , . N 257. Beals, Ralph L..Politics of ,Social Research: An Inquiry into the Ethics o and Responsibilities of Social Scientists. Chicago: Aldine, 1969, '128.` . 44. 258. Beecher, Henry K. Research and the Individual: Human Studies. Boston: Little, Brown,-,070, 358. 342

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.. 358 Policy Problems of Science a Technology °(.< ;. 4,-

ot, BeeCher, Henry K efql .Ethical Aspectsof Experimentation with Human 9Sub.jeCts.4 Brookline, Massachusetts:Artiericah Academy of Arts and 'Sciences, 19.69., 390. 0 . 266. Blaefei I I,.E.Con corde..:," he Study., thefacts, and the Figures.Henley- onlThargs, England:, Foulis, 1969,, 108. . . )261. Blake, John.`B., ed.,Safegua e, Public: 'Historical' Aspects of Medicinal Drug.Control.Balti Maryland:. Johns Hopkinss, ' 1970, 200.

242. Botilding, Kenneth E., et al. National Priorities. °Military, Ecoitnic, cind Washingtor, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1969, 176.

BrimA Orville G., Jr., et al, The Dying Patient. Nevi York: Russell 'F;Oundati 1970, 390. this 264. Brodie, BgeroO:rd.' The American Scientific -Strategists'.' i Santo Monica, California: RAND Corporation, 1964, -53.

265.. Brown, Prederic_J, Chemical Warfare: A Study in Restraints.PFinceton, Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1968, 355.

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., 271. ClAce,,Robin.The. Sciencj of War and Peace. : Cape, 1971,

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0 272.'Connery) Robert H.,et al. ,,The Politics of MentalHealth: Orbanizing Community' Mental Health in Metropolitan Areas'. NewYork:Columbia . University Press, 1968, 595. .---;0' iis * . 4 _ , . . 273. son,; John and Judith Nottingham. A Survey of Chemical and Biological Warfare.London: Sheed and Ward, 1969, 376. . . 47tJ 2744, Cooley, Richard A..alleceoffreyWandesforde-Smith, eds.Congress and -the Environment. Seattle: LlnivtrsitiofWoshingtonPress, 1970, 277.

J I 4275. Cox, Donald W.' America's New Policy Makers:' TheScientists' Rise to

Power. .Philadelphia. Chilton,-1964, 298.- . . . . 276. Curtis, CharlesP:j'heOppenheimerCase: The Trial ofa Security System.

New York: -Sor,On and Schuster, 1955, 281.. -. '

277..Di:ivies, J. Clarence,111. The Politics of Pollution. NewYdork:Pegasus,, 1970, 231. 4!a 278. Davis, Nuel.P. Lawrence and Oppenheimer. New Yark:limon and /Schuster, 1968, 384.

279. de Bold, RiCharolC. and Ilssel I C. Leaf, eds. 'LSD,Man, andSoci Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan Univeqity Press,- 1967; 2 .

$O. Delgado, Jose. Physical Controltof the' Mind: TowardA Psychoolvilized L]iigy.: New York: Harper and Row, 1969, 280, nwit ,281. .Dentik, Lars, ed.International 'Symposium on Scientific Research and, Politics, Lund' University, 1968.LUnd, Sweden:: Student-littetatur, 1962, 263. ,

282. Dobzhansky, Theodosius.' ,Herardity and the Nature of Mop:New York: Harcourt, BraceOd World, 1964, 17.

283.. DOughert4 JamesE. Arms Control and Disarmament, The Cr ital Issuesit Washington, D.C.; 'Centerior Strategic Studies, Georgetown UnlL xersity,, 1966, 92.

. .., 284, Downing, Alvin B,) ed,. Euthanasia and the Right to Death. The Case few Voluntary Euthanasia.New" York: humanities Press, 1970, 206, \ 285. Dupree, J. Stefan and Sanford A. Lakoff. Science and the Nation: Policy. and Politics. Englewood Cliff;, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall; 1962,181. ,--)e-- . 344

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286. Ebling, Frond's. J., ed. Biology and Ethics.New York: Act:Mimic Press, :1969, 145.

287. Ehrlich, Paul R.The Population Bomb. New York: Ballantine,1968, 223.

288. Etzion. 1, Amitai.The Moon-Doggle: Domestic and International Impli- 4 cations of the Space Race. Garden City, Ne Doubleday, 1964, 198. .4, 289. Farrington, Benjamin. Science and Politics in the . Ancient World. London: ti , Allen and Unw" in', 1939, 243...

Feld, 'BernardT.,; Thomas Greenwood, George W. Rathjens,and Samuel 'Weinberg, ed's.- The Impact of New Technologieson the Arms Race. Cambridge, Mdssachusetts: M.I.T. Press, 1971, 379.

291. Feller,Ivan, ed.The Application of Science and Technologyto Public Programs..University Park: Center for the Study o(Science Institute for Research on Human Resources, Pennsylvania StateUni- versity, 1971, 521.

292. Fermi, Laura,Illustrious Immigrants: The Intellectual 'Migration from Eurppe, 1930-1941. Chicago: Univel-sitsof Chicago Press, 1968,440. . 293: Fleagle,. Robert GI ed.Weather Modification: Science and Public Policy. Seattle and London Un iversity of Washington Press, 1969, 14746. .11P 294.tlemirig, Donald and Bernard Bailyn, eds.The Intellectual Migration: Europe and America, .1930-1960. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University EV, 1969, 748.-

11. 295. Forney, Robert B.. and Francis Hughes. Combines -Effects of AI collo! and Other Drugs.Springfield, Illinois;. Thomas, -1968, 124.

Fuqua, P,a111 S., ed. Nimlo Seminar orfUrban Violence 1)d Environmental Problems, Washknecin, D.C., 190. Washington, .C.: National Institute of Municipal Law Officers, 1970, 194.

4 297. Robert.American Scientists and Nuclear Nopons Policy. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1962, 352.

3 '

Jy --*** The' Poi itics'of Sc ience and Technology 361 .,

> via , . 298.:'. Gilpin, Robert and Christopher Wright,eds.. Scientists and .National Policy- Making. /New York: Columbia' universityPresit '1964, 408.

299. Green, Harold P. and Alan Rosenthal.Government-of the Atom:"... The t grationof Powers. New York: Atherton Press, 1961,.281:'

300. Greenberg, Daniel S.The Politics of Pire Science. New York: NeW American Library, 1968, 303.

301. Haberer, Joseph.'` Politics and the Comrnunitiof Science.New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1969, 337.

Hardin, Garrett, ed..Population, Evolution, and Birthcontrol: -A Collage of Controversial Readings. Second Edition.San Francisco: Freeman, , 1439, 386. ., 7 i . 4 . . 303. Harvard-University Programon Technology and Society. Technology and the Polity.Research Review No. 4, Cambridge; 44as4achusetts: 'Harvard University Progra'rnoop Technology and Society,1969, 53.

304. Haskins, Caryl P. The Scientific Revolution cind WorldPolitics.Published_ for the Council on Foreign Relations, New York: Harper and Row,; A 1964, 115...... : 305. Hoist, Johan J. and William Schneider,Jr,, eds.Why Arm? Policy L Issues in the Missile pefense,Controversy. New.York:,Pergamon Press, 1969, 321. , Y- e . 0 306. Horowitz, Irving, ed. The Ililse and Fall of Project q6melot.Cambridge, . Massachusetts: M.1 .T. Press, 1967, 385.

I% , . .. 307. India.Council for Sientific and Industrial Research.Research Survey t and Planning Organization.Index to Literature on Science of Science. New Delhi:Council for Scientific and Industrial Research.Surveys published bi= monthly.

308. Jacobson, Harold K. and Eric Stein. Diplomats, Sc ientisrs, andPOIit ic ions: The United States and the Nuclear Test BanNegotiations. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1966, 548.

miler 309. Kash, Don E. The Politics of Space Cooperation.Lafayette, Indiana:, Purdue University $tudie, -1967, 137.

r "." Policy Problems of Science and Tichnology

310. Knorr, Klaus and Oscar Morgstern. Science and Defense: Some Critical Though'ts on Military Res rch and Development. ,Princet 'Mt Jersey:Wilson School PA-Tic and International Affairs,Prin University, 1965, 58. 01 # 311. Komons, Nick A.-Science ond the Air Force: A 'History of the.Air Force Office of Scientific Resecsrch,Arlingtdn, Virginia: Historical Division, Office of Information, Office of Aerospace Research, 1966, 175-f . -N.9 312. Kuttner, Robert E., e . Race and Modern Science: A Collection of Essays by Biologists, ArhropolOgists, Sociologists, and Psycholyijsts. New York: SociarScience Press, -1967, 427..

313. Lokoffi Sanford A., ed.'1/4'Knowlecfge and Powtr: Essays-on Scienceond Government.New York:FreePress; London: Collier-Macmillon, .. 1966, 802. -....

...... 4 . 314. Lambright, Walter H. -Pub' io.Administration and Science and Technology. Syracuse, New York:Syracuse University, 1969, 28.

315. Lapp, Ralph E .Arms Beyond Doubt: The Tyranny of Weapons Technology. New York: Cowles, 1970, 210.4

316. . The New Priesthood, NewYork: Harper and Row, 1965, 244.

317. . The Weapons Culture. New York: Norton, 1968, 230.

318. Lecht, Leonard A.Goals, Priorities, and Dollars: file-Next Decat. . New York: Flee Press, 1966, 365. 1

9 319. Lindait, Earl W.Scientists in Government. Washington, D.C.: Public .. Arairs Press, 1960, 85. go

320: Logsdon, JohnM.P The Decision to c-atte Moon: .Project Apollo and the Notionol Interest:CambridgviassaChusetts:M.I,T., Press, - , 1970f lit.

321. Lour ia, Donald B. Tbe Drug Scene'. New York: McGraw-Hi I1,-1968;,214.

322. Lyons, Gene M. The Uneosy Partnership: Social Science onathe Federal Governmentinthe twentieth Century.New York:Ruiseil. Sage Foundation,' 1969, 394. 347 IS

The Politics of Science and Technology 363 ,

323,..'McCamy, James L.Science and Public AdminisWation.Birmingham: University of Alabama Press 1960, 218,;...,

324..McClintock, Michael. Environmental Effects of Weapons Technology. New York: Scientists' Institute for Public Information, 1970, 32.,

- 325. major, .1-Ohn.. The Oppenheimer Hearing2 London: Botsford,1971, 336. _ ,4 326. Moaning, Thomas-G1. Government in Science:The U.S. Gec4agical 7urvey, .1867-1894.Lexington: University of Kentky Press, 1967,,

257. s -

327.,Mansfield, Edwin.The Economics of Technological Change. NewYork: 224. .

328: Mansfield, Aervin, ed.Defense, -Science, a Policy. New N.York:,Norton, 1968, 224.

( 44321% Meynaud Jean.Technocracy. New York: Free Pres.'s, 1969, 315. - re a 330. MichelMore, Peter.'The Swift Years: .The Roberi04.enheiTher Story. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1069, 27'4.

4131. Mona, Ernest G. The Agricultural Research Service. New York: Praeger, 1967, 244.

332. Moss., Norman. Men Who Play God: The Stors.of tKe H.-Bomb" and How the World Came to Live With It. New York: Harper and Row.;1968, 352.

333. National Academy of Sciences. The Boiavioral Sciences and the Federal Government.Washington, D.C.:National Icademy of Sciences, 1968, 107.. (Publication 1680)

Committee on Research in the Life Sciences, Committee on Science and Public Policy.The Life Sciences.Washington; D.C. National Academy of Scien4s, 1970, 525.

335. . National Academyof Engineering.The Impact Of Science -737TeTtohnologyon Regional.Economic Developtnent.Washington, National' AcadimyOf -Eng Inelsring,1969,17.-6 (Publi- catiorki,1731)

I 364. Policy Problems of Science and Technology ,

336. National Academy of Sciences- National Research, Council. Space Science Board. LUnar Exp I orat ion: Strategy for Research1969-1975. Washingtoni-D.C.: National Academy ofSciences, 1969, 40. . 337. a . Space Science Board.Prioritielfor Space ReseoXh,1971- % 1980. Washington, D.C.: National Academyof Sciences,

338. . Space' Science Board.United State ace-Science Pro- gram. "Report tto COSPAR, fourteenth Meeting, ttle, Washington, June, 1971. -Wohington, D.C.: National Academyof Sciences, 1971, 230. ein

339. Naiii ona I Aeronautics and Space Adm in istration.America'sNext Decades in Space: A Report for the Space TaskGroup.Washington, D.C.: NASA,1969, 84.

340.. Office of Technology Utilization.A Study of NASA UniversItiProgtrr7s. Prepared by the TaskForce to Assess NASA Uni- versity.P7ograms, Washington, D.C.: NASA,1968, 79. (MASA SP-185)

-- 341. National ,Goals Research Staff. Toward Balonsed Grtwth:". Quantify . with Qua I ity. Washington, 'D.0 :U.S. Government Pr intingOffice, .1970, 223.`,

. 342. National Science Foundation. Weather Modification.Tenth Annual; Report, 1968. Washington, D.C.: U.S.'povernmentPrintingOffice, 1969, 141. (NSF 69,18) ,

343. . . National SCience Board. The Physical Sciences. Wash- ington, 'D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970, 62.

344. .National kience Board. Kncroi,ledgeinto Action;Im- proving the Nation'sUse of the Social Sciences. Report of the Special Commission on the Social Sciences. Washington& U.S. G - ment Printing Office, 1969, 95. (NSF 69-3)

345. Nelson, William R., ed.The Politics of Science: Readings in Science, Technology, and Government. New York: Oxford-UniversityPress, 1968, 495. . 346. Niblett, Clarence B.Digital Information and thePrivacy problem,. Paris: Organizationf.orEconomic Cooperation and Development,i971, 58.

3'lJ

" A ,.

The Politicsof.ence and Technology I, 365- 'r t.

.. . 347.Nieburgr_Harolcuclear Secrecy-andrEoreigniP-olic)i.Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1964, 255. t 348. Organization for 'Economic Cooperation and Development. Information for a Changing Society: Some Policy Considerations. Paris: OECD, 1971, 48.

349. . Reviews of National Science Policy: United ,States.Paris: OECD, 1968, 622.

150. Science, Growth, and Society: A New Perspective. Report- on the Secretary- General's Ad Hoc Group on New cincepts of Science Policy. Washington, D.C.: OECD, 1971, 113.

351. .Technological Forecasting in Perspective (A Framework for Technological Forecastin Its Techniques and Organization: A De- scription of Activities an Annotated Bibliography). By Erich Jantsche Paris: OECD, 1966, 493.

352 Orland, Harold.Contracting-for Atoms: A Study of Publicissues Posed by the Atomic Enerrayltommission's Contracting for Research, Develop- ment, -and Monagerdl Services. Washington, .Brookings ..ta*,Institution, 1967, 242.

353. Orlonci,;,Harolde ed. Scierrce Policy and the 4,141Persity.Washington,' D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1968, 352.

Osborn, Frederick.The Future of Human Heredity: An Introduction to Eugenics in Modem Society. New York:Weybright and Tolley, 1968, 133. . .355.Pappworth,* Murice H.Human Guinea Pigs: Experimentation.on Mari. Boston:, Beacon Press, 1967, 228. .e 356. Penicklames L., Jr?, Carroll W. Pursell, Jr., Morgan B. She wood, and Donald C. Swain, eds. The Politics of American Science: .1939 to The Present.Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965, 287. , .

357. Pollard,' William G.Atomic En.rgy and Southern Science. Oak Ridge, eTennessee: Oak Ridge Associated Universities, 1966, 140.

358.- Price, Don K.Government and Science: Their Dynamic American Democracy. New Yovrk: New York University Press, 1954,203.

3,, 411

Policy Problems of Science andriChnology\

359. Price, D T he So ientif CArrbri4e, Massac usetts: -Harvard University Press,1965, 323.

360. Proxmire, William.Report, from Wasteland: America's MilitaryIndustrial Complex* New York: Praeger, '1970, . OP 361. Reagan, Michael D. Science and the Feral Q6tron.NewYork: Oxford University Press, 1997"gc.----

362. Roos,Leslie L., Jr. The Politics of Ecosuicide.New York:Holt"-,- -Rinehart, and Winston, 1971, 404.

363. Rose, Steven, ed. C. B.W. : Chemical and Biological Warfare. London: Harrop, -1968, 209. . 4 364. Rosenberg, Jerry M. The Death of Privacy.iplew York: RandomHouse, 1969, 236.

365. Rosenfeld, Albert.The Second Gentr.The Coming Control of Life. Englewood tliffs, New Jersey: Prentice -Hall, 1969, 3270.

366. Ru;sett, Bruce M. What' Price Vigilance?The Burdens of National Defense. New 'Haven, Connecticut and.London:Yale Univeriity TiTriTT970', 261.

367. Schiff; A shley L.Fire arid Water:filt.i fic Heresy in the Forest Service. Cambridge, Maisachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1962, 2214

368. Schooler, Dean. Scienie, Scientists, and Public Policy.New York: Free Press, 1971, 3381

369. Scoville, Herbert anciRobert Osborn. Missing Madness. Boston :Houghton lAifflin, 1970, 77.

370. Skorndkoff, EugeneB. Science, Technology, and American Foreign Poly. Cambridge, Massachusetts: M.I.T. Press, 1967, 330.

371. Smith, Alice K.A Peril and a Hope:The ScieVists' Movement in America, 1945-1947.Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1965, 591..

372. Smith, David E,ed. Th New Social Drug: Cultural, Medical and Legal Perspectiveson-MarijWa. ErigIewooddliffs, New Jersey:Prentice Hall, 1970, 186. . 351. 401

The Politics of Science and Technology 367

373. Smithv,Frarik E, The- -Duties of Conservation. New York:. Pantheon Books, 1966, 350.

374. Stern, Philip M. The 'Oppenheimer Case: Security on Ilia,. NewYork:' Harper and Row, 1969

I 375.'Suljak, Nedjelko D.Publicl'olicymaking andlinvironmental QUality: An Annotated Interdisciplinary Bibliography. Uav is: Institute pf Gov- ernmental Affairs, Univeriity of California, 1971, 176.

376. Swihart, James M. The Promise of the Supersonics. New York: Technical

Information Service, 1970, 7. )

377. Taviss, Irene and Judith.Koivumaki, eds. Implications. of Biomedical Technology. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Program on Technology ar;a. -S-Harvardociety, University, 1968, 53.

378. Taylor, Gordon R. The BiologicalTime-Bomb..London: Thdmes and C Hudson; Cleveland, Ohio: Worlq, 1968, 240.

a 379. United Nat Edvcatianol, Scient fic,and Cu Ruh] I Organ izat Manual for SurVeyirig National Scientific and Technblog ica I Potential. Science Policy Studies and Documents, No. 15. Paris: UNESCO; 19 251.'

'380. U.S. Arms central and Disarmament-Agency. World Military Expenditure's, 1970 [and relatbd data lar .120 count*s] .Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govirnment Printing Office, 1971,F.

381. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.Pe&sonnel Security Board. In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenhelmer, Trdnscript of Hearing. Washington, D.C., April 12-May 6,11954.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1954, 9921

382. U.S. Commission on Population Growth4and the American Future.Popu- lation Growth and Amer ;cat &Future: ter im Report to the President and Con ress.Washington, D.C.: .S. Government Printing Office, 1971,9.

383. U.S. Congress. House. Committee an Appropriations. Subcommittee on the Department of Transportation and Related Agencies Appropriation *. Department of Transportation and Related Agencies Appropriations for .1970; Part 3: Civil Su ersonic Aircrigt bevel ent.Hearings Wore t e. committee tot e1st Congress, 1stessian, October 9, 1970. Washington, D.C.: W.S. GovernMent Printing bffi" 1969,354. 35r Policy Problems a Science and Technology

384. U.S. Congress. House. Committeeon Foreign Affairs.i-Subcomrnittee-on . National Security Policy and ScientificDevelopments. Checal- Biological Warfare: U.S. Policies and InternationalEffects, ea before the Subcommittee to the 91st Congress,1st Session, 18-December 19, 1969. Washington, D.C.:U. S. Government Print- ing Office, 1970, 513.

385. .Committee on foreign Affairs.Subcommittee on National Security Policy and Scientific Developments.Chemical-Biological Warfare: U.S. Policies and InternatiolEffects. Report of the Sub-' committee to the 911t Congress, 2nd Session,May 16, 1970.Wash ington, D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, 1970, 41.

386. .Committee on.Foreign Affairs, Subcommitteeon National Security Policy and Scientific Developments.Strategy and Science: Toward a National Security Policy for the 1970's.Hearings before the Subcommittee to the 91st Congress, 1st Session, March11-26, 1969. Wash ingtorY, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969,283. 387. .Committee on 6ovemment Operations.Subcommittee on Executive and Leg islat iv'b Reorganizationon S. 2701 and Related House Bills.Establ fishing a Com{nission 'on.Population Growth,and Related Matters.Hearings before the Subcommittee to the 91stCongress, 1st' TIc7:1, November 19-20, 1969.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1970, }02.

388. .Committee on Government Operations.Subcommittee ,on Invasion of Priacy.Privacy and the National Data Bank Concept. HoUse Report 1842 of theSubcommittee to the 50th Congress, 2nd Session, August 2,1968. Washington, D.C.:U.S. GoverngMent Print- ing Office, 1i68, 34. )

389. ,.Committee on Government Operations. 54,bcommittee on Intergovernmental Relation's.Deficiencies in Administrat ion of Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, an'd Rodenticide Act.Hearings before the Sub- committee to theTistCongress, 1st ession,May 7 and June 24, 1969. Washington, D.C.:U.S., Government Printing Office, 1969,, 310..

390. Committee on Government Operations.Subcommittee on Research and Technical Pebgrarns. Contras betweenFederal Research Programs and the Nation's Goals for Higher Education.Hearings before the Subcommittee td the 80th Congress,1st Session, June 14, 15, and 17, 1965.WashingtOn,p.c.: u.S. vernrrrent Printing Office, 1965, 202. The Politics of Science 1Ibd Technology 369

391. U.S. Congress. House:Committee On Science and Astronautics: Sub- committee on Advanced Researcti and Technology. Issues and Directions for Aeronautical Research andDevelopment. House Report 91-432 of the Stibcommittee tothe 91stCongress, 2nd Session, March 23, 1970. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government-PrintingOffice, 197Q, 102.

392. .Committee on Sclenee and Astronautics.Subcomrpittee on NASA Oversight.For the Benefit of All Mankind:A Survey of iihe _. Practical Returns from Space Investment.House Report 91-1673 of the Subcommittee to the 91st Congress, 2ndSession, December 7, 1979. Washington, D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, 197Q, 61. 393. . Committee on Scierice and Astronautics.Subcommittee on NASA Oversight 'Manned Space ,Flight:Present and Future., Staff Study prepared for the SubcommitteNbyJames E. Wilson and Harold, A. Gould, 91st Congress, 2nd Session, February12, 1970.Washington, DX.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970,,39t.'

394. . Committee on Science and Astronautics. .,Subcommitteeon NASA Oversight. The National Space Program:Pre,sent and Future. Compilation of papers prepared by the Subcommitteeand presented to the 91st Congress, 2nd Session,December 10,1971.Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office,1972, 246, .

395. . Committee on Science and Astronautics. ;ubcommitteeon Sciewe, Research aAd Development.Applied Science and T,echno- logiMI Progress. Prepared for the Subcommittee by' the National Academy of Scences, 90th Congress, 1stSessiv, May 25, 1967: Washington, 11.C.:U.S. Government Printing Offite,1967, 434. 3962 Conimittee on Science and Astronautics: lubcoMmitteeon Science, Research and Development. The Nei ionaIScience Foundation: Its Present and Future.House Report 1236 of the Su6c,omp-4tee to the, 89th Congress, 2nd Ses'sion, Febriiary 1966.Wash ipgfotv; D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1966, 118.

397. U.S. Congress., Joint Economic Committee.Subcommittee on Economy in Government. Economic Analysis and the Efficiencyof Government. Part. 4:Supersonic Transport Qevelopment. Hearings before the It Subcommittee, to the 91stongress, 2nd Session, May 7-12, 1970. Washington( D.C.: U.S. `6Q,yernment PrintingOfficer 1970, 889- 1030. 4 111

370 Policy Problems-of Science and.Technology

398.. U.S. Congress.Joint Economic Committee.Subcommittee on Economy'. in Government. The Economy, Energy, andtheEnvironment. Back-, ground Study prepared for.the Subcommittee by theEnvironmental Policy Division, Legislative Reference Service, Librar7dCongrefs, ,91st Congress, 2nd Session, September 1, 1970.Washington, D.C. :1 \LL..5..-crvernm Printing Office, 1970, 01.

399. U.S. Congresi. Senate. Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons. Senate Executive Report-91-1, Together with Supplemental Views, to Accompany Executive Document Hto the 90th Congress, 2nd Session, March 6, 1969.Washington, 13.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969, 21.

400. . Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences.Future NASA Space Programs.Hearings before the Committee ti:Yth7717.

Congress, 1st Session, August 5, 1969.Waihington, D. C-7, S Government Printing Office,, 1969, 70.

401. . Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences. Space. Program Benefits.Hearings before the Committee tothe 91st Congress, 2nd Session, April 6, 1970:Washington; D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970, 379.

402. .Committee on Commerce. Subcommittee on Aviation. United States Commercial Supersonic Aircraft DevelopmentProgram, 1-tearillgs before theSubcommittee to the 88th Congress, 1st Session,, October 16, 17, 21, 22, 23, 25, and 29, 1963. Wash'ington,'D.C..:. U.S. Government Print4hg Office,1963, 524.

403. .Committee on Foreign Relations.Subcommittee on Arms "dontrol, International Law, andOrgan izat ion. ABM, MI RV, -SALT, - and the Nuclear Arms Race. Hearings before theSubcominittee to thi. "91st-Congress, 2nd, Session; March 16-June 29, 1970.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970, 624.

404. .Committee on the Judiciary.Subcommittee on Ccinstitu- -,Ticiina Rights. Privacy, the Census; and Federal Questionnaires. Hearings before the Subcommittee to the 91Congress, 1st Session, April 24-July 1., 1969. Washington, D.C.:° .Government Printing Office, MO, 1085: f a A The-Politicsof Science and Technology. 371.

7:1 405. U.S.-Congress.. Senote. Committeeon tabor MVP I ic We I fa re. Sub:- committee on the National ScItnce Foundallkn. heroicalan dllio- logical WeaEons,Softie Possible Approaches for Lesseningthe Threat and Danger'. 'Irepared ttr the Special'Subcommittee by the Science Po icy Research Division, LegislativeReference Service, Library of .Congress, 91st Congress, 1st Session, May, 198901'Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969,64. ' 406. Committee on Public Workss Some Environmental Im- p ;cations of National Fuels Policies.Staff Report of the Committee to the 91st Congress, 2nd Session,December, 1970, Washington, \_) D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1970, 68. 407. U.S. Council on EnvironmentalQuality.Ocean Dumping: A National Policy Report to the President.Washington; D.C.: U. S23...GOvemment Printing Office, 1970, 45.

408. U.S. Department of Transportation. Recommendations for. Northeast

Washington D.C.::U .-CorridorTransportation.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, 1971, 3 volumes.

a 409. U.S. Office of Scientific Researchand Development. Science, the ' Endless Frontier: A Report to the presidentop a Program for Postwar / Scientific Research.By Vannevar Bush, July, 1945.Washington, D,C.: Nattwal ScienceFoundation, 1960, 2204

4.10. U .S."President's Science Advisoiy Committee.Join't Space Panels;The Space Program in the Post-Apollo Period.)Wasloington, D.C.: U-37. Government Printing Offrce, 1967, 99.

411. U.S. President's Scientific ResearchBoard. Science and Public Policy, Volume I: A Program forthe Nation. 'A Report to the President by John R. Steelman. Washington, D.C.: .4.4. Goiernment-Printing Office, 1947, 73.

412. Van Dyke, Vernon,Pride and Power: The Rot ionale of the *aceAge. Urbana: University of IllinoisPress, 1964, 85.

i 413. Warner, Malcom and Michael Stone.The Data Bank Society: OrgTi- zations, Computers, and SocialFreedom.Condon: Allen and Unwm, 1970, 224.

35G r,

. . .00 # 411 372 . . Policy Problems of Science and Tdchnology1 I 1 6 .,N. , " . * 4 414:11116einberg,Al;inM. Reflections on Big Science. Cambildge,MassachUsett* M.I.T. Preis, )967, 182. is . 4 1 . 1. e* . 415. Wengert, Norman'. Natural Resources and thePolitical Struggle. Garden ; City, New'Yorki Doollleday, 1955,471.

416. 4 Westin;Alan F.;ed. Inform:if chnology Ina Democracy,. Cambridge;y Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,1971, 409. O.. 417. Weyl, F. Joachim. Researchin the Service. of NationalPurpose. Washington; .D.C.: U.S.' Government Printing Office, T966,133. a.

418.. Wiesner, Jerome $., WheireScience and Politics ,Meet.NewYtorlc, Toronto, and Londan: *oGraw-Hill; 1965, 302. mei o . .. .., 11 ;119: Willrich, Mason, ed.Civil Nuclear Power and International Security;II ... New,York: Praeger,, 1971, IN...... , ,.. ` ve* 420. Yarmolinsky, Adam. The Military EstablishmentNtsImp,act on Amer iean Society. New York: Hcirper,1971;434. -.. . / . . 0

S r A

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40 . V.

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s. 4.6 14" .- er- - % ' t I The Politics of Science 9pd T,eclrology 373 I ,' ... .\ *ib ~ LEADING QUESTIONS "N41-11k. ,., What circumstances have dralvn scientists into politics? have thepre - vailing v-alu, s.ct'-ar;r:rattitudesamong scientists and their socia status affected their political activities? . , AP

, -2. What criticisms have beendirected toward high-level science poliCy advice , in goverglent? What has been the source of these criticisms and the reasons' 11, ` .. . advanced to refute them,FtNhat alternatives havehave been suggested?.

. . . , ti 3. What events or reason§ have been the leadinifactbrsin Federal support for scientific and technological activities? Does Congress tend "to dcktheoright , things for the wrong reasons?" . or; * , , . How %/timid. you evaluate-the fears of science elitismas expressedby Lapp, Price, and otheis? What threat do they perceive to political responsibility V. and democratic institutions? What remedies r are suggested? .....,..,, s SO . ' .....s..., 5.What has been the personal, iAuence of scientists in shaping' U.S. science 0 .policy? kips the influence ofmen like Powell, Agassiz, Pinchot, and Bush. led to devejopments in government science different from what _objective ...... 0:-analysis of national needs and interats would have 'indicated? ...... 6.- ;What have been. theolift,cipatolpro6lemsofthe scientist-employee in govern ment?' What issues have arisen over political loyalty, national security,

accountability to management, personnel and budgetingprocedures, and . freedom of inquiry? ,... , .

What were the principal,issyes debated in the prOcess. of estplishing thedip

National Science Foundation? To what extent do these issues remainunre.- . 4 solved? What arguments have been advanced for andagainsta separate , Alf Social Science Foundation? . . ,. . 8i. Does the putlic- interest 'imply a needficr the surveillance and.contral of investigation, experimentptionrand allegationirnade in thename of science? If so, how should this'supervIsian be provided?By law?By the scientific community? Through the administrative process? ; ...,A 9.Does the future viability of democratic government requirean increo public understanding of science?Is an outlook of techmoscientific erminism compatible with a Coram4tment to self-government?'

at When moral or pol it icaljudgments dnd scientific evidence are contradictory, which should govern ppblic Policy? 35S' '5

0 TOPIC 12 MANAGEMENT OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Public investment in scientific research andtechnological devel 4 ment has become wdatory in any modern nation with pretensions to pow r.The large amounts of inaney required in either absolute or relative terms, an e practicab necessity for establishing priorities in the allocation of public funds among the several fields of science and teclInology, hove made the administration of R & D

d major policy area in tonoscientifically advanced countries. ,

Specific, issues regarding R & D include the following:(1) How'much or what percentage of national income should be bllocated for R & DanTby what criteria? (2) What should be the distribution of available R & D funds"aenong the fields of science and technology and amahg claimant institutions?(3) Who should deter - mine priorities of R & D? (4) How can creativity in RA D be increased?

In the United States, at least, no clearor 'decisive answer to any of these o questions has been forthcoming.Resoluiion of each of these issues has beereby traditional political means. No scientificbtisis far Choice in the Aping of poi icj, for R & D hai, yet been generally accepted.Several committees of the Congress, scieritific bodies, ,and a number of,civicaod educationalorganizations,have a studied the assessmentssessmlnt of the effects of sc iente and toechncilogyon society and have proposed new methods for fhe review and evaluation,of scientific and technological innovation. (See Topic 13), 6, . . . The AniinistratiOn of R & D gives rise to sets of pratremson two different levels. `On the macro or nattbnal level, the allocation of fundsamong the fields of inquiry avid among institutions age major policy questions.Closely associated is the geographical distribution of R & Dmoney and its eff,pfs upon academic strength and economic, growth in the principal 'regions of the.country. On the microor local-institutional level, a kirge number of specific issueacen be identified: .. , 0- 4 40 Among these issues are msti:tods for determining research priorities, promoting creativity, overcoming instautionarand personal obsolesced, and avoiding un- .cleiired coniequerices of tecbnalocjica1 innovation (e.g., foaming detergents). ; In governmental and industrial.laboratoiievretafior4betiween the scientific and technical staff aid nonscientist administrative supervisors have freqbently been dit- f itb It; the objectives of researchcand of mission-oriented developmentore often very different, and if not understood by.the laboratory persOnnel, they may leadto con- ffIctitig viewptints regarding the nature _of the work to be done:

. Perhaps the major policy problem in Ohe adthinistrcition of R &D is the bringing. together Of the resources of government, industry, universities, and research institutions into coherent purposefulorid yet accoAtable telatiinships. This.combinotion of forces can form a powerhouse for the advOncement of scien0e and tecknolky and for their wise use. Theopace efforl.providesa generalmoa I fb the cOordinatiOn -of these forces on specific tasks.But these combinationsi; *serious queslions for a, the theory and practice 'cif responsible democratic gototnnient. 359 1

376 PoliCy Prottre 4roiScience and Technottgy

4°OPIC 12 MANAGEMENT OFRESEARCH AND DEVELMENT

7 Selected Basic Readings? et Brooks, Harvey."Models.for Science Planning?' Public AdministrationReview,.

XXXI (May-June, 1971), 363-374., - . I 4 ,. . , t Ho Romon, J. Herber and Al9n E.Harger."America's TechnologiCal ailemr04:4" : Technology Review, LXXIII (Julr-August, 1971),' 31f40. ,-: * Kash, Don E. "Forces Affect ;rig SCience.Pol icy;' Bulletin of the ktom ic`Scientists, XXV (Apr-1.1, 1969), 10-15. A

Mansfield, Edwin. "Coritribution of D to Economic Growth in the United States; Science, CLXXV (February 4, 2), 477-486.

Weinberg, Alyin.M. "Criteria for Scientific ChOice," Minerva, I (Winter, 1963), 1591171; "Scientific Choice, Basic Sc ience "and "ed Missions, " Minerva, I1 I (Summerf1965);

Supplementary and SubstitutgpReadings:

Dedijeri Stevan."Models of Science for Science Policy; Advancement of Science, XXIV (June; 1968), 498-508. . , . . , I Foster, John S., Jr."Vie' Leading Edge of National Security," .International ' * . Science ond 'Technology, NUmber 82 Vctober, 1948), 13-21.. . ; , , ,. 6+. Gilpin, Robert."Technological Strategies dnd National" Purpose," Science, .s- CLXIX (July- 31, 1970), 441-448. 1 . ,, 'is r Hasiett, Arthur W. _Ain le Sc ienCe versusBig Sele,nce," Advancement of Science, .XXVI (September, 1969), 99-105.

Nichols, Rodney W. "Mission-riented R.& D, " Science,411.X I (Aprii 2," 19714, 29 -37.

Salomon, Jeari-, JaCques,."Science Policy irrlerspe e " Studium Generale, 'XXIV (Nurfilber 1921), 1027-1037. .

4. .3o A

rs' TOPIC 12 'MANAGEMENT OF RESEARCH AND. DEVELOPMENT 377

'TOPICAL OUTLINE Ai RBFERENCEKEI -

, I. Research and DeyetOpment as Essential Functions of Technosc-ientRio Societies 16, 51,, 82, 103,., 130,130,151,156, '165, 1751 214

A.National goals requiring R & D suepprt, 57, 153,157;169,

. 195;4209 411 1. MilikarY security 42; 49

. ;2: Economic development 48, 66, 84, 118, k 125,143,153,)87,r 2Q 3. National preitige 65, 76 . 4. So i welfare 63 , ogictXviability (Cf. Topic 11)

A. B. Intended outcomes of R & D effort 87L,),57 1. Increbr jn national productivity 143;146 2. Dev'bi*Inentgof-nnew prOducts v 6, 20;25, 48,, 79, . 12i; 186 It . 3. improved cOnditior4 125 '4. Impebved public health, 125 5. Growth of knoWledge and technique 2;90 t 4 C; Percentage'4Ofgiagi'nationaFexpenditure 10 .

allocated to various classes of R D 0 3462, 96, 1#7, 4 ,'1544, .155, 163, 0 . . t . be. II, Determination of.,R Goals andAllocatian' V of Resolirces to, Specific Project{ 36 ,1'11, 115, .6 72137,141,145L 159,163, 171,173;

0, 174; 188, 199

A.Major decisions are made explicitly or , tacitly through government 21; 50, 75', 110, 170,,197, 213, det 4f* 361. 4 .

.378 b Policy Problems of Science and Technology

ov ern men t is the only source of financial means to support basic research and", the ,more costly developmental work, e.g., atomic energy, outer *pace tech-, nqlogy, advanced medical research 31, 53,71,94 99, 1.64 184,185,192 204, 216 2.' Military considerations inmixed (non- .- sogol ist) econom ies necessitategovern- ment fundingtoP maintain industrial sources of military hardWare, e.g., air.- 4 craft, qrdinance, missiles, chemicals, commun icat ion'S 9,11 76, 92, 100, 166, 204 3. Governmentallesponsibil qty for full employment tends to force fob-mak ing R & D (but high minimum wage rates and governmental beneficience toward unions entourage automation} 4,,6, 176; 1.77, $ 178, 181 4. As an increaskg percentage °eresearch in universities Is funded through govern-, 44 ment, public policy (pol itical) conside-P rations,in the broad sense,tend to $ deterMine the general trend of academic efforts 69,70,71, 73, 78, 128, 156, 191

B.'Bases of R & Q choices in the United Stares are mUltipartite: 147, 103f 205, 206 1. Populareconceptions and beliefs °. 2, 47, 71. 2. tcono tower , 7.479, 125, 151, 207 . 3. Politico- ntage 7, 28, 30, 47, 76, 194, 207 .4. Judgkient of science elites P8,133,135, 138 5. Interaction of fpregoing factors 19 88

C. dministratian Of R.8 D funds in the United States is 4/'34,,155,1,64,165, : 182,-193 '

1.Dividedamong a forge number of Federal ageniies, but is

-. it 36Z ' .124,g,

Management of Research and Development '379

2. Heavily concentrated a. Defense 42, 49, 64, 77, 180, 196, 207 b. Atomic energy 8, 132, 140 c. Space- 24,3Z64, 72, 76, 4E112, 119, 180 cr.Economic development .-7, 28, 79, 125 e. Medicine 174075, 208, 210 3 Distributed through various typesof grants and 'contracts 149, 174, 204

enerating of R.& D money becomes a new fir of enterprise 5, 66, 183 1. Role 'of governmen industry associations - in formu kiting R & D andAvocurement palicier-61d the chair:I-reaction effect upon substantive po'licy 6, 127 4 2. R& Dnot-for-profit organizotions,e.g., Battelle,Biookings Institution,RAtsID S Corporat for 14, 200

r3. . G antsrnariship becomes a form of aca- &pie enterprise with fide - effects upon 78, 160 b.Mobiliiy of scientists

b. Administrative. control-by universities over teaching, research,and faculq policies 104 4.-Geograp'hica I allocation of R & D money , I. became isignificant political issue and -science policy on increatingly.dttrcic- , Jive forum for political influence in the Congless 1, 2, 126

eF . - F .111. Policy groblems Relating to R &,D Priorities 19,27135, 64, 66," 4 a 81,86, 90005; r. 111,114,116,144, 158,192,199,211, 215

A. How much of Ole_gross nat iona 1 exp' should be allocated to R & D?. 29,33,89,108, I . 178 1.What creeria foc deciding ?how much"? 36,79

( .:363. 1 A

V 380 Policy Problems of Science and Teciology

2. What criteria for establishing the "best" means for making a decision? 24,79,132,134, 159 a. Economic 41, 43 (1)Return on theallocationof resources 61, 163, 185 (2)Comparison of this return with that from alternative uses of the resources 62, 87 b. Social values -- returns the program may offer in improved quality ofI if .(essentially nonquantitativepar ,-- 'meters) 22,59, 133, 138, .179 .c. Scientific 3,54,t0,113, 126, 132 (1)Expansion of frontiers of know- .. ledge in the field 2, 46 (2)"Timeliness" of the project 113 (3)Re)edness to other fields1pf sc nce d. PolitiCa 4- (1) Ca he taxpayers be persbaded a to port the program? 144 (2)Political implications af the pro- % . posa 38, 10k . e Technological 13,17,17 \(1)Efficiencyof*plementatian of the desired end 46 (2)Improvement of th-e state of the art 2,46,101,113 a 4t. 'Within the range of .possibilities, what guidelines,if any, exist to indicant prix. erithis? '36,45,88,98,102, is 132,159,164, 167, On whet assumptions dopresentaltoca-

tions'appear to be made? 13e, 162, 185 . . 2. What criticisms of allocationsrye most frequently made? ,32, 55, 183 a. Subject matter' of R 8. D '56, 113, 138 b. Methods of allocation 194

ft\

0 .1

--Management of Research and Development 381-

(1)Reactive rather thbn initiative (2)Project and peer group methods' (3)Have--hove not--competition c. Geographical allocation of funding 113, 160 d. Distribution of resulting,benefits 160

C. What means of public ordering of priorities have been tried qr advocated tbserve the. publ is interest more effective(Cf. Topics 6, 11, 23)? . 74,88, 102, 105, . 108,162, 169,199 1. Recommendations Jpri a Nigh-level review body in thrtederal overnment a. Department of S ce b. Bbards of Reiew (Executive, Legi- slative, and mixed) 2. Upgrading and broadening the capabi I i- ties of put:4 ic offic ials for wise judgment on questions of public policy for science and technology 58, 67 3. Strengthening the staff resources of the Congress with respect to policy, issues "relating to' science and techndlogy 194, 209

365 Management of Research and Development 383

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k , 150. Donielson,.CeesE.- Characteristics of Engineers and' Scientists:Signifi- cance for.thoir Motivation and Utilization.' Ann Arbor:. Burepu of . ,. , Industrial Relations, Univeriity .of Michigan, 1960, 136.; w d A 151., Denison, E he Sources_o Economic Qrowth in the United States and the Alternativese oreUs. New Yor Co teeforerkonornic Dekelopmerrt, 1962; 297. a

' 'ge Retcit, Anthony V..,Maurice cridstniP"; and Jtilie Knight,, eds.. Decision-Maki hg in National Science Policy.Bosttn: Little, Btsiwn,, 1968, 310.

. 153. Fawcett, Sapuel L.AdaptPng Technology to Eniourage Economic Develop- r . - menu Paper presented at thq Tenth Meeting'of the Board ofovernors, . )W-American Development Bank, Guatemala, April9, 9649, 15.

154, PiSher,Willicrn H. Probable Levels of R &b Exttenditures in 1972: Fare- , cast and Analysis.I' Cdfumbus,Obio: Battel le Me ioi Institute TP1,94

3 (7 a

.Management of Research and DeVelopment 395 4 . 155. Fisher, William H. and Leonard L. Lederman.Probable Levels of R &

Expenturesin 1970 - Forecast/ and Analysii.Columbus, Ohio: . Batten Memorial Institute, 1969, 8.-

156. Freeman, Charles and'lien Yo.ung.The Reseaechnil Development Effort in Western. Europe -Korth America, and the Soviet Union.Paris: Organ izationdor E angmic Cobp ration,and Development, 1965, 152. .

. 157. Hel ner, Olaf and Ted' Gordon.Social Technology. New York:' Bask. 'I 4809144., 1966, 108..-

158. Hogg, 'Quint;M. (Lord Hailsham). Science and Politics.Chicago: Encyclop,. dia Brittonic° Press, 1965k 110.

159.'Al, Maws. Selecting Prioritiesfor Major Research: A European \new. , Nev( York : American Management Assoc iation,-Research and Develop-. _ ment-Division, 11769,--20. . . _ . . 160'. Keenanl800 R. ,ed.Sc ien% and ihe University. New York: Columbia University Press, 1966, 219. . . . .110'. 161. /dharile; V.-American UrvIversities o'nilyederaI Research.Cambridge,: . Mossachtisetts: Harvard UniversityPress, 1959,' 272. . . ..

162., Larnbright, H.Pub I iaAdm in istrat ion and Sc ienee and TechnQ106'

4' 'Syracuse., ew York: SyraCuse:University, 1969; 28. ,-. ''t 163' Lederman, Leonard L. and Margaref L. Wirtcfus. Federal Ftf?Icling.and, National Rriosities:An Analysis, bf Programs,Expenditures",and .Development." 1%.1ew?ork::Proeget;, 1971, 214:, (Prepared with the Assistance a Battelle Memorial instittite;calumbLis Laboratories)

164. March, Michael S.Federal' Budget Priorit s for ResecirWand Devel ment.Chicago: University of C icago Center for P.° icy Stu'dy.,- 1970, -Tr. '.,' / .. 4 .

1 . . 165. It % isiikulak, Roland. A Second Look clt U. S..arict Sov let Research and DeVelop- -- inent.Cambri ge, assac usrTrhelfrrerIte71OFinterrZn°t es, 0. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, .1971'1'35. (Report 8 71 *- 1 ) .. .

.. t. I . -. . .aillb - , as . *

1, , #

396 Policy Problems of Sci&ce and Technology

--. st---- \ 166. 'National Academy of Sciences.National Academy of Engineering. Committee on Public Engineering Policy..---Feelera,Support of Applied ,--,...-4.Research. "Report of the Ad Hoc ToskFOrce on. Roles of the -Federal Governmentin Applied Research. Washington, D.C.:National Pt P Academy of Engineering, 1970, 16.

f . . A . . 167. . National' Academy of Engineering,Committee on Public Engineering' PoliCit Priorities in App lied Research,)ka InitialAppraisal.° Washington, D.C.: National Academyof Engineering,, 1970, 43. i. 168. , Notional Acodemy of Sciences- National Research Council. Criteria for Eoderaltupport of Science.A.Panel Discussion Arronged by the Division of Physical Sciences, March 11, 1969. .Washington, D.C.:, Notional Research COuncil;, 19694, 39. . . / ( 169.. . Committee on Science and Public Policy.Basic Research " and National Goals. A Report to the Committeeon Science and, Astronautics or the U. S. Houseofepresentati __ i_ Washington,-.C.:Washington,- 'D.C.: U.S. Governrilecii:Printing bffice, 1965, 336. v .$

.'Committee on Science and Public Policy. Federal'Support -"a Basic Research inInstitutions of Higher Learning.. Washington, D.C.: National' Academy of Sciences- National Research Council, 1964, 98.(Publication Number 1185) *. 5171. National Science Foundation. An Analysis of Federal R& D Fuming by Budget Function, 1960-1972. Washington, D.C.: U:S.Government PrintJng Office, 1971; 93. (NSF 71-25)

172. : Federol Funds for Researck, Development, and Cher SCien- ific Activities, Fiscal Years,1968, 1969, and 1970. Surveys of Science Resources Series, VOlurne XVIII'. Washington, , ,D.C.: U.S. Govern- ment Printing Office, 1969, '280. (NSF 69-31)

173. Federal Funds for Research, Development, ac' Other Scien- tificActivities,IFiscalYeos6 1969, 1970, and 1971.Surveys of Science' Resources Series, Volume XIX. Washington, D.C.: U.S. GoVern- ment Printing Office, 1'971, 264.. (NSF 70-38).v- . Federal R & D Expenditures Related to Budget Functions, 1§601972., Washington, D.C.:U.S. Govern ment Print-ling Office, 1971,-TTONISF 71 -19).

P. s'N es . Management of Research and* Development 397

, .. . - . 1,75. National kience Foundation. Federal R & D Funding Shows Upward Trend. 6 . Washington, D.C:: "0.S.4overnment Printing Office, 19710,4.' A (NSF 71 -24)

. . 1761. In.:lush:1(41'R &D Spending, 1969. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing affice, 1971, 4.(NSF 70-47)

177. .. Industrial R & D Sptding,1970. Washington, D.C.: U .S $ Government Printing °file, 71,'4. (NSF 71-39)

178. National Patterns of R & D Resources: Funds and Manpower :in the Einifed States$53-1971. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govern- menf Hinting Offic 971, 388. (NSF 50 -46)

. Research and Development Activities oftpca I Governments, Fisca Years 1966 and 1967, Waskingtony DX.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969'160". (NF 69-14) - -' .48 . I, 180 , Research an Development in tkeAircrcift andMissIles Industry, 1957-1968. Washington, D.C.: U.S.Goverment N Office, 12969, 17.(NSF' 69-15) I 181. . Research and Development in Industry, .168. Washington, 57C-7-U. S. Government P4nting.Qffice.,.. -1970, 110. (NSF 70-29) , Ncitional Security Industrial Assoc iati National_ft.&'D for the 1'970';. . Peoceedingsof tha Symposium, -he 'in;ftashington, D.C. ,'October 18-19, 1967.Washington, °nal -Security Industrial As7 -

sociation, 1968, 235. .

Nieburg, Harold L.In the Name of.kiynce., Chicago: Quandrangle, 1966, 444.

Organitionfor Eponomict eration and Deve ment. *Fundamental 41966, Research and the Policies o Governments. 0.ECD, 77. 0 . , Government and Al locatroh of Resour 'tes to kience.Paris: OECD, 19661' 66.'. I . *Government and Technical innavation.Paris: OECD; 1966, 54., (

11, 111 . 398 Policy Problems of Science and Technology. . I

187. Organization for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment. Science, Economic 'Growth, ona 'Government Policy.Paris: OECb, 1963, 98.

188. 'Orlons, -Harold, ed. Science Policy a the University.Washington, D.C.: BrookingsInstitution, 1968,

189% Orth, Charles D., Ill, Joseph C. Bailey,and is W. Wolek. Admin- istering Research and Development: TheBehavior of SaientWieInd Engineers in Organ izationeap Homewood,' Ill inois:'Irwin, 1964,58.51,

Pelz, Dona . and Frank M..Andrews.Scientists in Organilafions:, ive Climates for Reseakh and De ve lopaent. NewYork: Wiley, I 18.

-191.4ccard,Paul J., ed. Science and Policy Issues.Itasca, Illinois: F.E. Peacallke 1969, 1.561

192. ., . tedgan, Michaelt Science and the FederalPatron.. New York: OX.ford ,st t.., Universitsy Press, 1969, 346. % . . ' t 6 - . k \ r .. 19./. :Riv.kin, S.Rijechnology Unbound i.Transferrmg.Sc ientlfic and,Engineering ResourcePfrorri Deferlse tobCiviliani)u.poses..Ne'iYork ona London: Pergamon, 1968, 102. (3 , 194. Roback-Herbert. Role oCongress in R& D Al locotions:Paper presented at the 1967 Meeting of the American Ass o0, for the Advancement of' Sdience, held in ,New Yott, 'Deceni.et ;1967. N'ew York: American Association' for the Advance . . Science, 1967,-* . . 0 .,, . :' 4. 195.' Raman, Daniel D,. Research and Development' 0., M'anageRent: The Economics . and. Administration of Techriology,., Ne.York: Applein-Century- Cr- ft, 1968, 450. ,.

196. Rbse,...Steverr, CBW: Chertm rpoal and Biological Warfare.' _Lond;;ru, Hqrrop, 1968,2d9. Ap .197. Schoeftle, EUgeneC Civilian-AilitaryInterest in Nev./ Technol ogres. Washington, D.C. :aeolge-Wa#ington University, 1968,7a. 4.

198.' 54h.on, Donald A. Jechnology and Change:. TheNew HeraOljtus4.'New York; De iacorte Press, 1967, 248.

'4'

11 4 4 4 * .4 Management of Research and Development

4 199. Shils, Edward, ed. Criteria for Scienttfic Development:)ublic Policy, to. and National Goals. Cambridge, Massachusetts: M.1.,T-.0Press, 1967, 200..

200. Smith, Bruce L.The RAND Corporation: Case Stud; of a Nonprofit Advisory Corporation. Cambridge, Massachusetts: 'HarvardUniversity, Press, 1966, 430.

201. United Nations Edticational Sc ientific,s. and. Cultural 'Organization Principles and Problems of National Science Policies.Paris: Ut.IESCO, 1967, 99. . I

-202. . The Role of Science and Technology in Economic Develop- ment.Paris: UNESCO, 1970, 216. (Scienc.spolicyStudiesandDoc- uments, Number 18) ;' ,

203. U.S. Bureau of the Budget .The Administration of GovernmentSupported ' Research &Universities.' Washington D.C.: U . S. Government Printing. ..Office, 1966, 141,

, 204.-U.S. Comptroller General. Allowances far Independent Research and 411 D velopment Costs in NINtiated ContractsOssues and Alternatives. shington, D.C.: Ginerai Accoumting`OrTice, 1970, 117.

205. "U.S. Cohgss,- House.Committee on Armed Services.Subcommittee on Arrne Forces- Investigating. Independent Research and Development. Hearings before the Subcommittee, under the authority of House Resolu- Hon 105, to the 91st Congress,, 2nd Session, February 15,16, and March 2, 1970. Wash ingtorirD:C: U. S.-Government Printing Office, 1970, 273.

206. . Committee on Armed ervirs. Subcommittee on Armed g ServicesIsnvestigotin"g Review of Independent Research and Deve- lopment Program Management.Report Of fhe Subcommittee, under the authority of iWouse Resolution 105, to the 91st Congress, 2nd Session,. September 18, 1970. Washington, D.C..: O.S. Gcoiernment Printing Office, 1970, 20.

207.*U. S. Congress. Joint Economic Committee., Subcommittee on Economy in Government. ,Military Budget and Nation' al Economic Priorities. Hearings before the Subcommittee to the 91st Congress,1st Session, June 3.-24,1969.Washington, D.C.:U.S. Govern' ent Printing Office, 1969, 99a.(Three Parts) 400 Policy Problems of Science ond Technology

.... r ---:' 208. U. S--. Congress.Senate.Committee on Government Operations. Sub-' committee on ExecutiOe Reorganization ondGovernment Retearch, 9 Health Activities: Fede/O[Expenolituresond Public Purpose.Analysis, Pursuant to Senote Reiolution 329,,Submitted by the Subcommitirto the 91st Congress, 2nd Session, June, 1970.Woshington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1'970', 40.

209. . Committee on Government Operatioys;Subcommittee on Government Reseorch.° An Inventory of Congressional! Concern with Reseorch ond Development (3tth ond 89th Congresses):A B ib I iography. Prepared for the Subcommittee by the SciencePolicy Research Division, Legislative Reference Service, Library ofCongress, 89th Congress, 1st Session, December 15, 1966.Washington D.0 U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966, 120.

210. . Committee on Lobor ond Public Weefore. Exponding, Improving, ond Better Coordivting (the) FamilyPlonning Services .4 and Populotion Research Activities of (the) FederalGovernment. Senate Report 91-1004 ofthe Committee to AccomponyS 2108 to the 91st Congress, 2nd Session, July 7, 1970.Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970, 21.

411. . Committee on Public" Works. Problems 'and Issues of a Wal Materiols Policy.-Papers delivered at on Ehg ineering'foun- dot ion Research Conference on Notional Moter io Is Policy, Jury, 1970, andprepored for the Committee by Franklin P. Huddle,Science Policy Research Division, LegislotiveRefermice Service, Libroryof Congress, 91st Congress) 2nd Session, December 1970. Woshington,D.C..: U.S. Government Printing Office, 3)70, 272.

. , 212. U.S. Federal .Council for Science ando Teihnology.ProceedingsFirst . Symposium: Current Problems in the Monagement of Scientific Personnel, October 47-18, 1963. Washron, D.C.: 'U. S. Government Printing Office, 1964, 131.

213. U. Ilk Office of Science and ,Technology.Revised Memorandum 'and -Statement of Government Patent Policy.Washingion, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,, 19471, 21'.. - ., , . . A 214. U. S. Presiant's Task Force on Science Policy,Science, ond Ttechoology: Tools for Progress.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government printing ,

Office, 1970, 48. I. 46 I t Mk

a A

Management of Reseaich and Development 401

. t 215.,' Weinberg,Alvin"M. Reflections on Big Science.Cambridge., MassaChusetts: M.I.-T. Press, 1967, *6. . . , 4 216.,Wooldridge,libean E., et.M.Biomedical Science and Its Administration: A Study of The National Institutes-of Health. Washington, D,C..*: Li .5'. Governmuprinting Office, 1965;213. lk .

Or :**

It, 1

3 A 4 A. Mancpement of Research and Develbpment 403

LEADING QUESTIONS r

1. How might it be determined that the existing level Of support of basic research inan area of sc Vence is not sufficient to maintain the rate of growth of that field: .1 mould-you ask experts in that field alone,or would y* ou alio cal I outsiders?

2.An\fcbriomist, Denison, has cajculated that therate of return from investments in It c D,programs has been only about that of investments in nonresidential real estate.Would You accept the analogy between R &D-txpenditures and recd estate investments? t 3..V1lihat has been the effect of Federal support of sc ience on the existing charactgr of tile universities doing scientific work?Has the rise of national research laboratories diminished the relative importance of the universities in scientific research?

4. Is there really a&analpolicy for the support .of basic scientific research? What would be the implications of such a pol icy, how could it be implemented in practice, and what are some of the arguments against a single Federal "science budget"?

5. Some writers have charged that there are alteinative programs, e .g., a,war Nat a inst poverty or improvement of existing health facil ities, which would ndt require any basic research for their implementation and would promise a better rate pf return in social and economic goods than the space race or high-energy physics.Have their arguments taken all relevant factors into account?

6.Toulmin Weinberg, andotherPhaveattempted to formulate criteria for the evaluation of proposalsfor scientific research. What factors have they taken to be imporr-tant?Do their illustrative evaluations seem satisfying?

7. From an overview'of the present funding practices of Federal support for basic )scientific research, would you judge that our estirp44es of the probable returns from such expenditures have beery based upon. the cultural or the mission- oriented values of science? What consequences would follow from the method 'of estimating benefits? , . 8.What would be some probable outcomes if Federa) support of science were drastically curtailed?

,What factors should be considered in allocating resources among the various sciences?- Is it possible to predict,on the basis of present trends; any changes in the relative amounts of support of the physical, biological, and soc is I sciences?

10. What are some of the proposals that huve been made to obtain more disinterested, more broadly benef icia I ,dnd more responsible decisions regarding the emphasis. and funding of research and development projects? 355 .1

et, / TOPIC 13 TECHNQLOGICAL FORECASTING AND ASSESSMENT

Experience with the consequences of technological innovation hasiindicated the desirability of foreseeing the possible effects of technological charrge. Tech- nological, forecasting has become of special concern to,persons responsible for social, economic. orsindustrial planning.Investment houses, banks, and many Vusiness firms have an obvious concern with the economic implications of technological change, and tliej, are therefore anxious to foresee, the course of technological development.Governments must also be alert to I,be character,and implica-, tions of technologictl change, cis nearly every fricet,of public policy could be affected by the complex 'interactions among modern technologies.

The objective of forecasting is not orily to estimate the direction in which technology is, likely to develop, but also to discover the directions in which it,can and should (or should not) move., This examinption of the implications and poten- tialities of technology is calle41 technology assessment. Concern for the effects of technology has been stimulated by the environmental and psyclio-physic$ consequences of a large number of technological innovations.Examples'range from the radiation hazards of microwaves promoted by household el ectrooleappl lances, tap the ecological consequences of pesticides, to the physiological and atmospheric effects of supersonic flight. 1,

4 One of the more hig.y developed systems of assessment is in the area of pharmocology and medicine, as provided in the United States by the Food tdd Drug Administration and the National Instit&es of Health.The rapidly developing field of chemical technology has 'created q. need for greater information and controls over new products, and an international registry.of 'chemical com- pounds_has been proposed. A more positive approach tatechnotogy assessment is the analysis of the rin'ds of technologies needed to attain specific.social goals. Thus assessment can be used to discover arid 'develop,beneficial new technologies as well as to `protect against harmful effets. )

4t is difficult and, in general, Unwise to separate technological forecastingt' and assessment from its total ecological and social context.Asiessment of the costs, risks, and benefits of a ,technology requires some standards of welfare or value.Moreoyer, the conditions required for the development or control of a particular teehn,flogy may be of asocial, economic, political, or ethical nature not directly evident in do isolated exami5ation of the technolOgy itself .

r r.

38c 406. Policy Problems of Science.and Technology

IOPIC 13 TECHNOLOGICAL FORECASTING AND ASSESSMENT

Selected Basic 'Readings: .4 Jantsch, Erich."Towcrrd a Methodology for Systematic Forecasting," Techno- logical Forecasting, I (Number 4, 1970), 409,419.

Jones, Martin V."The Methodology of Technological Assessment," Futurist, VI (February, 1972), 1 9-26. / .

Kiefer, David M. "Assessing Technology Assessment'," Futurist, V (December,. 1 971), 234 -239..

Roberts, Edword "Exploratory and Normativie Technological Forecasting: A Critical Appraisal,Technological For,ecasting, I (Number 2,1 96 9), 113 -127.

Congress. Hgge. Committee on Science and Astronautics. Subcommittee on ScienCe, Retiorc14, and Development. Technolow Assessment. Statement by Emilio Q. Daddario before a Subcommittee of theftth Congress, 1st Ses;ion, July 3, 1 967. Washington, D.C.: U .S. Government Printing Office, 1967,..19."

Supplementary and Substitute Readings:

Abt, Clark C. -"AriApproOch to Methods'of Combined S'ociotechnological Fore- casting," technological Forecasting and Social Change, II (Number 1,.1970), 17 -22. , ae Dror, Yehezkel. "A Is, ol icy Sciences View of Futures Studies: Alternative Futures and Present Action," Technological Forecastirand Social Change, II (Numl ber 171 970), 3-16. ar Forrester; Jay W."COunterintuittive Behavior of Social Systems," Technological Forecasting4inctSocial Change5. Ill (Number1, 1971), 1-22.

McH9le, John."World Facts and Trends: Man in\the BiOiphere,Environmenial Systeth(s), Hunfon Systems,".Futures; III (September, 1971), 216-201%

Platt, John R."How Men Can Shape Their Future," Futures, III (March, 1971), 32-47.

Salomon, Jean-Jacques."Science Policy and Its Myths,'" Futures,III (March, 1971), 11-23:' f 38:

1/4 I A,

5 TOPIC 13 TECHIiOLOGJCAL FORECASTING AND ASSESSMENT. 4407

ti TOPICAL OUTLINE REFERENCE KEY

I. Need for Technological Forecasting and Assessment 5, 21, 27, 43, 47, 54, 63, 70, 94, 123, 127, 134, 138, 152, 159, 182, 183, 204, O 319, 336, 338 A.Danger of unforeseen side-effects of powerful. new technologies. The large increase in world population with reduced margins for error means L.) that there art vet.), few areas in which risky experiments can be conducted, and consequences 7] 93, 99, 133, are less likely to be confined locally 144, 166,167, 177, 185, 248, . 266 B Bays for economic choice and investment, as well as for rational development planning. Rapid advances in science andtechnology necessitoe a high selectivity ow/lie part of the e , decision maker not only at a national IeveJ, but at the level of the individual industrial enterprise. orecasting'techniques are/valuable .. tools in identifyIng alternate possibilities for 34, 36, 73, 77, choice BO, 82, 100, 114, 1,16, 150, 160, 161, 169, 174, 218, 236, 242, 298, 323 C.Systematic means are needed to estimate impacts which technological developments are likely to have on society in the future, and4 for guiding the applic.otion of new knoWledge toward goals set by- society. Also necessary to determine priorities of fields in which new 28, 48, 49, (56, knowledge is urgently needed 72, 75, 78, 103, . 121; 122, -12d,

. 139, 141, 142, 162, 186, 192, 227, '263, 272, , 278, 245, 324, 350, 359, 362

I" 3SSA 408' - Policy Problems of Science aricrTe,chnology

.) II. Early Effdrts at Forecasting 39,102,198, ' , -. 1 ' , . 208; 317 A. Observed correlations between "stellarcon- . . steHations and the annual floods in,the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates gave the Mesopotamian ;- priesti!--theifirst known forecastersan enormous political and economic power 202 - . - / . If* i B. Implicit forecasts in the Middle Ages and the Renaistance--da Vinci, Bacon's New Atlaptis, . .. . etc. , . 198 .. I C.Forecasts mode to promote specific developments, e.g., tircraft, space travel, and communication's satellites 229,4244'

D.forecasts usedas warning against dqngers in specific technologies such as electronic eavesdropping and genetic engineering 202

E.Other wide-ronging,forecbsts up to World War, I1 19; 163, 209, 271, 285, 321, e- 41 343, 369 F. SCience fiction as cr.semi-intellectual exercise with emphasis on entertainment value--the novels by Jules Verne, H H. G. Wells, Aldous Huxley, and George, Orwell 107, 414

III. Systematic Technological Forecasting 17, 25, 31, 32, 46,29, 83, 88, 158,159, 179, 190, 199,2021 212, 224, 225, 275,199, 318,' 328 A.Inclusion of social, technological, and military environments in forecastingNational Research Council report of 1.937, "Technological Trends and National/ ,Policy" 349, 352 r I Technological Forecasting and Assessment 409

B.Utiltion of forecasting technigyes bythe U.S. Armed Services 117,119,222; 237 1. Air Force Office ofS'cientific Management-- 11. Project FOrecast . 120,315,385 2. Ann 601 longrangeforecdst- issued by the Army Materiel' Command 3. The.Naval MaterielCommand's forecasts 35, 226, 403 4. Military forecasts undertaken byuniversities, and by nonprofitorganizations, suchits the RAND CorpOration and the Hudson Institute 235, 279, 294, 305, 306, 405.

C.Nonmilitary forecasts bygovernment agencies dealing with availabilityof key r7aw materials, energy sources, labor supply,etc. 4, 240, 252, 292, 293, 312, 313,. 362, 386, 391, 393, 399 1,. The Report of the President'sMaterials Policy Commission (1952)* 404 2. TheNctional Power Survey.(1964-) 40Q 3. Forecasts by the Bureauof Mines and the Department of the Interior about fut4re av6ilability`of petroleum fuels .4. Study by the Department of Laborof future technological trends inmajor U.S. industries and their impacton wage;, .1 labor requirements, 4aci,availabilifyof , manpower 386' Federal agencies continuouslyconcerned with 'the future impact of technologxinclude' PSAC, FCST, OST,.NSF, Departmentof Com merce, NBS, FDA, NIH,'AEC, and NASA,as well as ad hocgroups .340, 387

'1114 .D.. Nongovernmental gro4dealingwith specific aspects of technolOgiaTforecasting 1. Resources-for the'Futtfre, Inc. 313 2tvAerospace Industries' ssociation 194 3. Ameripan Academy of Artsand SCiences-- "Thi Year 2000" 195, 196

30 , 410 . Policy.Problems of Science andTechnology

. "` 4. Bertrand de Jouverial's "Futuribles"- ) . Program, . 239 5. Robert Jungk's Project on "Mankind. 2000" : 302 6. Institute for the Future 252, 278, 295,

7. International organizations such as. s. - I OECD, EURATOM, ICAO 250 8. Prefate industry 67, 114, 129, 351; 408, 409, . . . 417 *--..) . E. Some current methods of technological , 1., ,. forecasting .1.,37, 64, '97, 1Q5,

109, 118, 14Q, .

4. 147,.157, 202, , 4144 212, 216, 364 .1. Exploratiry forecasting Marts from current basis of knowledge and attempts

. to predict the technological state-of- .. ' the-art in a givetime frpme . 147, 199; 202 .. a . Trend 'extrapolation to either a straight line fit or an S-shaped expectation 52, 126, 314, 386' b. "Genius Forecasting" by individual , experts 27,307, 322, ' t. . 383 .,.., c'. "Brainstorming"--group meeting deliberately set up to stimulate "Way out" thinking 4 . d. The "Delphi" technique-forecasts made by panels of experts not in direct communication . . with -each other ) 18, 20, 30, 50, 151, 175, 176 e ."Cross Ifnpact"-st dies-the effects of several Aalternate (level° ments on the subjects of the fore oasts 30, 115, 280' f. "Gaming" and "Scenario Writing":- partici- pants asked to simulate a specific role in a 4 "scenario."In "Scenarifi, Writing,"theem- phasis is on the critical branch points, where small influences may have large effecton ' outcome 65, 191, 193

)1,

fr V

Technological Forecasting and Assesiment 411

g . Model iniand simulation 54, 85, 115, 203: 268, 297, 320, 327, 336, 358 2. Normative forecasting first assesses fUture goals, and works backward to thepresent-. "Inventing the Future" 3, 59, 104, 147, 272 / a .Morphological Analysis.--a technique for idositifying, indexing, counting, and parametrizing the collection of all possible-devices to achieve a specified functional capability. Can also be used for identifying and counting all possible

means to a given end at any level of , abstraction or aggregation a 132,420 b. "Operations Research" and "Systems Analysis" as forms of self-fulfilling technological forecasts (cf. Topic 15) 54, 84,i12, 360, 371/ 3. Drawbacks of the exploratorytnormative classification. Need to look beyond this for creative synthesis and additional perspectives 2, 33, 56, 147, 148, 164, 165 , IV. Technology Assessment 11, 40, 41, 60,

76,16, 93, 101,. 106, 136, 139, 154, 180, 181, 231, 265, 345, ,347, 39(), 392, 396 A. The nature of technology assessment 98, 110, 335, 344 .1.A form of policy research which providesa balanced appraisarto the ptrlicyrhaker 195, 232, 334, 387, 391, 393 2. Identifies policy issues, assesses the impact 4 of alternative courses.of action, and presents findings 130, 197, 381, 391

1WillW - . 300 4 I ' 9 412 Policy Problems of Science and Technology

. Apalytical methods which vary from case to case, and appraise the nature,'significace, status, and merit of a technological .program 29, 45, 1 25, 23S, 363, 366, 395, t 3,27, 398. B. The scope of technologj, assessment. 13, IA, 90, 92, 93, 162; 166, 196, 210, 231, 329, 330'

1 'Measurement of physicalparameters 'such as climate and weather modification, fan$ne, epidemics, radiation effects 1 97,.217, 258, 270 2.Establishment of ca -and-effect relation sliips,'with specialmpsis on second- and third-order effect. 9, 149, 205 3.Risk-versus-reward ratios for. diifereni nations, e.g,, use of DDT irvIriclia may be desirabI9, bpt not necessa(ily io in the U.S .A : 4.Emphasis on short-term impcets that can be measured by natural science paratheters, but long-range effects such as possi,ktle changes bin 7 values, attitudes, or institutions also considered 89,198, 108, 121, 145, 149, 172, s' 178, 185, 195," 200; 207;21 9, 320,'407, )4,1 0 C. Sorrie areas in critical neediof technology aisess-: 4 ment 99, 110, 112, 155, /117, 187, 204, 221, 258, 259, 2e7, 308, 331, 340- 1.'Energy production from fossil fuel, nuclear plpnts, and other sources 62, 69, 111, 18A, 289, 354,4376 2. Phosphates and other substances inwater 217 3.Short- and long-term effects of pesticills 1717 217 4.The role of the automobile in transpor ion* 10, 28. 5.'Supersonic passenger dircraft 26 6.Further growth of the cities 42, 291, 384

I Teellinological Forecasting and Assessment t 413

7.Fertility control drugs '130; 269 Genetic Engineering 367, 379, 416

- D. Steps involved in technolograssessment 85, 153, 1,89, 332, 340 le 1. Identification of all areas influenced by a programinphysical, social, economic, and legal sectors 91,173,33a,1 341 2. Establishment of cause and- effect rela- -tranships, including indirect effects 54,84,112, 113, 205 3 Determination of alternative methodsto implement the program 51;260 4.Identifitation of alternative programsto achieve the same goals and poisible impacts , associated with them 4511260 5.Evaluation of all the bad, as wellas good, impcicis of the program 171, 205 6.Presentation of findings from the analysis, arta- 'recommendations 125

*-4

7 *

.394' Technological Forecasting and Assessment 415

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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39 Clarke,I.-F."The Pattern 6rPrediction 1763-1 973," Futures, continuing series of article; in the journal:(June, 1969), 325-3307 (September, 1?69)i464-468;. (December,969), 553=557. t 40. Congressional Record. -"The Teenology Assessment Act of '1 970,"Con- \ gressional Record, CXVI (A-pri1.16, 1970), H3225-H3226.

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45. Djerassi, Carl. .:"Fertility Control Through Abortion: An Assessment of , the Perjod 1 950-1 980,1,1 Bul letin of the Atomic-Scientists, XXVIII (Jan- ual:y, 1972), 9-14; 41-45.

40. Dory, John P. and Robert J. Lord. "Does TF Really Work?" Harvard Business Review, XLIX (November- December, 1 970), 16-28; 168. r

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. . 50, .Enzer, elwyn."Delphi and Cross-Impact TechniquesAn Effective Combination forSyitematic Futures Analysis," Futures,111 (March, 1971),48 -61..

51. Eugster, Carl. "Corporate Plann ing in an Unstable Environment, " Futures, III (December, 1971), 357-371.

52. Fisher, J. C. and R, H. Pry. SitnpleSubstitution, Model of Tech- nological Change2 Technological Forecasting and Socidl Change,la (Number 1, 1971), 75-88. ( 53: Fibres, Edmund°."The Big Threat Is Not Hunger," Ceres, II (May-June, 1 96 9),1 9-21.

54. Forster, Jay V. 'Counterintuitive Behavior of Social Systems," Tech- nological Forecasting and Social Change, Ill (Number 1, 1971), 1-22.

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56. Foster, Richard{ N. and Robert H. Rea."An, Integrated Technological Forecastingancl Planning System,"-Futui-es, II (Numbers'3 and 4, 1970); 231-244.

)57. Fredriksson, Ingrid."The Future Role of Women," Futures, I(December, 1969), 532-540.

58. Fusfeld, Alan ndRichord N. Foster."The Del phi Technique: Survey and Comment," ifusiness Horizons, XIV (June, 1971'), 63-74.

59. Gabor, Dennis. "Normative Technological Forecasting," Tey,f-mological Forecasting, I (Number 1, 1969), 1-4.

60. George Washington Law 'Review "Technology Assessment Symposium," George Washington Law Review, XXXVI (July, 1 968), '1033-114 9.

61. Gilfillian, S.Co4m."ThePredictionorT-echnologicalChange,"Review of,Economi. and Statistics, XXXIV (November, '1 952), 368-385.

62. Glaser, Peter E."Solat'Energy-c-An Alternative Sour e for Power Gen- eration," Futures, 1(June, 1969), 304 -313. ;IP

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63. G aFb, Avrom J. "technological Forecasting: What and Whither?" echnological Forecastinand Social Change, III(Number 1,'1971), 51-64.

64. Gordon, Theodore J. and H. Hpyward. ,."Initial Experiments with the Cross-Impact Matrix, Method of Forecasting," Futures,I(December, 1968), 100-116.

z. 65. Gordon, Theodore 'J.,S.- Enzer, and Richard Rochberg."An Emeriment ip Simulation Gaming of Social Policy Studies,' TechnologralFore- castingyl (Number 3, 1970), 2411261, ' r t. 66. Hanler, Philip."Remarks on the Conduct of Scienie in the Environment di the 1970's," Technological Forecastinga,nd Socia$hange,It (Num- ber 2, 1970), 115-123. / Ak 67. Haverda, J. 11."Forecasting Hyman Behavior In an International Corpor- ation," Futures, III (March, 1971), 24-31.

68, Helmer-Hirschberg, Olaf and NicKolas Rescher.. "Onthe Epistemology of the Inexact Sciences," Management Science, VI (October, 1959), 25- - 52.

69. Hoffman, George A."Future E lectric Autom8bil es, " Tech Fore - casting, I (Number 2; 1969); 173-183: n? j

70. Huber, Bettina J. and Wendell Bell. ,"Socioldgy and the Emergent Study of the Future," American Sociologist; VI (November, 1971), 287-295.

1 - 71. Huddle, Franklin P."The Social Management of Technological Conse- quences," Futurist, VI (February, 1972), 16-.18."'

72. It Hunt, H. "Forecasting the Need for Research and Development," Futures, , I (September, 1969), 382-390.

73. Huntley, James R."Gaps in the Ftitur,e: The American Challenge and the European Challenge," Futures, II (Marchil 970), 5-14: e... 74. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management. "Selected Papers bigthe Working Group on Research Management, 22nd Military Operations, Research Symposium (MORS)," IEEE Transactions? EM-16 (November, 1969), entire issue.

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75. Fred C."Social Forecasting and the Problem of Changing Valves,' .'With Speical Referenceto 'Soviet and East.European Writing," Futures, III (June, 1971), 142-150.

76. 'Innovation. "Making Tichnology Assessable, "Innovation, XXV (October, 1971,57 -59,

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84. . "World Dynamics," futures,III(June, 1971), 162-169.

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'86. Junk, Robert."Human Futures," Futures,I(September, 1 96 4-39.

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88. KaplaiV,Abraham, A. L. Sikogstad, and Meyer A. Girshick.."The Pre-, diction of Scientific and Technologicaj Events," Public Opinion Qum-- , , terly, XIV (Spring, 1950), 93-HO. ,

89. Kaplan, Max."Leisure ai'an Issue for the Future," Futures, I (December, 1968), 91-99.

90. Kash, D. E. and J. L. White,"Technology Assessment: Harnessing Gen:- ius," Chemical and engineering News, XLI)( (Noieniber°29,1 971), 36- 41

91. Katz, M. "The Function ofT(rtLiability in Technology- Assessment," , Cincinnati Law Review, XXXVIII (Fall, 1969),. 587-662.

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95..,44(tilbel, H. and J. Schulze."Chemical Products of the Futpe," Univen titas, XIII (Number, 1970, 217-221.

96. Kreiger, :lames H."Technology Assessment and Industry's Role," Chemi- cal. and Engineering News,,XLVIII (January 19,197b), 32.

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4 518. Laforte, Todd R0._,"The Context of Technology Assessment: A ChOnging n P crSPACtiVe for Public Organization," Public Atrministration Review, (January-Rel;ruqryi 1$771), 63-73.

99. Lear, John. -"Predicting the ConsequenCes of Technology," Saturday Re= view, L111 (March 28, 1970), 44-4k.,

rt$:)0. Leontief, Wassily.W. "The Structure o U.S. Economy," Scientific American,-CCXII (April, 1965), 25 -35, s

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'101.,Lepkowski, W."Fcsieral:Techno yPOI it)/ Beginsto Take Shope, "" Pro- : ,duct, Engineering, (February 1 6., 1970), 24-26. ; c) , r . ... _102. Lescarboura, Austin C.i1ThefutUre o's Sugestedby, the'Developifientsof the Last 75 "Years,", Scientific American,,OrX111(October 2, 192.0), 320-321.

'403.' Linstone(Horold A,-.;"A Unkvesify fot the eost7iroistriai Society,'"Tech-. . nological Foi4carting, 1 (Nun?bee 3, 1970.263 -281. : - . . . 41 -, . 4 ' ""fi.'"Whenl}a.Nped'dNeed?The Problemof Normative fore,A. m caifingin changing Environride.fit,_ . l Tethno ogicoForecasting, 1 Al (Ntimber' 1, .1909)_,55,7L-. :-' . ' 1 4 ".

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, . . ' * . . 111; McHale, Joh'n "World Energy Resources in tiie--Future," Futures,. r (Sep- ". , .tember,'1968'), 4-13. r , - ,. H2. .." World Foctspnd Trends! COnfarative Indicators,' Futures, IIIDecember, .1971), 3a495. ',.- ,, .2 ,

0 - , ft , I Ha: : ''Worlitl. Foos and Trends'' Man in the Biosphere, Environ System(s),,Human Systems," Futures, 111 (Septembet, 1 971), 216-301.

4 I 424 Policylroblems of Science cind,Technolo.gy

114.'Mansfield, Edwih."The Speed of Response of Firtmsto New Tec hniques," Quarterly Journal of Economics,, LXXVII (May,963), 290-311.

115. 11artirio, k4 ph 'P."Computers and ;Technological Forecasting,:'Futurist, V (0Vtober, 1971); 205,206.

116. -4,r . "Examp es of Technological Tfend Forecastingfor Research and l?evelopment Planning," Tech,noloagicalForecasting and Social .4 Chan e, II (Kumbert 3 and 4, 1971), 247-260.- . r

117. . . "Forecasting the Progress ofTechnold"Air University Review, XX (March-April, 1969), 11-20. Aerospace Studiesinstitute, Malcwell Air Force Base, Alabama.

118. . "How to Select ti Parameter," Futurist, V (June, 1971),115- 116.

. 119. , ,,..../.- . "Technological Forecasting and the Autonomy ofTechnol'-

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122.. iMeadows,Dennis L.."Estimate Accuracy and Project Selection Models . in Industrial Research," Industrial ManagementReview,. IX .(Spring, 1968), 105 -119.

123; Menke-Gtuakert, Peter."Mankind in the World of Tomorrow," Tochno- logical Forecasting and Social Change, if (Numbers 3and 4, 1971),, 41. 01-235. .

124. Mero, John L."Oceanic Mineral Resources," Futures, I (December, 1968), 1257141.

12\5. Miller, G.A."Assessment of Psychotechnology," American Psychologist, XXV (November, 1 970), 991.-1.001:

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. < 126. Mohn, M. Calroll, Jr."Application of Trend goncepts in Forecasting Typesetting Technology," Technological Forecating and Social Change, ..._ III ,(Number 2, 1972), 225-253. . t 1 New York Times Magazine. "The Future," New York Times Magazine lik April 19, 1964), Section 6; Part 2, 86-118.

4 128. North,.Harper re-:Tha d Donald L. Pyke. "Technological Forecasting to Aid R&D Planning," Research Management, XII(July, 1969), 289-296.

129. . "Technology, the Chicken--Corpdrate Goals; the 'Egg,",in First,Annual Technology and Management Conference, ed. by James R. Bright. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.Prentice-Hall, 1968.

130. Ohio State Law Journal."Population Control in the Year 200d: The Constitutional ity of Placing Anti -Fertil ity Agents in the Water liptly," Ohio *ate La`w Journal, XXXII (Winter, 1971), 108-118.

131,. OECD Observer."Innovation in Ger,rron Universities," OECD Observer, Number 45 (April, 1970, 8-1. *

132.,O'Neal, Charles R."MOrphol ogi cal Analysis: An I ntegrat.ive ApProach," , .Business Horizons, XIII (December, 1970), 47-58.

133. Page, J. K. "Possible Dexe nts in the Urban Environment," Futures, (September, 1970), 215-221.

Peccei, Autelio."Problems of World Future," Technological Forecasting; I (Number 3, 1970), 229-233. .

, . 135. Peretz, David.'Thirty-Five Years of Change for the nancial System," futures, III (December,' 197114.349-3;6.

-136. Physics Today."Governmeht Interest in Technology As'sessment Grows," . Physics Today, XXIII (April, 1970); 61-62'.

67. Pierce, Chester M."Thefre-Schoolerand the Riture," Futurist, VI (Feb- - ruary, 1972), 13-15.

138. Platt, John R. ' "How Men Can Shape Their Fiature',"Futures, III (March, 1971), 32=47.

405 426 Policy Problems of Science and Technology t 0.', 139. Price, R."Technology Aisessmen0 CongressionalRecord, CXVII (Jan- uary 29, 1971), E278-E279..

N140.. Quinn, James Ilc."Technological Forecasting," HarvardBusiness Review,. XLV (March - April,' 1967), 89-106.

141. . "Top Management Guides for ResearchPlanning," in Re- search, .Development, and TechnologicalInnovation, ed. by James R. Bright. Homewood, Illinois: Richard D.Irwin, 1964, 677-700.

'go -142: Quinn, James B. 'and Robert M. Cavanaugh. 'Fundamental Research Can Be Planned," Harvard Business Review,XLII (January-February, 1964), 111 -124.

, ,143. Ramo, Simbn."Towards Scientific Anticipation ofChange,' Astronautics and Aeronautic; .VII (October, 1969), 44-49.

144. Ravetz, J. R."Towards Critical Science," New $cientistanti Science Journal, LI (September 23, 1971), *681-683. r 145. Richards, Brian."Urban Transportation and City Form,"Futures, I(March, 1969), 239-251.

146.-Ridenour, Louis N."Physical Science and the Futures," inFacing the Future's Risks--Studies toward Predicting theUnforeseen, ed. by Lyman Bryson. New York: Harper, 1953, 60-89. . 3

r 147. Roberts, Edward B. "Exploratory and Normative TechnologicalFore- casting: A Critical Appraisal," TechnologicalForecasting, I (Number 2, 1969), 113-127.

. 148. . "Technological Forecasting: A Critical Appraisal,"in Technological Forecasting--A Practical Approach,ed by Marvin J. Cetron. NewYork: Technology ForecastingInstitute, 9, 297-340.

M9. Rosen, S. "Science and Technology Approach'Year 2000,"New Scientist and Science Journal, L (April 8, 1971), 76-79. ,

150. Rosenberg, _Nathan: "Economic Development and the Transferof Tech- . nology: Some Historical Perspectives,"Technologycrnd Culture, XI (October, 1970),.550-575.

11.

.40G , Tellyo logical Forecasting and Assessment 42 7

151.'Salanc.ik, J. R., William Wenger, 'and Ellen Helfer.:, "TheConstructio41 of Delphi Event Statements," Technological Forecasting and8Sociai Change, III (Number 1, 1971), 65-73. ot! \ i 52. Salomon, .Jean7Jacques. "Science Policy and Its Myths," Futures, 111': (March, 1 971 ), H . -23. .

153. andow, Stuart. "The Pedagogy of Planning: Defining Saricientfutures," Futures, III (December, 1971), 324-337..-

154. Science News. ,"Technology Assessment:Feeling Their Way," Science News, XCVII (March 7, 1970), 240241.

155. Science Policy News.."Let the People Speakon tie ImpaCt of Technol- ogy," Science Policy News, (January, 1970), 83-87.

156. Seamans, Robert C., Jr."Space," Science Journal, III (October, 1967), 82-88.

157. ShepparkWilliam J."Relevance Analysis-in Research Planning," Tech- nological Forecosting,v1 (Number 4, 1970), 371-379.

158. Shostak, A.:B, and A. S. Pennington."Methodology:Futurism Pro and Con;" Futures, III (June, 1971), .173-176.

159. Siegel, Irving H. --"Technological Change and Long-Run Fbrecastig," Journal of Business of the University of Chicago, XXVI (July, 1953), 141-156.

160. Simmonds, W. H. C. "The Analysis of Industrial Behavior and Its Use in Forecasting," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Ily(Num- ber 2, 1972), 205-224.

1'61 Sorrows, H. E._ "Technology Forecasting--A Profitmaker Eliminates Blind

Chance' for Industry," Commerce Today-,I(July 26, 1 971), 8-13.

162. Starr, Chauncey."Technology Assessment - -I: Vdeighing the Benefits and . Risks of New Technologies," Research Management, XIII (November, .1970), 409-#25.

163. t Steinmetz, Charles P."You Will Think This a Dream," Ladies' Home Journal, XXXII (September 15,1 915). 407 IS

424 ,. Polk)/ Problems of Science and Technology

164, Sulc, Oto."Interactions between Technological and Social Changes: A,

Forecasting Model," Futures, I (September, 1969), 402 -407.

165. . "A Methodological Approach to the Integration of Techno- ogical and Social Forecasts," Technological Forecasting,I (NumbeV 1, 1469), 1405-1 08.

166. Tanenbaum, Morris. "Technology Assessment --11:Its Effects on Science and Engineering," Research Management, XIII (November, 197©), 427- 434.

167. Taylor, Gordon R."Trends in Pollution,". Futures, II (June, 1970), 105- 113. 4

168. Thring, M. W."Machines for a Creative 'Society," Futures,II (March, 1 970),45-53.

169. Thurston, P. H."Make TF Serve Corporate Planning,." Harvard Business Review, XLIX (September-October, 1971), 98-.102.

170. Timm, Bernhard."Chemistry and Nutrition in 2000 A .D.," ,Universitas, XIII (Number 2, 197.1), 110-134.

171. Tishler, M."A New Goal for Science," Saturday Review, LIV (June 5; 1971), 56-58.

172. Tizard, J. "On Planning Research Training in 'theSocial Scierices," Futures, III (March, 1971), 62-67.

173. Tribe, "Legal Frameworks for the Assessment and Control of Tech- nology," Minerva, IX (April, 1971), 243-255.

174. Turner, Louis."The Multi-National Corporations: 0Consideraions fora Scenario," Futures, III (June, 1971), 151-161.

175. Turoff, _Murray. "Delphi Conferencing: Computer-Based Conferencing with Anonymity," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, III (Number 2, 1972159-204.

176. . "The Design of a Policy Delphi," Technological Forecast- ing and Social Change, II (Number 2) 1970), 149-171.

4 s'

TeChnological Forecasting and Assess4eN 429

177. Van Tassel,, Alfred J. "A Seminar Exercise in Foreca'sking Ecolical Changes: Pollution from.Rising Industrial Output, "Technologicalore-, casting and Social Change, II' (Numbers 3 and 4, 1971), 237-245,

178. \Pokers, Geoffrey .4' "Changing Ethics of Distributiortf"1Futures,---H1 time, 1), 116-134.

1797 Vogel, Peter H. "A Basis for Technological Forecasting," Technological Forecasting, I (Number 3, 1970), 313-323.

180. Vohra, Hans R."Preventive Technology:Rival Proposals in Congress," rf Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVII (Marcb, 1971), 25226.

'181. Walsh, John."Technology Assessment:NAS Panel Asks New Federal Mechanist:cm," Science, CLXV (September 5, 1969), 992-994.

182. Walsh, Warren B."Soviet Research Priorities: Exercises in Fordcasting," American Behavioral Scientist, V.111413eOernberc 1964), 3-6.

183. Waskow, Arthur I. "The Historian's Role in Fuhges Research," Futures I (December, 1968), 117-124.

184. Weinberg, Alvin M."Prudence and Tediriology:A. Technologist's Re- sponse to Predictions of Catastrophe,".BioScience, XX1 (April 1, 1971), 334-335; 38. r 185. Winthrop, Henry."Social Costs and Studies of the FUture," Futures, (December, 1969), 488-499. 4 186. Wormuth, Francis D."Government and Science," Center Magazine, III (March- ApriJ, 1970), 41-46.

187. Wren-kewis, John."Faith in the Technological Future," Futures, II (Sep- tember, 1 970), 258-262.

188. Zeman, Milos,"Futurology-- Illusion or Reality?" Future, III(March, 1971), 6-1.0. 4

189. Zettel, R. M."Technology Assessments The Concept and the Practice," emica I Technology, (September, 1971), 520-527.

4 o 9 4, * I - 4

430 Policy Problems of SCience and Techriology

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190. Abt Associates,,Inc.A 'Methodological Approach to Measuring Change Produced by Basic Research. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Abt Associ- ates, 1968.

( 1 91,' . Survey )6f the State of the' Art:Social, Political and E- conomic Models and Simulation.Cambridge, Massachusetts:Abt Associates, November 26, 1965. PN report prepared for the National Commission on Technology, Automatior., anilliconomic -Progress.)

1 92. -. -Abt, Clark C. Public Participation in Future Forecasting and Planning. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Abt Associates,

1 93. . Serious Games.New York:VikingiPress, 1970, 176.

1 94 Aerospace Industries Association.Aerospace Technical Forecast 1 962- 1972.Washibgton, D.C.: Aerospace Industries Association, 1962.

1 95. American Academy.of Arts and Sciences. Commission on the Year 2000. The Future of the United States Government toward the Year 2Q00. Edited by Hai-vey S. perloff.New York:Bresiller, 1971,xxv, 388.

1 96. . Commission on the Year 2000".Toward the Year 2000: Work in Progress.Edited by Daniel Bell.Boston: Houghton - Mifflin/ 1 968, .400 .

1 97. Anderson, Stanford, ed.Planning for Diversity and"Choice:,Possible Futures, and (heir Relations to the Man-Controlled Environment. Cam- bridge, Massachusetts: M.I.T..Press, 1968, 340.

198. Army:age, W. H. G.Yesterday's Tomorrows: IA Historical ,Survey of Future Societies.Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1968, 288.

199.,Arnfiel, R. V., ed.Technological Forecasting. Edinburgh: Edinbur University Press, 1969, 413.

\ 200. Aron, Raymond.World Technology and Human Destiny.Ann Arbor, Michigati: University Of Michigan Press, 1963, 2494

201. Asimov, Isaac.Is Anyone There? New York: Ace, 1970, 319. 411, TechnologiCal Forecasting. and Assessment 431

202. Ayres, Robert U. Technological Forecasting and Long -Rang Planning. NeW Yorkki 'McGraw-Hill, 1969, 237.

203. Bagdikian, 'Bern H., The Information Machines: Their Impaction Men and Or, the Medici- New York: Harper and Raw, 1971, 359.

204. Baler, Kurt and NiCholos Rescher, eds.Values and the future. New 7 York: Free Press, 1 969,'527.

205. Bauer, Raymond A., R.S. RosenblOom, L. Sharp, et al. Second-Order Consequesces: A Methodological Estay on the IrriOact of Technology.

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206. Becker, Harold S.and Ra'ul De Brigard., A Framework for Community Development Action Planning. TwoVolumes. MiddletoWn, Connect- icut: Institute for the Future, 1971, 122, 282. . 207.. Beckwith, Burnham P.The Next 500 Years:, Scientific Predictions,of 'Major Social Trends. Jericho, New York: Exposition Press, 1967, 341.

208. Bellani, Edward.Looking Backward. ^ New York:Harper, 1959,:318.

0 , "209. BirkInilead,Frederick E. S.The World in 2036 A .D,London:Hodder and Stoughton, 1930, 215.'' ,

.210.-Black, Guy. Technology Assessment--What Should It Be?Washington, D.C.: Program of Policy Studies in, Science and Technology, George Washington University, 1971', 53. "

211,pi Boulding, Kenneth E. The Meaning of lhe*20th Century. ,New York: Harper Colophon Books, 1,964, 1 99-. 0

212; Bright, James Rired.Technological Forecasting for Industry and Gov er ent:' Methods and'Alications.Englewood Cliffs,. New-Jersey: Pre ticer+1611, 1968, 484.

. II, Arthur B., e. Scie ce TlIchnOlogyin file World,,of the uture. New York: Wiley-Interscieifie, 1970, 394. . eof 21,4. Brown, Harrilon:, The Challenge of Xolci..ftture.-- New-.York: Viking Press, 1 954, 290. 7 I

. °

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4 4 215. Brown, Harrison, James Bonner, and John Weir.ThelNext 1-lundred Years: "Man's Natural and Technological Resources. New York: Viking Press, 1957, 1 93.

216. Brown, J. H. and E: S. Cheaney.Report on c,;_ Study of Future Research k Activitiy and Pertinent Forecasting Techniques for Battelle's Trends in Researcb Study.Columbus, Ohicr:^ -Battelle Memorial Institute, 1965, 51.

217. Brown, Lester R.Seeds of Change: The Green Revolution and Develop- ment in the 1970's. New York: Praeger, 1970, 205. *

218. "413uchan,Alistair, ed.Europe's Futures, Europe's Choices. London: Chatto and Windus, 1969, 167.

219. Burhoe, R. W., ed. Science and Human-Values in the 21st Century. '.V1- adelphia: Westminster ,Press, 1971, 203.

220i. Birn, Duncan L.,"John R. Seale, and Antony R. N. Ratcliff.Lessons from Central Foremsting, Eaton Paper 6.Lckidon:Institute of Economic Affa.irs,i] 9651 '62.

.n, , . 221. CalderjaNigel-,The Environment Game.London:Secker and Warburg, 1967, 24(). !,' . . S 222. Carer., Nigel, ed.Unless Peace Comes: A Scientific, Lorecqst ol New. Weapons.-Vew York: Viking Press, 1108, 243. yi,_ . . . .' . 223. . The World in 1984. The New Complete Scientist Series, ,Jw6Voluines, Harmonsworth, Middlesex and Baltimore: Fienguinlooks, 1965,, 205.

, 224. California Institute of Technology.The Next Nine Years.Pasadena: Califotnia Institute of Technology, 1967, 186.

225. Cetron, Marvin J. I Technological Forecasting: A Practical Approach; New York: Teohnology Forecasting Institute, 1969, 345. 4 226. Ceiron, Marvin J., Hoppe!, W. C. Hodgson, W.A. McKenney, and I. Monahan.A Proposal for a Navy Technological Forecast. Two Volumes. Washington, D.C.:, U.S. Naval Materiel,Command, 1966. -P.4

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227. Charlesworth, James C. and Alf J. Eggers, Jr., eds.Harmonizing Technological Development and SocialPolicy in America.Phila- delphia: American Academy of Politicaland Social Science, 1970,

247: 41,

KI 228. Chase, Stewart.The Most Probable World. New Yorl:Harper and Re,w, 1968, 23 9.

229. Clarke, Arthur C. Profi les oche Future- -An Inquiry into the Limits of the Possible.London: Victor-Gollancz, 1962, 223;New York: Harper and Row, 1962, 234.

230. Clarkson, Stephen, 'ed. 2020:Fifty Canadians in Search ofa Future. Edmonton, Canada: Hurtig Publishers,1970, 291.

231. Coates, Vary T.Examples of TechnologyAssessments for the FederalGov-, ernment.Staff Discussion Paper 208.Washington, D.C.: George Washington University Program; of PolicyStudies in Science and Tech- nology, 1970, 44.

232. . The Federal Government and the Curre Development of Technology Assefsment. Washingt6n, D.C.:Pr m of Policy Studies in Science qnd TtChnology, GeorgeWashington University, 1971, 14.

.2,33. Technology Assessment of Space Stations.Washingt D.C.: PrograM of Policy Studies in ScienceandTechnology, Gecy Washington University, 1971, 61.

234. Cole, Dandridge M. BeyondTomorrow, the Next Fifty Yeap in Space. Amherst, Wisconsin: Amherst Press, 1965,168.

235. balkey, Norman C.Predicting the Future. Santa ;Monica, California: RAND Corporation, 1968, (P- 3948). a 236. Daniels, Loma M., compiler.Business Forecasting for the 1970s: A Se- lected, Anncgated Bibliography. Cambridge,Masiachusetts: Harvard University, Baker LibralyoGratuate School of Business, 1970,48.,

237. Darracott, H .T., etal. Report on Technological Forecasting. Washington, D.C.: efense Documvtation Center, 19¢7, 165.(AD 664 165)

238. Darwin,' Charles G: The Next MillionYears.Garden city, New York: Doubleday, 1952, 154. .

413 0 f.

434 -Poli Cy Probrems ofIScience and Technology

239. DeJouvenel, Bertrand.The Art of ConjectUre.Trans. by Nikita Lary. New York: Basic Books, 1 967,` 307.

240. Dewhui-st, J. Frederic4et al".America's Needs and Resourde. NeWYork: Twentieth Century Fund, 1947,1955, 812.'

241: Dickson, James F. and,J. H. Brown, eds.Future Goals of Engineering in Biology and Medicine. New York: Academic Press, 1969, 359.

242. Diebold John. Business Decisions and Technological Change.New York: Praeger, 1970, 268.

243. . Man and the Computer:technologyas an Agent of Social Change. New York: Traeger, 1969, 157.,

244. Douhet, Giulio.The Command al the Air. Trans. by Dino Ferrari. New York: Coyiard-McCanh, 194k.

245. Drucker, Pefet . The Age of Discontinuity. New York: Horror and Row, 1969, 394. Soo 246. America's Nexf 20Years. New York: Harper'6nd Row, - 1 957, 1 14.

247. . Landmarks of Tomorrow. New York: Harper and Row, 1957, 50..

248. "kiDubos, Rene. So Human an Animal. New York:Scribner's,, ,19;168,

267. 4.4*

249. Dunstan, Mary Jane and Patricia Garlan. 'Worlds in the Making. Engle-

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250. Economic Commission for Europe. Methods and Principles for Projecting Future Energy Requirements.'4New York: United Nations, 1964, 88.,

251. Elliot.; William Y., ed.Education a Training in the Develaping Coun- tries. New York:' Praeger, 1966,-399.

252. Enzer, Selwyp.Some Devetepmentk in Plastics and Competing Materialds. Middletown'Connecticut: Institute for the Future, 1971, 66.

253. Esfandiary, F. M. Optimism One: The Emerging Radicalism. New York: Norton, 1970,.249.

414 I .40./...(

,Technological Forecasting and Assessment 433

254. Ettinger, Robert C. W.The Prospect of Immortality. New York: Mac- fadden-Bartell, 1964, 1 60.

255. Eurich, Alvin C. Campus 1,980:The Shape of theFuture in American Higher Education. New Yol:k: Delacorte Press, 1968, 327.

256. Eu4h, Nell. Science in Utopia: A Mighty. Design.Cambridge, Massa- chusetts: Harvaild Univiersity.Press, 1967, 332.

257. Evans, Wayne 0. and Nathan S. Kline, eds.Psychdtropic Drugs in the Year 2000: Use by Normal Humans. Springfield,Illinois: Charles C'. V Thomas, 1971, 168. 4 258. >Ewald, William R., ed.Environment and Change: The Next.Fifty Years,.6loomington:, Indiana University Press;1968, 397.

259. . Environment for Mon: The Next Fifty Years. Bloomington: Indionq University Press, 1967/ 308.

260. . Envirotint and Policy: The Next Fifty Years.. Bloominii- roll:Indiana University Press, 1968, 469.

261. Fabun,, bon.The Dynamics of Change._ Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Half, 1967, 190.

'262. Fairbrother, Nan.New Lives,' New Landscapes:Planning for the 21st Century. New York: Knopf, 1970, 397.

263."Feinberg, Gerald.The Prometheus Project: Manki Search for tong- Ran a Goals. Oarden-City, New York: Doub eday, 1968, 215.

264. Flechtheim, Ossip K. Histo!y and Futurology.Meisenheim am Glan, Germany: Verlag Antori Hain, 1966, 126.

265. Folk, H.The Role of Technology Assessment in Public Polic . 'Urbana: Program on Social Imp ications of Science and Tecno ogy, University of Illinois, 1969, 10.

266. Forbes, R-. J. _TherConquest of Nature: Technology and Its Consequences. New York( Praeger,1 968, 98.

267. Foreign Policy Association, ed.Toward the Year 2018.New York) Cowlesducation Corporation, 196$, 177. 415 A

4IP - 436 Po tic); Problems of Science and Technology . f - 268. Forrester, Jay W. World Dynamics.Cambridge, Massachusetts: Wright- Allen Press; 1971, 142: . ..-----'

269. Francoeur, Robert T.Utopian Motherhood: New Trends inuman Repro-. ,duction.* *Garden City, New York: Do"ubleday', 1 970, 2 8. , .. 270. Friedmann, Wolfgang. The Future of ....the °leans.New Yo k: Brazil ler, 1971, 132.ti: ,f e t I) . 4 271.. Furnas, Clifford C. *411 The Next Hundred Years--The Unfinish d Bukiriess of li _ A e Science. New York: Reyna! and Hitchcock, 1936, 434. . 4f . V' .r..r' . 272. Gabor, Dennis.Inventing Hie Future. 'London: Secker and, Warburg, ....° 1963; New York: Knopf, 1964, 237. A

273. Galtung, Johan. -images of the World in the.Year 2000. Vienna: Euro- - pean Coordipation Center for Research and Documentation in Social Sciences, 1970, 64. ,

-X74. Garcia, :John bavid.The Moral Society: A Rational Alternative to . Death. NewYak:, Jtkian Press, 1971, 355..

275.-Garrett, I.IftOstrations of Tdohnological. Forecasting Techniques in Britain.NATI) Defense Resiaroh Group Seminar, Technol ogica I Fore - casting 6nd Its-Application to Defense Researth, United Kingdom:

276. Gilfillion, S. flolum.The SociolJogy of Invention. Cambridge, Massa- , chusetts: *M.1.7 ..Press, 1935, 1970, 185.,

277. Gordon, Theodore J.The Future. New York:St. Martin's Press;1965, 184.

278. 961on, Theodore J. arta R. H.Ament.Forecasts of Some ""Technological . and Scientific bevelor'ents and ;Their Societal Consequences.Mid- egetown, Connecticut:' Institute for the Future, 1,69, 98. (Report R-6) 4 J 279.,Gordon, Theodore-J. and Olaf Helmer-Hirschberg.Report on a Long- Range Forecasting Study. Santa Monica, California: RAND Corpora- tion, 1964, 110.(Report P-2982)

280. Gordon, Theodore J., Richard Rochberg, and S,elwyn Enzer.Research on Cross-Impact Techniques with Applications to Selected Problems in E- ,convics, Political ScienceandTechnology Assessment.MICIdIttown, ,Connecticut:Tnstitute for the Future, 1970' T64. . 41S Techniwital Foreoatting andAssessmen ti 437

281.. Greenberger, Martin, ed.Computersand theWorld of the Future.. Cam- bridgelMaisachusetts: M.I.T. ,Press, 1962, 1968,r340.

282. Gregory, J. G., ed.. Chemistry anci Industry in the 19943s oceedings.. of a Society of Chemical' Industry Symposium, July, 1969.London: Society of Chemical Industry, 1971, 195. v .283.- Gunn, James, ed.Man and His Future.Lawrence: University of Kansal Press, 1968, 305. vi . 284. Halacy, Daniel S., Jr.Century 21: Your Life inhe Yea? 2001 and Beyond.Philadelphia: Macrae Smith, 1968; 182.

285. Haldane, John B. S. :Daedalus, or Science and the Future.London: Kegan Paul, 1924; New York: Dutton, 1926, 93.

286. Handler, Philip H.Can Man Shape His Future? The 1970 W. 0. At- `water Memorial Lecture.Waihington, D.C.:U.S. Department of Agri\lture, Agriculture Research Service, 1970, 36.

287!Handler, Philip-.,ed.Biology and the ,Future of Man. New York: Oxford University Pressp 1970, 936.

288.'Heinlein, Robei-t A.The Worlds of Robert-A. Heinlein.New York: Ace Books, 1966.

289. Heiss, Klaus P., Klaus Knorr, and Oskar Morgenstern. Long Term Pro- jections of Power:Review and Outline.Princeton, New Jersey: Mathematica, 1970, 175.

290. Hel Iman, Hal :Biology in the World of the Future.New York: M. Evans, 1971, 188.

. . . 291: . The City in the World of the Future.NewtYork:. M.Evans, 1970, 187. k ..

.2 92. . Communications irr the World of the Future.New York: M. Evans, 1969, 201. .

293. ..Transportation 4n the World of the Future. New York: M. Evans, 1968, 188.

4 1 4

It .1

438 Technologicdt Forecasting and Assessment

294. I-Celmer-Hirschherg, Olaf.The Flure of Science.Santa Monicd, Cali- fornia: RAND Corporation, 1967.(P-3607) i 295. Social Technology. New York:Basic;Books, 1966, 108. 10-

2.96. Isenson, Raymond, et a I. Project Hindsight. First Interim Report. ,Spring- field,- Virginia:Clearinghouse for Federal Sciefic and Technical Literature, 1966.

297..Ivakhnenko, A. G. and V. G. Lapa.Cybernetics-and Foreca ting Tech- niques, New York: American Elsevier, 1967, 168. 4 298. Jentsch,Erich.Perspectives in Planning.Paris: Organization for Eco- nomic Cooperation and Development, 1969,,527.

299. . Technological Forecasting in PespectiVe.Paris: Organi- zation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 1967, 401. e 100. Jasptsts,Karl. The Future of Mankind. Trans. by EB. Ashton. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961, 342.

301. Jones, Ernest M. Advocacy in Technology Assessment. Washington, D .0 Programof Policy Studies in Science and Technology, George Washing- ton University, 1970, 76.

302. Jungk, Robert.-Toramorrow Is Already Herd.Nvieyork: Simon and Schuster, 1954, 241.

393. Jungk, Robert and Johan Galtung, eds..Mankind 2000:International Future Research Conference .London: Allen and Unwin, 1969, 367.

304. Kahn, Hermarr.The Emerging Japanese Superstate:Challenge and Re- 'sponse Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:Prentice-Hall, 1970, 274.

305. . On`AlternativeWorldFutures: Jssuesand Themes. Harmon - on- Hudson,son, Now York: son Institute, 1965. Hu 306. Kahn,' Herman, et al. On Escalation:Meta'phors and Scenarios. New YorIL'Praeger, 1965, 308.

307. Kahn, HermartanciAnthony J. Wiener.The Year 2000: A Framework For Speculationpn the Next 33Years. New York: Macmillan, 1967, 431.

I L

Policy Problems of Science and Technology 439

308. Kasper, R mak- Some Comments on Technology Assessment and the Envi- ronment.Washington, D:C.:Program Qf Policy Studies in Science and Technology,' George Washington University, 1970, 14.

309.,-Kasper, R. G.,ed.Technology--The proceedings of a Seminpr Series. January-April, 1969, Program of Policy Studies in Science and Tech- . nology..Washington, D.0. : George WashingtonUniyersity; 1969, 164.

310. Keyes, Kenneth S., Jr. and J. Fresco. Looking Forward.Cranbury, New Jersey: Barnes, 1969, 204.

Kostelanetx, Richard.Beyond Left and Right:Radical Thought of Our Times. New York: Morrow,1968, 437.

Landsberg, Hans H.Natural Resources for U.S., Growth: A Look Ahead to`the Year 2000.Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins Press, 1964,

260'. A

313. Landsberg, Hans H., Leonard L. Fischman, and Joseph L. Fisher, Resources in America's Future.Baltimore:Johns Hopkins Press, 1963, 1017.

314. Lenz, Ralph C., Jr.PracticaJ Application of Tregd Forecasting. NATO Defense Research Group Seminar, Technological- Forecasting and Its Application to Defense Research, United Kingdom,

315. . TechnologicalForecasting IleportASD/TDR/62-414, Aeronautical Systems Division, Air Force Systems Command. Wright- Pattersoo Air Force' Base, Ohio: Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Literature,,1 962, 106. (AD-408 085)

316. Lewin,' Leonard C. Report From Iron Mountain on the Possibility and Desirability of Peace. New York: Dial Press, 1967, 109.

317. Lewisohn, Richard.Science,' Prophecy and Prediction:Man's Efforts to Foretell the Future- -.From Babylon to Wall Street. New York:liar- . per and Brothers, 1961, 318.

318. Lien, Arthur P., Paul Anton,' and Joseph W. Duncan. Technologicd1 Forecasting:Tools, Techniques, Applications.New York: AMA Management Bulletin, No. 115, 1468, 27.

319. Little,Dennis L., and Theodore J. Gordon. Some Trends Likely to Affect Americanociety.in the Next Several Decades. Middletown, Connecticut: Institute for the Future4 1971, 48.

41i 4

440 Technological Forecasting and Assessment

320. Little, Dennis and Richard Veller.STAPOL: "A- Simulation of the Impact of Policy, Values, and Technology and Societyvpon the Quality of Life. Middletown, Connecticut: Institute for the Future, 1970, 10.

321. Low, Alfred M. The Future. New York:' International,1925:

322. Mc Hale, John.The Future of the Future. New York: Braziller, 1169, 322.

323. Mansfield, Edwin. The Economics of Technological Change. New York: Norton, 1968, 257.

324..March, Michael S.Federal Budget Priorities foi. Research and Develop- ment. Chicago: University of Chicago Center for,Polic!, Study, 1970, 45.

325. Marien, Michael.Alternative Fuiures for Learning: An Annotated dibli- ograph/ of Trends, Forecasts, and Proposals. New York: Educational Policy R4search Center,Syracuse, University Research_ Corporation, 1971, 223.

326. Martin, James T. re Developments. in Telecommunications.Engle-

woodCliffs,..Nev'rjersey:Prentice-Hall,- 1971, 414. _

327.. Martin, James T. and Adrian R. D. Norman. The Computerized Society: An tIpraisal of the Impact of Computers on Society over the Next 15 YeaW. Englewood Cliffs/ New Jersey:Prentice-Hall, 1970; 560.

52B. Martino, Joseph P. and Thomas E. Oberbeck, eds.A-pproaches to Long- Ronge ForecastThg.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971, 149.

329. Marx, B...S.Early Experiences with the Hazards of Medical Use of X- Rays:1896-1406. A Technology Assessment Case Study, Sraff Dis- cussion Paper 205, Program of Policy Studies in Science and Technol- ogy. Washingfoh, D.C.: George Washington University, 1969/71.

330. Mayo, Lours H.The Contextual Approach to Technology Assessment: -Implication; for "One-Factor Fix" Solutions to Comple*Socia I Problems. Washington, D.C.:Program of Policy Studies in Science and Tech- nology, George Washington University, 1971, 87.

4Zo $ V- 4

Policy Probleins of Science and Technology. 441

331. Mayo, Louis H. The Relationship of Technology Assessment to Environ- ---- mirital Management.Staff Distess+on Paper 206, Program of Policy Studiesin Science and - Technology.Washington, D..: George - Washington University, 1969, 34. .

332. . Scientific Method, Adversarial System, and Technology Assessment. Washington, D.C.: Program of Policy Studies in Science_.- and Technology, 1970, 109.

333. .Social Impact AQalysis: 1970.Washington, DX.: Pro- gram of Policy Studies irt Science and Technology, George Washington University, 1971, 49.

334., . Some Implications of the Technology Assessment Function fbr the EffectivePubic Process. Washington, D.C.: i Program of Pplicy Studies in Science arid Technology, George Wash- ingtori University, 1971, 31.

335. . Some Legal 'Jurisdictional, and Operational Implications of a Congressional Technology Assessment Component.Staff Discus- sion Paper 207, Program on Polby Studies in Science and Technology, Washington, D.C.: George Washington University, 1969, 56.

336. Meadows, Donella H., Dennis L. Meadows, Jpirgen Randers, and William W. Behrens, III.The Limitsto GrowA. A Report for the Club of Rome's Project on the 'Predicament of Mankind. New York: 'Potomac

Associates--Universe Books, 1972, 205. 4

337. Michael, Donald N. The Next Generation.New York: Vintagp, 1965, 218.

338. . The Unprepared Society: Planning for a, Precarious Future. New York: Bask BoOcs, 1968, 132.

Michael, Donald N., ed.The Future Society. Chicago: Aldine, 1970, 160.

340. MITRE Corporation. echnologAssessment Methodology.7-volume report to the White 'House.McClean, Virginia: MITRE Corporation, 1971( Basic Propositions, 236. Automotive Emission Controls, 181.- Com uters:-Communications Networks 23A.

4 2 1

I 442 technological Forecasting and Assessment

Industrial Enzymes, 199. Sea Farming, 180. Water Pollution: Domestic Wastes, 301. A Summary, 30.

341. Mottur, E. R.Technology Assessment and Citizen Action.Washington, D.C.:Program- of Po licif Studies in Science and Technology, Gebrge Washington Univirsity, 1970, 26.

342. . Technology Assessment and Environmental Engineering. Washington, D.C.:Program of Policy Studies in Science and Tech- nology, George Washington University, 1970, 19.

343. - Muller, Hermann J. ,Out of the Night --A Biologist's View of the Future. London: Victor Gollancz, 1936, 160.

344. Myrick, R., et al.Some Research Approaches to Studying the Develop- ment and Functioning of Technology Assessment-ControlProcesses. Washington, D.C.: GeorgeWashingion University, 1969, 30. (PB 1 82 872)

345, National ACademy of Engineering.Committee on Public Engineering PoF:

icy. A Study of Technology Asses?Thent.Washington, D .0. National Academy of Engineering, 1969,.208.

346, National Academy of Sciences.Applied Science ancbTechnological Pro- gress. A report to the Committee on Science and Astronautics,),U.S. House of Representatives.Washington, D. C.:U. S. Governtpent Printing Office, 1967, 434.

347. . Technoloay: Process "ssessment and Choice. Washing- ton, D.C.: Ndation. Academy of Sciences, 1969,163.

34§. National Academy of Sciences and Social Science Research Couincil.The Behavioral and Social Sciences: Out look and Need. Engttwood CI iffs, New Jersey:Prentice-Hall, 1969, 320.

349. National Research Council.Technological Trends and National Poli Washington, D.C.: National Research Council, 19 7.

350. Nelson, Richard R., ed.Thp Rate and Direction of Inventive Activity: . Economic and Social Factors: Princeton, New Jersey:Princeton Uni-t Vetrsity Press, 1962, 635.

422 P Problems of Science and Technology- 443 f,

351. North, Harper Te hnol ogi cal Forecasting in Industry. NATO, Defense Research GrouSe nar, Technological Forecasting. and Its Application to Defense 'Resech', United Kingdom.

Ogburn, William F..,et a. 'Technological Trenclyand National Policy, Includinthe Socal I cations of New Intentions.Report of the Subcommittee on chndgy to theNational Resources CoMmittee. Washington, D.C.:Natinal Research Council, 1937, 388. A

353. Ong, Walter J., ed. K e and' the Future of Man: An Interna- tional Symzpsium.Ne Yor t:Holt, Rinehart, and Winstonftl 968, 276,

354.,Organization forEconomic C e at ion and Development.Energy Policy Problems anObjectives. P : OECD, 1966, 187.

355. . Perspectives of Planni Paris: OECD, 1969, 527.

356. Ozbekhan, Hasan. Technol. and n's Future.Satita Monica, Cali - fornia: System, Development Corpotion, 1966, 41.(Report SP-2494)

357. 'Peccei, Aurelio.The ChasmAhead. N w York: Macmillan,1 968, 297.

358. Phi lipson, Morris, ed:Automation:m I cations for the Futuie .New York: Vintage Books, 1962, 456. r 359. Polak, Frederik L.The\irnae of the Future:Enli hteni?ithe Past; Ori- entating the Present, Forecasting the Future. 'Two Vo umes .New Yor Oceana, 1961; 456, 376.

360. . prognOstics: A Science in the inSurve s and Creates the Future. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1971, 425.

361. Poor, Riva,,ed.4 D s, 40 Hours:Re. ttna Re lution in Work and Leisure. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Bursk and Po. 1970, 175.

362. Prehoda, Robert W.Desi ninthe Future:-The Roleofechnolo ical Forecasting.Philadelphia: Chilton, 1967,10.

363. . Extended Youth: The Promise of Gerontology. New York: Putnam, 1968, 256.

364. . Teqbnological Forecasting Methodology. Pasadena: Elec- tro-OpticarSystems, 1966, 56.

423. '1 1

444 Technological Forecasting and Avesstpent

365. Ramo, Simon.Century of Mismatch. New YOrk: AilcKay, 1970, 204.

366. Rosenfeld, Albert.' The Second Genesis: The Coming Control of Life. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey; Prentice-Hall, 1969, 327._

367. Roslansky, John D., ed,Genetics and the Future of Man New Appleton-Century-Crbfts, 1966, 204.

368. Russell, Bertrand.The Future of Igcience.New York: Library, 1959, 86.

369. . Icarus, or the Future of Science.London: Kegan Paul, 1924; New York: Dutton, 1926, 64.

370. Rutstein, David D.The Coming Revolution in Medicine. Cambridge; Massachusetts: M.I.T. Press, 1967, 1'80. 7

371.. Ruzic, Neil P.. Where the Winds Sleep:Man's Future on .the Moon - -A - Projected History.Garden City, New York: Doueday, 1970, 236.

372.'Sarhoff, David, et al. The Fabulo9s Future: America in 1980. New York: Dutton, 1955, 206. 41. 1 373. Schon, Donald A.Technology and Change: The New Heraclitus. New York: Delacorte, 1967, 248. . <-- 374. Schriever, Bernard A. and William W. Seifert ,N Air imanspyrtation 1 975 and Beyond: A SYstemsApproacir. CambridgMassachusetts, M.I.T Prestr 1968, 516.

3757".Schuster, Richard P., ed. The Next NinetYYars.Pasadena: Califor- nia Institute of TeeKnology, 1967, 186. tf - 376. Seaborg, Glenn T. and WilliamIli.Cdrfiss.'''i Man and Aton;: ,tui4cftng a New World Through Nuclear Technology. Nee Yoric: Dutton, 1971, 411.. *

377. Still, Henry.Man:The Next 30 *ears.iNew York:Hawthorn, 1968; 206. .

378. Stulman, Julius.Evolving Mankind's Future.Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1467; 95.

49t4.1 4 6

f 4

Policy Problems of'Science and Technology 445

1.tr/`, 379. Taylor, Gordon R.The Biological Time Bomb. New York: World 1968, 240. . 4, a 1 . 380. Taylor, John G.The Shape of Minds to COme. New York: Weybright and Talley,. 1 971, 278. . - . 381:. 'Mel obert. An Alternative Fulrre for Awl co. Chicago.: Sv;a11 ow, 1968, 186.

38,2. Theobald, Robert* 'Dialogue onTechno4ogy. New York: 1115bbs-kler- rill, 1967, 101 . . c . , . )M 383. Thomson, George P.the Foreseeable Future. Amtridge, EnglancirICpm.-i bridge University Press, 1955, 166; Revistad Edition, 1960, 145.

384. Udirll, Stewart 1.... 1976 : Agenda.for Tomorrow. New4ork: :Harcourt, Brace and World, 1 968, 17g.. : , t . , , 1 D 385. U.5. Air Force.Aerospace,,Research faffice:tong-Range Forecasting and Planning: A SYmosium held at the United States pir,Force Acad- emy, Denver, golortido, 16 -17 August 1 966.Alexandria, Virginia: Defense Docufentotion Center, 1967, 200. r , . . 463 8 6. U.S., Bureau of,Laboi Statistic's.' Technological Trends in Major Arner.1 can Industries. Washington, D .0 'U.S. GemoYanment Printing Office,c -

1. 387. U.S%.4Congress. Rouse. domrhitteeon Science aridAstrongutics. stab- # fishing the office otTechnolORAssAllfnent andAmending the Natron- . a l acience Education Act of .1 950. House Report"-1437, 91st Con,-

gress, 2hd Sessipn, September 9, 1970. Washington, D.e.:43.s.. , .Govemrnerit Printing.Office, 1970, 26'. ,.. 4: f . .

* Committee on Science and Astronautics. Subcominiftee on tenet, Research, and-Development. Government and Science No. I: Aat ent of Purpose. Report of the Subcommittee to the 88iRSon- 8ress,.1s ssion, Decembsr"2, lig: °Washington, MC.: U .5.Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1963, 14.. 389, omniittee on Scienceand Astronautics. Subcommittee on Science R search and Development. In,guiries,Legislation,' Policy Studies Re:Science and Technology; Reviev?and Forecast,.Second Progress Report of the Subcommittee tthe 89th Congress, 2hd Session, :October 17, 1,966.Washington, D,C:: WS:Government- Printing Office, 1966, 28.

42 -

.446 . Technological ForeOsting and ssment

390. U.S. Congress House. Committee on Science andAstronautics. A Tech-

nology Assessment System for the Executive Branch. Repo ruaepared for the Committee 1:w the National Academy of Public Administration,91st Congress, 2nd Session, July 16,1970. Washington, D.0.: U.S. Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1970, 85.

,391: . Committee on Science and Astronautics.- Subcommitteeon Science, %parch, and Development.Technology Assessment. State7,-../ ment of Eno Q. Daddario, Chairman of t ubcommittee to the 90th Congress, '1st Ses&n, Jul Y 3, 1 967. Wasilingt,D .0 U.S. Govern- ment Printing Office, 1967,19.

a 392. . Committee on Slienceind Asir cs. ,committee on Spence, Research, and Development. Techn Assessm'ent'. Hea'rings before: the Subcommittee to, the 91st angress, 1 essi on, Noyernber 18,. 24; December 2-4, 8, 12, 1969. Washington, D.C.: U.S. GO";rnment* -Printing Office, 1970, 501.

393. . Committee on Scieae and Astrarliautics.Subcnittep on Science, Research; and Development.Technolog4tAssessmenr:. Arlrrio---- 'fated Bibliogifcephy and. inventory of COrsgressiOnal Orgardzationfer )4r Science and Technology.Report prepared for the Subcommittee by- GeneYieve J. Kneto and- Dorothy M. Bates, 91st Crgress, 2nd Session, July lb, 1970. Washington; D.C.: U.S. Gavernmeht Printing Office,

-,1970, ,92. b '. 3 445 . * . - 47" 4 -394. .'ComrCttee on Science a. rvi Astionaulics.Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development. Technology Assessment, 1970; HOuse Report .17046 of the Subcommittee'to the .91st,C,ongress, 2nd Ses= .. sion, March 13..Jurie 3, 1970. ' Washington, D,C.:, U.S. Government Printing Office,.1 970', 1008.. (Two Parts)- ' .itt OrCarrimee'on 'Science *andtAstronautics. Subcommittee on Scitke, Research, andpevelopment.A Technolog Assessment of the. Vietnam Defoliant Matter A Cale Hiftory.Report pre ared for the ' Subcommittee bithe SoienCe Poli.ciResearch DWision, Li raiy,Of Con° gress, 91st Congress, 1st Session, August 8, 196,9.Washiton; D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Offi(1969, 73.

, . . . 396.. -Committee on-Science and Astronautics. Subcommitteeon Science, Research, and Developmenl. Technology Assessment Seminar. Proceedings before the Subcommittee to the 90th Congr'ess,lst SessiOn, September 2142,1 967. Washington, D.0 U .5 . Government-P4ting' Office, 1'967;1'84. (if 426 -

- Policy Problems' of Science and Technology 447 -is

397. U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Science and Astriemautics.Sub-. committee on Space Scietace and Applications. Assessment of Space Communications Technology.Report of,.., 91st Congress, 1st Session, March 3, 1970. House Report 91-859. Washington,b.0: U .5 . Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1 970,-33.

398. 1 . Committee on-Screnceand Astronautics.Sulicommittee on

. Space Science and Applications;Assessment of Space Communications Technology. ,Hearings before...,91st Congress, 1st Sessitin, December 17 -19, 1969. Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970, 249..

399. Congress.,, Senate.Committee on Small Business.Subcommittee on Science andjechriallkgy.Prospects for Technology Transfer.Fipport 90th Congress, 2nd Session, May 1, 1968.Washington, D.C.: U.S.'Givernment Printing Office, 1 968, .1 9.

400. U,.5. Federal Power Commission.National Power Survey. Two Volumes. ' Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government PrintingOffice,1964, 296, 42k.

---;----1 4 .401. U. S.Nationdt,COmmission on Technology, Automation, and Econainic Pro- . gress.Technology and the American Economy. Washington, D.C.:, U.,-S. dovevrent Printing Office, 1966, Summary Volume plus 6 Ap- . pendia-es, 115, 473, 275, 151, 291, 309.

402. U.S. NationalResourcesCommittee.,Technological Trends and 'Ndtional PolityIncluding th&Social Implications of New Inventions. Pre- port of the Subcominjotee on Technology, U .S . National Resources Com- mittee. Washingt&i, D.C.: U.S. GovernmerPrinting Office, 1937, 388.

403. U.S. Navy Technological. Forecasting Group.Proposed Nadal Techno- logical Forecdt.. Final Report(unclassified version).Washington, D.C7: U.S. Navy Technological Forecasting Group, 1966, 174. .4t 404. U.S. Piesident's Materials:.Policy Commission. Resources forretaom. Five Volumes. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Governrn , 1952, 184, 210, 43, 228, 154:

As 465. University of $ymcuse.Physical and Social Science Faculties. Science and Technologyin the 1985 Era. Supplement to The United States-and the World in 1 985 Era .DDC Accession Number AD 61-3526.Syracuse, Ne-w-York: Syracuse University Research COPorVon, 1964. 2 7 448 Technological Forecasting and Assessment

406. Van Leeuwen, Arend T.Prophecy in o Technocratic Era. New York: Scribner's, 1968, 130.

407. Vickers, Geoffrey.Freedom in a Rocking Boat:Changing Values in on Unstable Society. London: Allen Lane, 1970, 215.

408. The Wall Street Journal; the Staff of, eds.Here tomesTOrribriow: Living and Wo7.king in the Year 2000. New York: Dow Jones, 1966, 1 96.

409. . The Innovators:How Today's Inventors Shape Your Life TomorroW. New York) Dow Jones, 1'968, 110.

410. Wallia, C.S., ed.Tow d Century 21: Technology, Society, and Human Values. New York:. sic Books, 1970, 318.

(4. 411. Warner, Aaron ft., DeanOoise, and Alfred S. Eicfiner,eds,.The impaCt of Science on Technology. 'New York: Columbia University Press, 1965, 221.

412. Warshofsky, Fred.The Tvienty-First Century:" The.Control of Life. New York: Viking Press, 1'969, 181. -

bze 413. Warshofsky, Fred, ed.:" The Twenty-First Oentuey:- The Njw Age of Explor- ation. New York: Viking Press, 1969, 1 , '0 414. Wells, Herbert G. Anticipation's of life RecieTiciei of Mechanical and S°ci en- . tific Progress upop,HUman Life and Thought. New York arid Londop:

Harper, 1902, 342: ',, . ' : 4' ,, , ,,, . .. 415. Whyte Lancelot L.Accent on Form: An Anticipation of the Sbience of 4

To orrow. New York: ,Harper ana RI R, 1954, 198. . %,,

416. . The Next Development in Mani New York: Hol.41 958,332. ...

417. Wills, Gordon, David Ashton, and Bernard Taylor, eds.Technological 1Pt Forecasting and Corporate Shot*:London:Lockwpod, 196?,271.. :4a . t 41 . Wolstenho'lme, Gorddr., ed.Man and His Future., "London: Church- ill, 1963, 409; Boston: Little, Brown, 1 963, 409. . . ,

0 419. Young, Michael':Forecasting and the Social Sciences. : Heine- as . manna 1 qiI8, 166. . ..., f r 420. Zwicky, Fritz.Morphi,losp of Propulsive Power.Pasad Society for Morphological Research, 1962...... / -:A fr..9') u A,

Technological Forecasting and Assessment° .449

.? 'LEArNG QUESTIONS

0 1'.What are the distinctions between technologicalforecasting and assessment, and.how are they related?

2.Who attempts to forecast technological develoneand why?

3.What is the differenceiletween exploratory andnormative forecasti-ng? Are they mutually exclusive or reinforcingor neither?Is there a more valid way of understanding the modes of forecasting?

4. 'Haw may computers be usedas tools of forecasting or assessment?

What are the merits, of reproducible vegus -non-reProducibletechniques, e.g. the Delphi technique? What are theie'strrengthsand weaknesses?For wha kinas'of problems are rianreproducsilerte techniquesmost-useful? Least useful.?

6.What institutional arrangernentshove beensuggested to improye the quality 1 of technological forecastingeseid assessment?

7. Ware the relationships between technologicalchange and the socio-economic structure of society? Contrastor compare relationships under socialism, free entprcriise, and traditioncil forms of society.j'

What aretheitpssible roles for technological forecastingand assessment in pubic planning? Cite examples of how predictivevpprOachesto technology have been used (e.g., 1917; National ResearchCouncil report), and analyze the validity of their assessments.

9.Hatsoience fiCtion and Utopian literature hadany measurable effect upon the history of technology? What have beenthe effects of forecasts appearing to be self- fulfilling or self-defeating? a

Can the needs of society be identified and-definedfor'optimal use of technological possibilitios? If this could be done, whatmeans would be employed?

Af V TOPtC,E4iSCIENCE, HUMAN RI D THE ROLE OF LAW

Science and technology change relationships among individuals, and between indiyiduals and society... For exam*, Vornedical knowledge has changed public attitudes toward ,various cirrects of disease and has placed upon government new responsibilities for protecting the public welfare. New forms of information gathering, new techniques of crime detection, new pharmaceutical products, and .1, v new forms,g, energy and of industrial organization create problems of human rights and jUstice for which historical experience provides no adequate precedent. More- over, the advancement of science sharpens debate over the meaning of "human rights".and the substance of "justice".Are "rights" and "justice" nomore than social conventions, unsupported by any knowledge derived from science? Law as a social institution is therefore under stress in attempting to accommodate traditional attitudes and assumptions to the realities of technoscientific society. Before the advent of science, law rested securely upon social or political "truth". n Medieval Ebrope, Achcraft was a legal fact validated by popular belief . When the growth of scientific knowledge undermined belief in witches; the laws punishing ti witchcraft" ceased tobe enfOrceable .'. Witchcraft had ceased to be a social or po-

-40 litical truth. Law stabilizes and protects the established social order, and changes in the law reflect' changes in society.But an accelerating rate of technoscientific change mai4ceed the capacity of social attitudes and institutions to make cor- responding adjustments.The volume of law making, in the United States for example, has increased over the years largely (although often indirectly) because of the new factori introduCed into society by scierak and technology. And yet the process of law revision does not keep pace with technoscientific change. . Severat new fields of, law or legal theory have emergedasp direct consequence of technoscientific innovation. Among these new areas for legal. concern are a- tomic.eneogY; expinitationof the oceans beyond national jurisdiction; exploration, of outer space; 'genetic manipulation of humanphysiology; and psycho - chemical. influences on human personality.In trying to cope with these and other problems of the technoscientific age, the law is increasingly compelled to take cognizance of, scientific evidence.Even the voice of.the people cannot make a scientific truth out of a political falsehood. Means are needed to speed up the adaptation of law to,conditions of the technoscientific age. ,La*, revision commissions in several of the American state governments assist the technical updating of the law, but they are rarely, if ever., equipped to deal with the larger dimensions,of the problemof technoscientific change. Some instrumentality-for rapprochement of science and laY? is needed, not only in the UnitedStotes, butinalltechnoscieniificallyadvancedcoentries. Not only domestic national law but also international lawmu'st be clarified,revised, and expanded to

. guide new suprar or transnational enterprises. A deficiency of adequate legal concepts is today aileterring fa4ior in the establishment of, transnational agencies for Management of the oceans and polar regions,and for the exploration of outer space.

. Thus science transforms the character of the law a nd fortes it to expand its dimensions.

b 430

. k6. 4io , 4

452 Policy Problems of Science and Technology

TOPIC 14 SCIENCE,HUMAN RIGHTS, AND THEIIROLE OF THE LAW ,

!.... li Selected Basic Readings:

Baram, Michael S."Social Control of Science and Technology, "Science, CLXX II (May 7, 1921), 535-539. I 4 D'Amatoi Anthony A."Environmental Degradationand Legal Action," Bulletin of the Atomic Sci*tists, XXVI glitch, 1 970), 24-26. `,.:-4, 4 Meyers, David W."OrganTransplantationaInd the Law," Impact, XXI (July-Sep- rember, 1971), 223-232.

Tribe, Lawrence H.''Legal Frameworks for the Assessment and Control of Tech- nology," Minerva, IX (April, 197L), 243-255. . . Wheeler, Harvey."Bringing Science under Law," Center Magazine, II (March, i - 1 969), 59-67.

Supflementary and Substitute Readings:

avers, David F. "The Legal 'Control of the Clinical Investigation of Drugs: 4 Some Political,' Economic and Social Questions," Daedalus, XCVIII (Siring, , , 1969), 427-448. , F, Curran, William J."Government Regulation of the Use of quman Subjects-4,.._ Medical Research: The Approach of Two Federal Agencies," baedalus, XCVIII (Spring, 19, 542-594. I*

Estep, Samuel D."International Lawmakers in a Technological ,World:Space, Communications, and Nuclear Energy," George Washington Law Review, XXX III (October, 1964), 162-180. llb 4. ac * Livingston, Dennis."An International Law of Science: Orders on Mari'sExpandr ing Frontiers," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXIV (December, 1968), 6 -10.

Loevinger, Lee."Science and Legal Thinking," Federal Law Journal; XXV (Spring, l' 1 965), 153-166. A , Miller, Arthur S.1' "%ijence Challet.s Law," American. Behavioral Scientist,

4 . XIII (March-April, '1970), 585-593.

431 it 40 TOPIC 14 SCIENCE,- HUMAN RIGHTS, AND THE ROLE:OF LAW 453 N

TOPICAL QUTLINE ;. REFERENCE KEY

Interactions between Science and Jurisprudence 13, 57, 79, 91, 92, 142 A. Traditional conceptkof law: taws'o'f Atitur'e and man -made laws 1. Laws of nature: deductive, descriptive, value-freeNewton's laws of motion, Malthus' law of population growth 2. Laws of men: inductive, normative, value expressive 50 sa B. Concepts of natural 42, 107 11. Jus naturale in Roman law .Christian theocratic concepts - -laws ture and of naturg's God <-3Physiocracy, biocracy, technocracy

C .Science and positive law 64 1. Juridical truth versus scientific truth: 178 a. Statutory fiat b. Testimony in-courts 127 c. Methods of crime detection and identification 55, 125 2. Legal rights in knowledge and invention 46, 52, 67, 152 a. Copyrights and patents -- comparison' between U..S. and U.S.S.R. 1- 43, 101, 147, 149, 3P. 164, 179, 197 b. Government control overAcjIntific and technological innovation inthe idterests of health, safety, public welfare,. and morals 48, 105,153, 1 88 c. Conflicts between rights to knowledge . . 11s as property and advancement of science and education 56, 98, 123, 184, 198

D.Problems of interpretation , 23, 59

1.Semantic difficulties anil the substitution of. processes and forces for the "law" concept in science 1 2. Incompatibility of tests of "truth" 134 3. Value- relativity of normative laws

432 MM.

454 Policy Problems of Science and Technology

iII.Changing Coniept of Human Rights 42, 89, 158/ 171, 174 A. Concepts of "rights" changed by scientific or science-derived concepts 135, 157 1. Property ownership 2. Contractual obligations 3. Working conditions 36 4. Person IA privacy 16, 62, 70, 89, 139, MO 5. Educational opportunity 6. Ethno-racial attitudes 120 7. Environmental quality .18, 28, 187

B. Realization of theoretical"rights" made. feasible by kechnoscience 157 1. Nouttishment IF. Medical service! 25, 76, 83,151 .3. Mass education 4 4. Gainful employment "36

C. Areas of impending change or development in law resulting from the growth of scientific knowledge 1. Space law: a new phase of international law 3, 24, 44, 77, 84, 109, 110, 124, 146, 159, 160, 167, 170, 181 2. Resources On the ocean floor 104, 108, 114, 128, 148, 156, 4k4 157, 190 3. Shift from rights in property to rights in environment 81, 157, 162 4. Domestic relations and sex

J a. Social interposition in traditiorval family matters . 113 b. Declining social interposition in dault sIxual relations 5. Sociopathic behavior a. Preventive detentionand selecti4-personality 'rehabilitation 186, b. Penology--tieatmentof criminal offenders 145 6. Experimentation a ..Physical environment 132, 163,.175, 191 41 Science, Human Rights, and the Role of Law 455

; b. Human beings 1, 6, 26,27, 72, 93 c. EcotErgical conditions 103, 157 7. Information and communication 5, 123, 164,179, 197, 198 a. What may be communicated? Content and method b. Rights to information and knowledge (1) Patents, copyrights, contracts

N., (2) Public control of information

Ill. Science Reshaping the Law I,34, 54,64, 79, 91 A.ivnenability of law to scientific concepts and methods 4%4 r-1. estions of law seldom directly amenable to sci ce a. Tax w . Corporation law. c . Prorty law (in part) d. s generally reflecting value judgments for which no empirical test is available 4 2. Laws subject to reshaping by science a :Legal provisions for which empirical proof is relevant and admissible as evidence b. Laws of which the underlying assumptions are destroyed by science, e.g., witchcraft

B. Incongruence of scientific facts. and legal facts-- selected issues 8, 86 1. Punishment as deterrent to crime \2. Intelligence and the votingage 3insanity as a legal concept 4. Legal status and scientific evidencecon- cerning tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana 94,206 5. SexOal behavior and legal proscription 38,126 b 6. Death as a legal and scientific fact 33,45, 96,122

0.Confrontations of science, law, and policy (Cf. Topic11) 12,22, 58,137, 138, 142 A 434

,1111. 456 Policy Problems of Science and Technology

1. Impairment of the physical environment 1 8, 28, 66, 150, 157; 175, 187 Radioactive fallout 103, 130, 176, 205 b. Air pollution 1 96 c. Water pollution 35, 99,104,114, 148, 156 d-. Noise e. Esthetic degradation f. Crowding g. Weather modification 163, 192 2. Biomedical technology 32, 177 a. Animal care b. Experimentsdin human subjects 10, 11, 15, 72, 73 c. Prosthetic facilities d. Biological warfare 9, 14, 17, 47,115, 193 e. Organ transplantation 31, 88, 111 'f. Keeping patients physically "alive" 20 3. Public health 1 9, 25, 47 a . Control of drugs 41, 52, 69, 94 b. Tiouriciation of water supplies 85 c. Population control 45, 49, 61, 82, 1.21;1 31 d. Cigarettes e. Side-effects of et 'cal drugs 53 4. Property rights in knowledge 63, 152, 200

. a .Copyright lawsi replication technique, and education 51 b. Restrictions on employment of research

workers and inventors. 168 . C. Distribu of television frequencies and ti d. Conim ofit troom government- . supported research 2,1 e. Government patent policy 67, 199, 200

IV. Scientific Legal Technology 64, 117, 185 A.Does-the introduction of science into legal technolOgy protect, impair, clarify, or render irrelevant concepts of human rights, or are all of these effects possible? .

4 Scielite, Human Rights, and the Role of Lpw 457

B Extension of scientific technique to legal research 1. Indexing 2. Computerization of legal data I 3.1alytic methods of social and behavioral r science, and quantitative analysis , , C.Continuing influence of scientific methods on philosophy of law and juridical action 64, 79

ft7

( I .. 436 Science; Human Rights, and the Role of Law 459 Jr

BIBLIOGRAPHY

41- - General ReferF.nc/es: Articles

1. Alexander, Leo."Limitations in Experimental Research on Human Beings," Lex et Scientia, Ill (January.. March, 1 966), 8-24.

2,' t . "Protection of Privacy in Behavioral Resedrch,"Lex et Scientia, IV (January-MarCh, 1967), 34-38.

Anderson, Clarence P."Outer Space Liability," Congressional Record; CXVII (July 30, 1971), S17676-S12679.

4. Andrews, John A."Who Ovos the Resources of the Sea?" New Scien-- tist, XVIII (May 9, 1 963), 307-309.

5. Bach, ArthurJ., "The Ethics of Tachistoscopy," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XV (May, 1950), 21 2-21 5.. ...,

6. Ballard, Robert W. "Patient Consent in Experimental Drug Therapy," -Lex et Scientia, I(January- March, 1964), 21 6-221.

7. Baram, Mithael S S. "Social Control of Science ond Technology;" Science,. CLXXII (May 7, 1971), 535-539.

Barrtk, Roscoe L. and Howard D. Faying."Our Changing Epilepsy Laws," Lex et Scientia, II (January-March, 1965), 153-161.

9. Baxter, Richard R.-and Thomas.Buergenthal. "Legal Aspects' of the Gen- eva Protocol. of 1925," American ' Journal of international Law! -CXIV (October, 1970), 853-879.

10. Beecher, Henry K."Documenting the Abuses," Saturday Review, XLIX (July 2, 1966), 45-46. .

. "Human Studies, ". Science, CLXIV (June 13, I-969), 1256- 1258.

12. Beresford, Samuel M."Lbwyers, Science, and the Government," Qeorge Washington Law Review, XXXIII.(October, 1964), 181-200.

13. Berns, Walter. "Law and Behavioral 'Science," Law and Cogtemporary Problems, XXVIII (Winter, 1963), 185 -212. .

I 437 111

460 Policy Problems of Science and Technology it4

- It,-

. Biosdience;"Secret 'Contract Research and the University," Bioscience, XVII (August, 1967), 524-526.

15,6 Bixler, Ray,11."Ostracize Theml" Saturday Review, XLIX (July 2, 1966), 47-48.

. 16. Bloustein, Edward J."Privacyas an Aspect of Human Dignity: An Answer to Dean Prosser," NewY4kUniversity law Review, XXXIX (December, 1964), 962-1 007.

17. Bunn, George. The Banning of Poulson Gas and Germ Warfare: The U.N. Role," American Journal of International taw, LXIV (September, 1 970), 194-199.

18. Carter, Luther J. "Environmental Pollution:Scientists Go to Court," Science, CLVIII (December 22, 1967), 1552 -1556.

19. Cavers, David F.."The Legal Control. of tht Clinical Investigation of Drugs:Some Political, Economic,' and Social Questions," Daedalus, XCVI -II 4ring, 1969), 427-448.

20. Comftrt, Alex."The Prolongation of Vigorous Life," Impact7XX (Octet* ber-December, 1 970), 307-31 9.

21. Conner, Troy B. 'The Licensing- of Power and Testing Reactors in the United States," Lex et Scientia,III(January-March 1966), 32-36.

.22. Cranberg, Lawrence. "Law--Saientific and Juridical, "American Scientist, LV1 (Autumn, 1968), 244-253.

23. ."Science, Ethics, and Law;" Zygon,II (September, )967), 262-271. -. .001414 24. Vane, Robert D.'The Beginning of Marxist Space Jurisprudence, " A-, merican Journal of International Law, LVII (July, 1963), 615425.

25. Cunn itifkm, William C. . "Indicated.Blood Transfusions and theAduli: *Jehovah's Witnpss:._ Trial Judge.Dilemma," Valparaiso University LawsReview, II poll, 1967), 55-a.

26.? Curran, William J."Government Regulation of the Use of Human Sub: jects in Medical Research: The Approach of Two 'Federal Agencies,'" Daedalus, XCVIII (Spring, 1969), 542-594. 43'3- 8

.. *Science ,H n Rights; and ir ote.of Law

I ' 27: Curran, *Wain J. "Legal Codes in ScientificResearch' Itolving Human Subject" (..ex et Scient1a, Ili (April-June, 1966), 65-73.

28. D'Amdfo, Anthony A7 "EnvironmeritalDegradation and Legal Action," Bulletin of the ,Atomic Scientists, XXVI (March, 1970), 24-26. 4 Doctors,. Samu Transfer of Space Technology to the Americgn Con- -.sumer: :The f. NASA's 'Patent Policy, ''' Minnesota Law Review, LII (March,. 789 -818.. V. 30. Doumani,,George."SciencePolicy: for Antar Bulletin ofthe A- tomic Scientists, XEXIV (April,. 1968), 39-45.

Dukeminier, JesserJr. and id Sanders. "Organ. Transplantation: Proposal 'fgr Routine Salvaging of Cadaver Organs, New England Jour- .,nal of Medicine, CCLXXIX (August 22, 1968., 41 3-41 9. 4 4,10 . Edwards, kichard,G.'and Daniel °,.1.51-kirpe."515cial Values and Researqh -in HumanEmbryology," Nature; Cg

_Eilner, Charles. H./life and Death as Viewed by the Common' Law," Lex et Scientia, IV ( January- March, 1967), 15-231.

. . .34. , Estep, Internatiopql Lawmakers in a Tethhological World: Spice, Communications, and Nuclear Energy," GeOrge Washington,LawiRevaew, (October, 1964); 162 -1800.

1ames11 35. , fay; J Mk. "Oil Spills: The Need 'for Law. and Science;" Technology Review, NXII (January, 1970), 33-'35.

Feingoldc Victor."Automation - -A, Qilemmq, in The:UnitedStates, Lex 1-, -et Scientia, 11 Oanuary-March,°1 965), 1.15-131. 40. 37.. Ficarrdi 5erng&d, J. .!'AriifillfaHnsemination: A Medico-Legal Concern," Lex et Scientia, lV (January-Wirth, )967), 48-62. '

,8. / t_ "Sex Problems in Law," Lex et Scientia, III (October-Dec- A emlee466), 228-240. ,

3.9; Florkin; Mar'cel. "Medical Expetiments oriMan," UNESCO Couri XXI :'(March, 1968), 20-29.

. 0 , ** 0.4 . , lig

4 J . .

462 Policy Problems of Science and Techn4ley '- ta,

40. Faster, Michael. "Vixisection," Scientific Monthly, LXXI (September,, 1 950), 139-1,46. . 41. Fox, Renee C. "Some Social an4Cultur41 Factors in imerican Sociefl' re .. dueive to Medical Research on libman Subjects," Clinical Phil-ma- ( c '10 ogy and Therapeutics, I ,(July- August, 1960), 423-444. _., -, ; , I

42. , ,Frankena, William14"Vaturall_andInalienable Rights," Philosophical 4" Review, LX1V--(Aprilf1956)s 212-232. d ,

41;$. ,F r ci n k o, Edward ,G,.. "LicensingTechnology," Industrial Research,,XI (AA- . gust, 1969), 54-56. ., . i.-

. 44.. Gardner, Richard '1:"OUte(SPace: Problems of Law and Power," De- partment a Stet ulletin, XLIX (September 2,.1 963, 367-371. 4, i a. 45. Gicinnella, Donald A."The DifficUft Quest for a Truly Humpne Abortion , LOw," Villanova Lo4TRevieiN, -X111 (Winter, 1968).267-302. t 411. . .._

46. Gibbons, Gerald R."Field Restrictions in Patent Transactions:4conomic. "iscriminatiOn and Restraint of Competition," Columbia Lavneview, VI (March; 1966); 4237.483. . 11 '47. Gibsdn, Stephen L."Ccintemporgry Practice of the United States.Rera to International Law,' American -Journal of International Law, IV (April, 1970), 63P-652. I

41. Id P..."Nuclear Technology'and the Febrile of Government," .., 4 sg . George ton, 1w Reviews XI(II I(October, ;1964), 1 2r-161.

------:-.. 1 , - ,, Th"----;-----___ I 4 49. 'Greet:), Roy:0. '.'Prevalence of Pecipte,-----P_er.sartives In Biology and Med- iiite;*XXII (Spring; 1969)} 332-3,43.

50. Hart, Herbert L. A. .. " ocial Solidarity and the EnforcemenE4if Morality," )Univer , sity of Chi o Law;Review, XXXV (Autumn, 1967), rali.t.

51. Heilpri.n, Laprence, B."Technology and, the FUture of the Copyiight 134irre \ .'.ciple," American Documentation, XIX (January, 1968), 6-11. ... . ,

521. Hesse, Eugerie G. "A Disculsii)n of the turrent World -Wide Atfack on the Patent System as It'Particularly Affects the Pharmacebticar Industry," Lex, et Scientigr (January- March, 1 964), 1a3-144. , '\ i t

. 4i') /- Science, Human Rights, and the Role °flaw 463 #

53..Hindel I, pitiLand Madeleine Simms. "How Mel:kJ:sorti6 W Lobby Worked, .11 Political Quarterly, XXXIX (July-September, 1968), 269-282.

- 54. Jenks, C. Wilfred. The New Science and the Law of Nations," Inter- national and Comparative Law Quarterly, XVII (April, 1968), 328-332.

55. Johnson, Marlin W. "Science and Law' Enforcement:Partners in Pro- . gress," Journal. of Forensic Scie X (January, 1965), 11163-120.

56. Kaltenealler,_H.'?Practice and of the EurOpean Space Research Organization (ESRO) ConcerninTntellectual Property Rights, Access to and DiscIwure and Use of Information," Lex et Sientia, IV ( uly- September, 1967), 156-164.

57. Kalven; Harry and Hans Zeisel. "Law, Science and Humanitm," in The Humanist Frame, ed. by Julian Huxley. New York: Harper, 1961, 329- 344.

58. Katz, Milton."The F;nction of Tort Lidbility in Technology. Assessment," The University of Cincinatti Law ReWew, XXXVIII (Fall, 1969), 587-662.

59.4 Kelsen, Hans."Science ancleolitics,1PAmericanPolitical Science Review,

XIPV (September, 1951), 611-661. ,

6Q. Kenny, John*J. and Ronald P. Hrusoff. The Ownership of the Treasure-s the Sea," William and Mar,LaW keview, IX (Winter, 1967), 383-401.

'Ketchel, Melvin N."Fertility Control Agents as a Po Solution to the World PopUlation 'Problem,Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, . (Summer, 1968), 687-703. .., ..: , 62. ing,Donald B. "Electronic Surveillanse and Constitutional Rights: Some Recent Developments .end Observlati,ons," George Washington Law Review/ XXXIII (Pctober, 1944), 240 -269.

.. 1 A t5 J. Kirkpatrick, William W."Antitrust tin Orbit," George Washington Law Review, XXXIII (October, 1964), 89LI20.' or. 64. Korh, Aprold1;1.."Law, Fact, and Sc.iience irf the Courts," CdolUmbia Law Review, LXVI (June, 1966), 1080-)116.

j05. Krieger, Knut A."Universities Must kngage,in Secret Research," Industrial -Research, IX (October 5, ) 967/, 80; 90-92.

,111

441 464 Po liar Problems, in Science ant}

66. 161Crier, James E. 'the Pollution Problem and Legal, Institutions :. A Con- ' ceptual Overview;" UCLA Law Review,.XV111.(1 971), 425r-477$ .6 S. 67. Lambright, W. Henry'."Government, Industry, and the Research Partner- ship: The Case of Patent Policy," Public Administration Review, XXVIII (May -June, 1 968), 214-221.

68. Langer, Elinor. "Human Experimentation: New York Verdict Affirms Patient's Rights,"' Science, CLI (February: 11, 1966), 463-666.

69. Lasagna, Louis."Problems of Drug DevelopMert," SCieke,eCXLV (July 24, 1964), 362-367.

70 Law and Contemporary Problems. "Privacy," Law and Cohtemporary Prob- lems, XXXI (Spring, 1966), 251-435 (entire issue).

7 Leath, W. Barton., "Meet A0 Ground of Law and Sciehce.inWar: Oper- ations Analysis in the OSAAF, 1942 -45," Lex et Scientia, II (January- March, 1965), 143-.171. q 4

72. Lear, John."Do We Need New Rules for Experiments op People ?" Satur- /.1. dai Review, XLIX (February 5, 1966), 61=70. 4

A 73. . "Experiments on People: Theprowing Debate," SthUrday Review, XLIX (July 2, 1966), 41-43.

74. . "Policing the Consequences of Scienv," Saturday Review, v L .(December 2, 1967), 65-67.

. 75. . "Whither Personal. Privacy?" Saturday Review, XLIX (July .23, 1966), 36; 41; 67. . -76. Ledeoberg, Joshua. "Some Problems of Instant Medicine," Saturday Re: view, L (May 6, 1967), 66-70.

77. Lissitzyn, Oliver J."The American Position on Outer Space and Antarc- tica," American Journal of. Interrillkanal Law, LIII(January, 1959), 126-131.

. a 78. Livingston, Dennis."An International Law of Science: Orders on Man's Expanding Frontiers," Bulletin of the Atimic Scientists, XXIV (De- cember, 1968), 6-10.

11 r if

Science, Human Rights, and the Roleof Law. 465

79. Loevinger, Lee "Sciei*e and Legal Thinking," Federal Law Journal, XXV (Sprin,1965), 153-166.

80. Luzzattqf Et ore "The Proposed European Patent ,Convention and the Protection of Scientific 'Property," Lexet Scientia, Ill '(July- Septem- ber, 1966), 127-134.

81. McCaull, Julian. "Who Owns "the.Woter ?" Environment, XII (October, 19701, 31-39. v 1 4 82. William D. "Biomedical Aspects of Population Control," AIBS _Bulletin (Biocience), XIX (January, 1969), 19-23.

, 83. McLeod, Raymond M."Law, Medicine, and Public Opinion," Public Law. (Summer, 1967), 107-128; Pag4tII, Ibid. (Autumn,1967), 185-211.

84.; McMahon, John F.. "-Legal As f Outer S PaCQ, " British Yearbook Of InternationalLaW, XXXVIII (1,962, 39-399.

,,, ,. 85. Margolis, Howard. "The Politics' orFluoridation,"Bulletin of the Atomic . Scientists, XX (June, 1964), 38-41.

86. Marshall, James-."Eifect of Drugi 'and Blood Chemistryon Intent," Lex et Scientia, IV (July-September, 1967), 145-154.

87. Meenan, Patrick N.. "The Humanas a Research Subject," Lex et Scientia, III (January-Mazch, 1 966)/1-.7.

88., Meyers,. David W. "Organ Transptantation and the Law," Impact,XXI (July-September, 1971), 223-232.

.'1411' 89. Michael, Donald N. on the Relation of the Computer to Individual Freedom and the Right to Privacy," GeorgeWashington Law Review, XXXII! .(Octobero 1 964)%270-286.-

90. Miliivan, Albert S. Rese6rch,Has No Place inq University," Industrial Research, lieraober 5, 1 967),,87789.

Miller, Arthur S."Science Challengestav, " American Behavioral Scien- tist, XIII (March - April, 1970), 585 -593. - >

93 . "Technology, Social Change,. and the Constitution," George Washington Law Review, XXXIII (October, 1964),-17-46. I 443 ( 466 Policy Problems of Science and Technology

93. Miller, Arthur S. "Where Are the Lawyers?" Saturday Review, XLIX (July 2, 1966), 48-.50.

94. Modell, Wolter."Mass Drug Catostrophet and re Roles of Science and Technology," Science, CIVI (April 21, 1967), 346-351..

95. Moor, Edgar J "The International Impact of Automation, " Lex et Scie ntia, (Januari.Maech, 1967), 10 -14. 4 Morison, Robert S."DeathiPr.ocess or Event?" Science, CLXXIII (Au- gust 21t 1971), 694-698.

97. Mulford, Robert D."Experiments on Human Beings,"Sta4'oilkw,Review, XX. (November, 1967), 99-117.

98. Munster,Joegilr. aad Justint . Smith."Savants, Sandwiches, and 5pac ..Suits," Scie CXLV (September 18, .1 965), 1276 -1

99. Nelson, SeevenS "Contemporary Practi of the United tes'Relating

a to internatit&I Lcik" American, Journal of International. Lciw, LXIV AO -44. (O4tober, 1970), 928-\947..

100. Neumeyer, Fredrik."The employed inventor- -Part I: The European Sit- uation," Lex et Scientia, (January-MarCh, 1965), 233-242.

1 01. . "The Employed ventor--Part II: The American Si Le4 et Scientia, II (January-March, 1965), 243-265.

102. Northrop, Filmer S. C. "Ethical Relativism in the f..ight of Recent Legal Sctence," Journal, of Philosophy, 1.11 (November 1 0,1 945), 649 -662.

.103.. Novick Sheldon, "The. Burclep, of Proof, Env ironmftt, XI I (October, 1910), 16 -29. .44 104. O'Connell, Daniel P,"Legal Problems of the Exploitation of the Ocean r 'Flcior," Impact, XXI (July-September, 1 971), 253-264. 105, Palfrey, John G."Law and Sciencilin Atomic Envgy," Lex et Scitlftia,' II (Jampory..March, 1965), 218-231.

106. -Parks., G and Studrt S. Dye."' Ocean Resource Development and LaY4 of the Sea," Lex et Scientia, III (April.-JUne, 1966), 107 -1x16.

1 b ti , . . Sci Human Rights, aitd the Role of tht Law 467

107. Pascal, Robert A."Natural Law'and Respect for-Low," AmericanJournal of Comparative .Lowi XV (NUmber .3; 1966- 1967), 500-506.

108. 'Pell, Clarence. "Seabed Resources," CongressionalRecord, CXVI (De- cember 19, 1 970),S2078-40788.

- 109./Pepin, Eugene."Space Flight/and the Rule 4 Law," UNESCO Courier XIX ,(Mciy, 1966), 17-18;.

110. . "Space Law (II):1.41-1Aspects of Direct Broadcastingby \ Satellite " Impact, XXI (Jury-September,1971), 243-251.

111 Petrov, Rem. "Organ Transplantation: Problems and Peespectivei,"Im- , pact,XX (October-December, 1970), 293-305.

112: Nei, Gerard.. "Scapnce, Censorship, and PublicInterest,Science; CXXV tAp;r i I 26, 1957,t792-794.

113.. Roller, Justine W."Problems In.olving family and Child," Columbia Law Review, LXVI (February, 1 966), 305-316.

114. Purrett, Lawrence. "Tie PoLitics of Marine' Research," ScienceNews, XCIX (January 2, 1971), 9-11.

115. Rosebury, Theodor,"Some, Historical Considerationt,"Bulletin of the A- torrtic Scientists, XVI ()one, 1 960), 227-236. , f

116. RuebhaCssen, Oscar and -On.4i-lle G. Brim, Jr. "Privacy and Behavioral Research," Columbia Law Review', LXV-(November, 1965),1184-1 211.

117. Schur, Edwin M. "Scientific Method and the Criminal-Tdol Decision," Social Research, XXV (Summer, 1958), 173-190.

118. Science."Medical. Ethks:British Unit Offers Giddelines for Research Involving Human Subjects," Science, CXLV (Sepaiber4, 1964), 1024- 1025; 1080-1 084.

11 9. . "The Problem of Experimentationon Human Beings," Science, CXVII (February 27, 1953), 205-215.

120. . "Racial Studies: 'Academy States.PosMonon Call for New research," Science, CLAII (Novembet 17, 1 96 7), 892-893.

446 468 Policy Problems olicierme and Technology L 121. fegal, Sheklon J. "Research in FertilityRegulationf New England Journal, of Medicine, CCLXXIX (August 15, 1968), 364-370.

122. Shaffer, Thomas L."Abortion, the Law, and Human Life," Valparaiso U- niversity Law Review, II (Fall, 1967), 94-106..

123. Sheniti, S.Mahmud. "Multiple Reproduction Processes and Authors' Rights," Impact,-XXI (July-September, 1971), 271-278.

124. Sibiryakov, G."Real, Aims of U.S. Space Co-operatior,"--lAternational Affairs (Moscoet) Number 2 (February, 1966), 62-65.

125. Sinclair, P. Michael. "New Technology for Crime F4hting," Industrial Research, IX (November 5, 1967), 84-90.

126. Smith, Alexander B. and Harriet Pollack."Crimes without Victims," Sat- urday Review, LIX (Decem er 4, 1 971), 27-29. re 127: Smith, Bvrke M. The Polygraph," Scientific American, CCXVI (January, 1967), 25-31.

1 . Stevenson, Johnathan Re., "Legal Regulation of dineral Exploitation in the DeepSepbed," U.S. Orpartment of State Bulletin, LXV (July 12, 197,1), 48-55.

129. Stewart, William H. "An invitation to Open 01,124111," Satutda,y Review, XLIX (Ji.dy 2, 1966), 43-44.

13g.ttrohl, Pierre. "The.-Role of ENEA in the Field of Nuclear Law," OECD Observer, Number 38 (February, 1969), 38-42.

131 Szabady, Egon."The Legal izing of Contraceptives and Abortions," Impact, XXI (July-September, 1971), 265-270.

132.v Taubenfeld, Howard J."Weather Modification and Control:, Somelnter- natio%1 Legal Implications," California Law Review, -1.V (Ivry,.1967), 493-506.

133. Taylor, Carl E. "Ethics forRn International Health PrOfession,"'Science, CLIII'(Aiugu'st 1 2, 1967), 71 6-720. I 134. Thomas, RiChard K."Judging Scientific Fact infharmaceutrial Advert .ing," Lex et Scientio, III (October-December, 1966), 212-215. '. 1r j 4 t .4 % / 4 44: C

a a .4 f fk Science, Hurrt Ifthts, and the Role of Law 469

135. Tobriner, Matthew Q. and Joseph R. Grodin. "The Individual and the ...Public Service Enterprise in the New Industrial State," CaliforniaLaw Review, LV (November, 1967), 1247-1283.

. Topol, Allan J.:taw and the Nation," Saturday ReviewrLI (August 3, p 1968), 49-52,

137. Tribe LawFence H. "Legal Frameworks for the Assessment and Control of Technology," Minerva, IX (April, 1971), 243-255.

1 38. . "Towards a New Technological EthiC:T4e'Rcle'of LegOr Liability," l'Pnpact of Science orr Society, XXI (July-September, 1971'), 215 -222.

1'39. Westin, Alan F."Science, Privacy, and Freedom: Issuesand fropakals for the 1970's.Part I:Th urrent Impact of Surveillance on Privacy," Columbia Law Review, (Juno 1966), 1/002 -1050.

140. . "Sclenassr..eavacy, and Freedom:Issues and Proposals, fdr the 1970's.Port II:Balancing the Conflicting Demands of Privacy, Disolo:.ure, and Surveillance," ColumbiaGLaw Review, LXVI (Novem- berii 1966), 121-1253..

141.' Whale, Arthur R."Securing the Benefits of Science for Human-Welfare," Lex et Scientia, nuary-March, 1965), 77 -85.

142. Wheeler, Harvey.."Bringing SCience under Law," Center Magazine, 'II

(March,, 1969), 59-67. i ,

143. Willi% Sidney H."The Control over InterstateDistributPandUse ff Investigational Drugs," Lex et Scientia, IV (April-June, 1967), 110-119.

1 44. Wolfensberger, Wolf. "Ethical Issues in Research with Human Subjects" Science, CL(January 6, 1967), 4P -51 = 4 145. Wright, J. Skelly."The Need for Education in the Law of Criminal Cot- rection," Valparaiso University Law, Review, II (Fall, 1967), 84-94.

146. Zhukov, G .,,P."Space LaW.(f): The kew Extra-Terrestrial Jurisprudenc0," Impact, XXI (July-September, 1971), 233-241.

447 rl

470 Policy Problems of Science and Technology

General Referencr.silkoks

147. Alderson, Wroe, ed. Patents and Progress:The Sources and Impact of . Advancing Technology. Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, 1965, xiii, 251.Biblio. *- 148. Alexander, Lewis M., ed.TheLaw of the Sea.Columbus: Ohio State ,University Press, 1969, 321.

4 . 149. Bachmbn, Otto; Frederick M. Sherer, et allPatents and the Corporation: . A Report on Industrial Techrtallogy under Public Policy. Second Edition Boston:Patents and the Corporation, 1 959, 195.

-150 Baldwin, Malcolm F. and James- K. Page, eds. Law and the Environment. New York: Walker, 1970, 432.

.151. Bear, Larry A.Law, Medicine, Science, and Justice . Springfield, Ill inois: Charles C. Thomas, 1964, 656.

152., Berle, Alfred K. and- L. Sprague de Camp.Inventions,_Patents, and Then- Marlogement. Princefon, N_ew ,lers-eyg Van NOstrand, 1959, 602. 4 - r r . . 153. Bloustein, EdwardJ.,-ed.Nuclear Energy, Public Policy, and the Law. Dobbs Ferry, New York: Oceans, 1964, 114.*

15.4: Bryan, William J., Jr.Legal Aspects of Hypnosis.Springfield, lt1inois:

Charles C. Thomas, 1962, 304. J ....

155. Burke, William T.\internationalLegal Problems of Scientific Research in the Oceans, Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1967, 143:

.156. . Towards a Better Use of the Ocean: Contemporary Legal Problems in Ocean DevelopMenf. New York: Humanities Press, 1969,

157. Caldwell, Lynton K.In Defense of Earth.Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana versity Press, 1972, 293.

158. sserly, Julian V. In the Set-Vice of Man: Technology and th' Future of Human Values. Chicago: Regnery, 1967, 204.

159. Christol, Carl Q. ,lnternotional Law Studies 1962: The International Law of Outer Space. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Qfz, flop, 1,966, 513.

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160. Cohen, Maxwell, ed.Law and Politics jn Space:Specific and Urgent Problems in the Law of Outer Space.Montrect4, Canada:McGill University Press, 1964, 221. . .---

161. Cohn, Simon I.Law Enforcement Science and Technology I. Pikezille, Maryland: Port City Press, 1969, 612.

162. Dobzhansicy, Theodosius.The Biological Bads of Human Freedom. New York: Columbia University Press, 1'956, 139.

...__ 'N., 4 163. Ellert,-. Robert B. Legal Aspects of Weather Modification.Paper pre- - sented at the 1 967 Meeting of the American Association for the Ad vancerrient of Science, New York, Decemjoer 30, 1967. New York: American Association for the Advancemle of Science, 1967, 13,.

164. Forman, Howard I. Patents:Their Ownership and Administrafiort by the United States Government. New Yoric: Central BookCo., 1957, 351.

165. Freed, J. Arthur.Some Ethical and Social Problems o.Science andTech- nology: A Bibliography of the Literature from 1955.Los Alamos: Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, University of California, 1964, 48.

166. Fuller, Lou L.The Morality of Law. New Haven, Corinecticut: Yale University Press, 1964, 202. . 167. Gal, Gyula.Space Law. Dobbs Ferry, Nevi York: Oceano,' 1969, 320.

168. Gellhorn, Walter.Security, Loyalty, and Science:Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1950, 300. *

169.. Giesberg, Morris. On Justice in Society.Ithaca, New _York:York: Cornell

University Press, 1965, 248. 1 4 170. Haley, Andrew G. Space Law and Government. New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts, 1963, 584;

171. Hall, Cameron P., ed. Human Values and 'Advancing Technology. New York: Friendship Press, 1967, 175.

172. Hook, Sidney, ed.Determinism and Freedom in the Age of Modern Sci- ence:! A Philosophical Symposium. New Yoric: New York University Press, 1 958, 237. 445I

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1172. Hutton, Gerald L.Legal .Considerations on Ionizing Radiation: .Radio- nucl ides and Radiation-Emitting Devices. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1966, 108.

174. Jones, Harry W. Law and the Social Role of Science.NewYork: Rock- efeller University Press, 1966.24.3-:

175. Krier, James E.Environment Litigation and the Burdenof Proof. .os geles:Institute of Government and Public Affairs,University of Cal- ifornia, 1971, 18.

176. Krogen, Adrian A.Symposium on AtomicEnergy and the Laws Berkeley: University of Cali 1958, 125.

177. Meyers, David W. The Human Body and The Law: A Medico-Legal Study. Chicago: Aldine, 1970, 203. \

178. Murphy, Walter F.Wiretapping on Ttleki: A Case Study in-the Judicial Process,. New York: Random House; 1965, 176...

179. National Academy of Sciences. National Academy of Engineering. Com- mittee on Interplay of Engineering with Biology and Medicine. Gov-. ernment Patent Policy.Reportof the Subcommittee.Washington, D.C-.: National Academy of Engineering, 1 970; 83.

180. National Academy a Sciences- National Research Council .Administra- tion oft edical and Pharmaceutical Patents. Washington, DX Na- tional Academy of Sciences- National Research Cjuncil, 1955, 69:

1 81. National Aeronautics and Space Administration.Conference on the Law of Space and of Satellite Communications. Washington, D.0.: Scien- tific .and TechniCal Information Division, Ndiional Adronaufics and Space Administration, 1964, 205.

182. Northrop, FilmerS.C.The Complexity of Legal and Ethical experience: Studies in theMethod ofNormative Subjects.Boston:' Little, Brown, 1959, 331.

188. Packard, Vance.The Hidden Persuaders New York: McKay, 1.957, 275.

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184. Palmer, Archie M.University Research and Patent Policies, Practices, and Procedures. Washington, D.0.:National Academy of Sciences -

K National Research Council, 1 291. (Publication 999)

185. Patterson, Edwin W. Law in a Scientific Age. New York:` Columbia

University Press, 1963, 87. >

186. Roche, Philip Q. The Criminal Mind: A Stud, of, Communication between the Crjminal Law and Psychiatry. New York: Wiley,1 967, 311. (Reprint of 1 958 Edition.

187. Sax, Joseph L. -Defending the Environment: A Strategy for Citizen AC"- tion. New York: KnOpf,1971, 259.

188. Shils, Edward A.The Tormentof Secrecy: The Background and Conse- quences of American Security POlicies., Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, 1956, 238.

189. Shindell, Sidney.The Law in Medical Practice.Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1966, 297.

190. Slouka, Zdenek J.International Custom and the Continental Shelf: A Study in the Dynamics of Customary Rule of International Law. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1968, 186. 4$ 191. Taubenfeld, Howard J., et al.Weather Modification:Law, Controls, 3 Operations.Report to the Special Commission on Weather Modifica- tioh.National Science Foundation. Washington, D:C.: Gov- ernment glinting Office, 1966, 73'.

192. Taubenfeld, Howard J., ed.Weather Modification and the Law. Dobbs. Ferry, New York: Ocean, 1968, 228.

193. Thomas, An V. W: and Adrian J. Thomas, Jr.Legal Limits on the Use of Chemical and Biological WeaOns. Dallas, Texas: Southern Meth- odist University.eress, 1970, 337. . ,

1 94. Thorwald, Jurgen.Crime and Science. New York:Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1967, 494.

1 95. United Nations Educational,Scleceic,andCultural Organization.Hu- man Rights, Comment's drid InterpretationsA Symposium. London:17 Ian Wingate, 1-949,M7. t. 4 5 L 474 Policy Problems of Science and Technology

:1962 0:S. Atomic Energy Commission. Planning for Envir2nmental Protection in Sifirig of Nucrearand Fossil Fuel Power Plants; "Remarks before FAO- 1 eral Bar Association, Atomic Enely Law Comm'eeat a Seminar on" Possible New Issupxyin AEC'Licensing Proceedings, Antitrust and En'vi- ronmental Effects, October 15t1969, Washington., Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969, 17. 0116

U S.Congress.Senate Committee on the Judiciary. Subcommitteeon Patents, Trademarks and Copyrights. An Economic Review of the Patent System. Study ,of the Subckrnmittee to the 85t4, Congress, 2nd Session, June 30, 1958.Pursuant to Senate Resolution 236, Study No. 15 prepared by Fritz Machlup. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Print- ing Office, 1958, 89.

198. . Committee on the JudiciarySubcommittee on.Patents, Trade- marks, and Copyrights.The Impact of the Patent System on Research. Study of the Subcommittee to the 85th Congress, 2nd Ses ion, May 16, . 1 958. ,Pursuant fo Senate Resojtion 236, Study -No.15 prepared by Seymour Melinan. WaShingikon, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Of:- ficee1958, 62..

, 199. .S., fedgral Council-fos Science and Technology.Office of Science _____qand Technology. Annual Report on Government Patent Policy. Wash- ik r inaton,Ire° D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968, 64. 0

200. ..Office of Science and Technology. Government Patent Policy Study.Final Report, Volume I.Washington, D.C.: U.S. De- partment of Cornmer,pe; Boston: Harbridge House, 1968, 57.

201. U.S. President's COmmissiori'.on the Patent System. To'Promote the Pro- gress of ...,Useful Arts in an Age of Exploding Technology.Report of the President's CommissiOn on'the Patent System.Washingtcin, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966, 58.

202. Weinstein, Jerry L.; ed.LajbandAdministration : new York: Pergamr, 1966, 426.(ProgreL ir1 nuclear Energy Series, Volume 4)

203. Wilson, 0-. J.Patenttind'copyright Policies in Forty-Five Colleges and Universities. Bowling Green: Office of institutional Research, West- ern Kentucky University, 1967

#1\A 52 . to 4

41. r

r 1 . Science, HUrron.Rights; and the Role of Low i 4 i' 204. Worldling, George V.Inventians and Their Protection. .Second Editibn. .e. New York: Boardman, 1954, 90. Pe . t 1 205. World Health Organizat ign.- Protection against IonizingRadiations: A 1...... Survey of Exiting Legislation.Reprint from The 1041-national Digest of Health 1 I ion, XV (Number 2,, 1 964), 170. 4 49 206 . Treatment of Drug Addicts: A Survey,of ton. Reprinf fromthe International Digest of Health LegisiaM, X.11i (Number 1,'1962), 46.

S ss

-,1,

.rrs.

-4

4 -41*

J r

4' 453 r 2

:.7111 4--

Science, Human Rights; and the Role of Law I .477 (f"

a ; LEADING QUESTIONS

0- 1 1.What s. en the net effect of Acience on belie inhumanrights--positive, net tive, ior neutral?. What is the evidencV? I it 2.Have efforts to discove r a natural (or scientific) basis" for positive low been none, misguided, rx premature?,Hoye the difficulties been informational, -petceptual,,or institutional ? . 4. . , What-pre the legal and moral implications ofbdvances in nlical technology which-make it possible to keep alive for considerable periods patientsswho may have. suffered irreparable brain damage? "'N II tgy . If we postulate a situation in which a "scientific truth" anda -1,1porrtical truth" are in conflict in society, which truth should prevail?In vAha.t respects are the, assumptions of science and democracy mutually reinforcing? --potentially 4 d . antagonistic?

5.With the a va i labi I ity awl prospective application ofnew instruments of ,control over society, how can traditional concepts of freedom under law have meaiting? 0 6.How far is it possible oror desirable-for government to control theuse of elec- 'tragic or other "spying" devices? . Is privacy a human right? What is the evi- . -,,7 . .., dence?. , . 7.What "new rigkts"Illave been Age feasible by science and what traditional .srights have beep modified or impaired?Is the very 'Concept of ."human rights" inconsistent witlia scientific outlook? / . . . 4 8.What bc.differences in attitudes concerning the econo*.c and social ofscignilic and technological innbvationate retlectedlin LJ.,S. and U.S .S..# -... patent laws? -'P . dal , ; ... AI; ' v. 9.To what extent must the scientist bear moral responsibility for 'theuses, made of . .'his innovation by,society (in hisown country or in a foreign country)? Could , or should scientists band together in' refusal to work -in certain harmful areas ,., of Inowledge (e.g., nuclear weapons, germ warfare)? , .r."' . . 10. What evidence 'might be cited for presentorapproaching changes in influence

by scientific% knowledge in the following areas: . .. a.. Property rights , . % -.s 1 b.Sociopathic behavior .,,.. ''44 c.Public health (e.g., sanitation, innoCulation" flour' . d.lkiblicatien,printi, broadtasting, etc.' _ , e.Medical, psychological pand social experimentation f.Domestic relations 54. 41,

' TOPIC 15 GOVERNING THE TECHNOSCIENTIFIC S'UPERCULTURE

One effect of science and technology upon modern'societyhas been to create a new level of assumptions, values, methods, and information that transcends na- tithe( and traditional cultural boundary lines.This level of awareness (or' of knowledge) corresponds in some respects to the phenomenon that-V. I. Vernadsky and Pierre Te ilhard de Chardin called the "nobsphere".Perhaps it is more because it'includes material objects and social institutions as well as inariimate ideas,.It is here ikescribed asIlike technoscientific superculture, not because -a is necessarily superior to traditio al cultures, but because it is a new cultural level overlaying geographically localized historical societies.

As noted under Topic14 (Science, Human Rights, and the Role of Law), the inability of legal and judicial; institutions to adjust-to changing conditions is one of the major 'policy problems of the technoscientific- age.In--traditional locieties where law could be relatively statskc, government could be largelya process of ad- judication.Ina technoscierifific society, however, the ,tisks qi.sovernment are increasingly managerial. The type of which best serCes as a foundailonfor publ id management is notalwaysjhe same as that intended as a basis for the lodg- ment of courts .Anew 'structure of public accountabilitris required if society is to benefit fully from science and,technology, end is to avoid both the tyranny of the

technocrat and frustration from obsolete legal Strictures: . .

4, Tile challenge' of the technoscientific superculture to management is at least three-fold, .;he primary challenge is conceptual. It is to identify the needs of a viable industrial society, and the means to meet them, without impairing the ecological basis of that society or of human welfa&generally.In the second place, the task of management is one of institutionalevelopment. The advancement of science and technology.hai resulted, often indirecliit in pro lems new in kind or magnitude for which traditional machinery of goNte.rrNent doe tsolfice. Explor- atiorPof outer ppace.bils been one of theseeand the controlo environmental pollution and the*univ.ersal extension of health care ace pOlicyareas that have yet to tr. find adequate.; nstitution'al expression? The third ohal lenge is one of4luman deveI - opmerrt. To manage the forcesliberatedthrough 'science requires public officials . andadministrators with,qua.lities rarely ervideht.in the past. The stakes for success and failure in the superculture,hre too high to leave the quality cif/lead.ership in policy anmanagemenn o chance./ Ways must be found to provide society with leadersbipcompetence in the rightplaces atthe right times., This is largely a new task ofIligher' education in4hich government, industry,the professions, and the

universities must col laborate. ConcoMitant with this task is the upgrading of public understanding of sciencearultechnology, so that true reciprocityandresporisibility, can prevail between the roles of scieetist and c tiien and bet,,4een both of these and the leadership-in poliCy and management'of theltechtioscientific salperculture. .t a.

455 0 . 480 PC; Priblems of Science and Technol* '

? . TOPIC 15GdVERNING TECHNOttlENTIFIC.4LSUPERCULTURE

: .., 1 Selected Basic Reading!: . - , .

Brooks, Harvey. "What CamTechniogyDo About Technology?" Research Man.- er iagement, XIV (March, 1971),12-20.

Caldwell,. Lyntan K.'Mandgii.ig the gcientific Super-Cultore: The Task la Ed. . national Preparation," Public Administration Review,XXVII (June; 1967),. 128 -133. . se-7 Gershinowitz, Harold :1141Cit iona I. Differences in Styles-of Re.searCh Management," ResearchManagement, XII (May, 1 969),205-21 8.

Lakhtin, GeorgeA.; "Opera I ResearciorMethods irr the Management of Sci- entific Research)" Miner VI (Summer, 1968),524-540.

t ,Rrders,. J4rgen and Donnella Meadows.* "The Carrying Capacity of the Globe," Sloan Management Review,' XIII (Winter, :197 11-27.

Supplementary and Substitute leadi ngy

Beer, Stafford.."Managing Modern Complexity," Futures, II (June, 1974), 1 T4-V4 122.

Bush, Vannevar. "Of Inventions and, Imientors," Research Management, XIV

(July, 1 971), 274?). . .. . * . 6 . Ito . . 4 Feinberg, tikortimer R."Fourteen Suggestions for Managing Scientifia.Creativ.ity7 . .Research.Managiment, XI (March, 1968), 83-92. ' ,. .." . , . i . a Johnson, lalaward W. 'Laotianfor Management and Technology in the' 1 970's, Science, CLX (May '10,1%8), 620-627.... : Merton, Robert K. "Behavi6r Patterns of Scientist.' American, Scientists,'LVII :\ (Spring, 19¢9), 1-2g,, . , , - ...

. - 1 .1 a , , I ipterback, Jonies'M."The Process-of Technological Inn'ovat.jon Within the Firm, '

Academy Of Management Journal, Xl

# ! , . 5.*.. Alb ...i, I i r, -,

'4'-I44 /

TOPIC 15 GOVERNING THE TECHNIOSCIENTIFIC SUPERCULTURE,481 d

TOPICAL OUTLINE REFERENCE KEY

I. D*inandsof the New Science and Technology

.upor, Management 3, 97, 1 1,150, 159, 172, 1'74, 44 4.4 206, 239- , A. itInformation: high-level demand for exten- 'sive, occurate, and timely data 6,168,Fos;151, 2611 B.interlocutio.n:intermediary Communication' ,

'among' specialists and diville interest groups 87, 95,155, 156, . . . le . . .- 198 C.Prescience: ability to deteCt trends and to predict develOpments.:(Cf. Toptc 13) 13, 17,20.3

D.Adoptability: cbpacrtY,to respond to rapid nge;.in technology and the environment . 3, 27 . ersbti I ity: 'tolerance for complexity and A. multi'foctsed problem-solving 87 . -

4 IPI Ir'npact of Sciene pnd TecIpol Managerial

,. - Concepts and Prictices 4, 461.8 9, 150, _174, 184, 24. 231, 259, 261, ;

26e, 2811 286, 4 lb, . 294 A.4S.cientific rr0;nagement" 114, 113, 197, 4 , 227, 2404 258. 1 It 1. frwlerick W Taylor and the search for .florie best way" . , 171, 291 2. Effoosto,develop a rational, presCriptive, "scientific" pipctice of man9gernent . 46, 47, 132 3.1prnationalization of the scientific rnanagemontmovqment 88, 92, 96,121, 01126, 131145, 1,74, 303- 8.Ipclustrial psychology and organizational Atkhavior 40; k, 14i

457 4

Policy*oblemi of Scienceand Technology

1. The Hawthorne explrirnents 56, 276 2. Human relatidns andgroup dynamics..research 197, 245 3. Growth of personnel admInistnnion in government and industry 245, 276 ) C.Factors affecting the geativity of scientists and engineers 24, 35, 50, 51, 62, 75, 93, 95, 117 127, 130, 141., 144, 149, rss,156, 162,, 166,E 96, 250, 257,..267, 270,

277 . 1. Organizational structure 3, 10, 41, 61,115, 2. Intellectual capability 39,.109, 16Q. 3. Age and physical condition 4. Rewards and recognition 28, 29, 3.3, \ 69, 70, 1014, 136, t 1.39 5.Popularity of area of v4oric 48 6. Peoonal motivation 22, 39, 54, 67, 95, 140 7..Presiure to be ,productive 6).;.38 8. Freedom to do work of vim interest 9.. Patent policy and contract restrictions 23, 218, 296 10. Exceptional psychological, factors. 15, 81, 118

D.Operations research and "management science" 44; 9t, 94, 119, Ye, 193, 195, 215, i 246, 254, 268, . . 278, 282492 4 forts to cope with organizatiOnal size it complexity through quantitative ...-A: % is and mathematics ' 52, 158; 212 2. e lective: to study the management ... i Kocess scientifically, rather thano Attempt to Make the practice of manage ''. P i iment a science 46,4101 3. Product:, a new kind of specialist--the iystems analyst, advisoryor adxiliary to traditional management -k 59; 65, 791122, 168

. . I ti

Governing the Technoscientific Superculture 483 6

I I. E. Scientific concepts initcted into management thfory and practice 11,45,100,102, 125, 143, M8 f. Systems theory' influenceon organize- tional structure and managerial control 63, 83, 1 08, 129, 1814186,191, 411. 246,249,253 2. Probability, theory influenceon actuarial fotecasting and organizational decision- making 119,223 3. Cominunicatiort theories influencfon management-employee information praqIces and communication with organizationar clientele and the public 1 80,.272 4. Psychology oi pe lity influences on .,selection andplalifent-ofpersonnel and use of standardized tests and performance' ratings w31, 32, 64, 223

Science-Derived Tools of Manageria4 Operations, Analysis, and Decision-Making 27, 157, 231, 233, '284 Hardware--examples 43, 132, 222 1. Office machines 2 T-T..communi 'Cations media, 241, 272 3., Computers . 6, 16, 76,18,

it 1 O5, 113t 161, 209y 283 P Softwore--examples 01, 1 82, 238 . 1. 'Records management systems 241. 2i Personnelmanagement sysiens 135

'3. Accounting and inventory systems . 103,151 4. Budget, planning, prbgrammingsyftems_ 12,1 Q3, 264, 300 ' 5..Operations control systems (e.g., PERT) 83t 252, 262 , 6. Models and simulation 1, 55, 92,128,.

. 1 94, 243, 292

IV. t ducatOdT/Impliccitions fot tignagerilent in a Technoscientfic'SuperCulture ?6, 82, 1 47,03",, 280, 304 I '45ti

1 A

484 Policy Problems of Sciencliknd Technology

A.Necessity for a continuous process of education 71, 72, 97 1. Omnipresent threat of obsolescence 2. Preparatory education must be fundamental, not ephemeral 3. Periodic up-grading through "executive development" experiences is essential

, Cultural orientation required for effective managerial. leadership 5, 30, 235 1. Manager must be able to operaten two lb cultures: traditional and tech scientific 13, 234 2. Educational experience ought therefore, . to provide appreciation of t full range of the cultural,environrnen. humanistic, scientific, technical, pofi, cal t. 131

C.- Better means are needed to increase the, probability of managerial positions being filled by persons with qualities best suited to the mends of the new technscientific societ 26, 82 (- 1.. ties that impel individuals into 4. to litical, administrative,.and ma gerica positions are not-netessarly those that the responsibilities of the . positions require 2. Primitive attitudesmay gain exaggepeed harmfulness ice, highly interdeprident technoscientific sale ti 3. A i.e/ioble psychology of motivation is greatly needed for thi improv #ment of

politics and administration and for the - task of educational preparation for the management of science clnd technogy

eir V. dome Problems of Management in the Technoscientific Supercultyre (Micro-Administration) 189, .190, 208, .t. 212, 217, 219, 226, 239, 248, 282, 284, 298 I Governing the Technoscientific Superculture 485

A.Optimization and sub7optimization 53,155, 156, 169, 200, 251 1. Ascertaining point of satisfactoryaccom- plishment (Simon's 1'satisfycing"), 2. Calculation of cost's and benefits at alternative levels of accomplishment and through alternative methods 12, 58;1014,134, 170 3. Investigation of pos ible inadvertent and indirect conse ences 42, 213, 214 a. Recourse to sy ems analysis 99, 111,137,142, 179, 181, 191, 192, 268, 269, 278, 297 b. Use sf 55, 85, 128

B Organization of complex operations within a critical time dimension (initially exemplified in military operationi and now extended to 4. industrial production, outer-space exploration, and biomedical technology) 52 79, 86, 165, . , 249, 255 1. Monolithic versus federalized (contractual organization) 216 2. Combination of authority and specialized competence: functional, program, and project management 57, 84, 177, 238 3. CorWrol systems: timing, coordination, quality of performance 4, 112 4. Stand-by auxiliary facilities 120 5. Organizational task; of simplification,, refinementr and phase-out 120

C.Organizationakcybeirnetics: steering the organization through its task environment 9, 83,128, 202, 267 1. Surveillance and mapping of the task s . environment :2. Interpretation of the siificance of% environmental it 011S 1. Development ofed-back and early warning systemsand automatic response mechanisms J 461 s ' 486 Policy Problems of Science and Technology

VI. Policy Problems of Managing the Technoscientific . ',Superculture (Macro-Administration) 18, 19, 74, 85, 86, 175, 183, 216, 304 A. Ascertaining the' goals and priorities toward which the resources of the technoscientific society should be directed (Cf. Topics 11 and 12) 26, 66, 76;0271, 289, 301, B.:introl of technology in the public interest ° (cf. Topic 14) . 4 7, 38, 89, 90, 188,256 L. Reformulatiop af fAe public interest in . the results oNechnological change 207, 272 2. Instrumental means for control of technological change 150, 269, 289

C. Resolving the conflict inherent in differences between the autonomy of technoscientific institutions and the values of democratic self- government e 207, 216 1. Query: a there inherent conflicts between science, technology, and democracy, or only between certain concepts and interpretations? 7, 187 2. ExaMination of the rationale for prevailing organization for science and technology 121, 216, 271 3. Development of an integrative concept of social control to assistthe harmonization of scientfiic truth, technological advantage, and democratic responsibility 17, 146 4. Nefessity for administrative leadership in the integrative task 7, 26, 30, 106, 289

413"..,1, A.

,._ Governing, the Technoscientific Superculture 487 e - BIBLIOGRAPHY 1.- k General Reference.: Articles

A` 1. Abt,. Clark C. "Playtime in the Boardroom - -AA New Educational Tech.:. nology," European Business! Number 30 (Summer, 1 974-54-63.

2. - Asmutz, Arnold E.'City Management--A Problem in Systems Analysis," . Technology Review, LXXI (October-November, 198), 47-53.

3. Anderson,Arthur G. Maintaining Vitality irrR & D Organizations," Research Management, XIV (July, 1971), 47-57.

4. Arrow, Kenneth J."Control in Large Organizations," Management Sci- ence, X (April, 1964), 397-408. ." a -7 5.- Ashby, Err!. "The Administrator: Bottleneck or Pump?." 'Daedalus, XCI,. (Spring, 1962), 264-278. . I.

6. Baker, W. O."Computers as Information-Processing Machines in Modern Stience," Daedalus', XCIX (Fall, 1 97 0), 1088 -1120. 1

7. Beard, Charles A."Government by Technologists,"NewRepublic,. LXIII (June'l 8, 1960), 115-120.

8. Beebe, Thomas H. "Company Practices in Rewarding Outstanding Research Achievements, " Research Management, VIII (September, 1 965), 311 -375,

00, 9. Beer, Stafford."Managing Modern Complexity," Futures, ilf (Junt, 1970),

. 114-122.

40 10. Ben-David, Joseph."Scientific Productivity and Academic Organization in Nineteenth-Century Medicine," American Sociologic_91Review, XXV (December, '196Q), 828-843. .., ,-, , 11. Blake, Robert R., Jane Mouton, Louis B. Barnes, and Larry E. Greiner. "Breakthrough in Organization Development," Harvard Business Review, XLII (November-Decemberi 1964), 133 -155. .- . 0 12. Bobis, A .H., T.F. Cooke, and J.H. Paden."A Funds Allocation Method 01 to Improve tile' Odds for Research Sutcesses," Research Management, XIV (Moral, 1971), 34-49, . i 463

a A. 6

a 488 Policy Problems of Science and Technology .

13. Boettinger, Henry M.' "Technology in the Manager's Future," Harvard Business Review, XLIX (November-December, 1 970),'4-14 165. V 14. Bondi, A. "Focusing on a Single Objective: A Contribution of Applied Reseakth to Science and .Engineering Methodology," Chemical Tech-. nolo9y, (October, 1 971), 59 -598.

41 15. Boring, Edwin G:"Psychological Factors in the Scientific Process," Amer- ican Scientist, XLII (October, 1954), 639-645. TT

16. Brabb, George. J." and Earl B. Hutchins. "El ectropnic Computersand Man- agement Organization, " California Management Ryiew, VI ,(Fa I I, 1 963), r 33.

17. Bright,' James R. "Opportunity and Threat in Technological Change, " Har- vard Business Review, XLI (Novemher7December, 1 963), 76-86.

1 8. Brooks, Harvey.:'Mode I s for SciencePlanning,"Public Administration Re- view, XXXI (May -June, 1971), 364-374. .

1 9. . "What Can Technology- Do About Technology?" Research Management, XIV (Maroh, 1971), 12 -20.

i0. tough, Bryan.M. 'Operational Resea-rch as Staff Service to Manage ment," Operational Research Quarterly,' IX s:Juni, 1958),126 -143.

21. Brown, David A.'Compensating the Innovator,\,' Industrial Reseoih, (February, 1 962), 20-24..

. . s22, Bucher, George. C., and Richard C. Gray."The.Principies Of 'Mottva-, lion and Haw. to Apply Them," Research lAnogement, XIV (May, 1 971), 12 -23

23. Bus,h, Vannevar, s "Of Inventi and Inventors," Research Management, XIV (July, 1971), 27-36. N 1 . . 24. Cahn, Richard W."Case Histories of innovations," Nature; CCXXV (Feb- wary 21,197 0), 693-695. . a 4 s , 25. a irl, jack -0 . and Patrick )t . Gallagher,a Jr ."Government, Science, and ". Technology: A BibliographiCal Essay," Public Administration Revie -XXVIII (July-August, 1968), 373-381,

46,1 j

- Governing the Technosciehtific Superculture 489

26.: Caldwell, Lynton K."Managing the Scientific Super-Culture: The Task of Educational Preparation," 'PublicAdministration Review, XXVII (June, 1967), 128-133.

27. Carpenter, Richaid A'."Information for Decisions in- Environmental Pol- icy," Research Management, XIV (March, 1971), 27-33.

' 2E). Cole, Stephen an Jonathan R.Cole. ,"Scientific' Output and Recogni- tion: A Study-in the Operation of the RewardSystem in Scienoe," e American Sociological Review, XXXII (June, 1967), 377-390. NN- 29. 4 . "Visibirityand the.Structural Bases of ScientificResearch," ',American Sociological Review, XXXII! :(June, 1968),397-413.

30.- Collier, Abram T. "Business Leadershipand a Creative Society," Har- vard Business,Reviewi-XI.VI.(January-February, 1968), 154-168. Re- print and retrospective of an articl&originallypublished in F953.

31 .Craik, Kenneth J. W.1r1Theory of theH6manOperator in Control Systems: I.. The Operate as an Engineering System British Journal of Psych- XXXVIII (September, 1947), 56-61.

. k ,.. 32. . "Theory, of the Human.Operator txr Control Systems: ,II. ..--7, ' Man as an Element in a Control System," British Journalof Psychology, - XXXVIII (MarCh,e1 942),.142-148. I .- , - 33. Crane, Diana. "Scieritistsut tijciroand Minor Universities: AStucilLof Productivity anctRecognitiog" American SociologicalReview,. =X . (October,1 965), 699 -714.. ,, A r 34. . "Social Structure .in a p.of Scientists: A Test of the A 'Invisib e College' Hypothesis," Arnrican'SociologicalReview, XXXIV Oune, 1969), 395-352.' , 35`:. Daedalus."Creativity and Lecirning," Daedalus, XCIV (Sunver, 1,965), entire issue. , . - L I . . ay . 36.' Dean, Burton y. "Application of Operations Reseprch to Managerial De- cision Making," Administrative Science Quarterli,, III(December, 1 9581 412-428. '. .

37. DeBeer,. G yin.. "Other Men's Shoulders,'.' Annalsof Science, XX- (De- cember, 1964),_303 -322. _

4f S

490 Policy_ Problems of Science and Technology

38. de Jouvenal, Bertrand. The Technocr6tic Ages" Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XX (October, 1964), 27 -29. O. 39. Dessauer, John H."How A Large Corporation Motivates Its Research and Devetoprneil People," Research Management, XIV (May, 1971), 51-55. V.- 40. Diebold, Johr "Scientific Managementand Human Relations, " Advanced Management, xyl I February, 1952), 12-14.

41. Dinsmore, Robert P."Improving the Professional, EnvironMent of Research PeoMe: HumanRelations Are Important," Research Management, I (Sum-. me r, 1958), i-01-112.

I . 42: , D'obltn, J. "Toward a- Science of 'Design," Professional Engineer, XLI (July, 1971), 28-32. AL. 43. Donovan, James "The Automation of Government," Saturclak, Review, XLVII (December t, 1964), ;3 -24.

44. Dorfman,.Robert. "Operations Research/ " American Economic Review, L-* (September, 1960), 575-623.

45. Dror, Yehezkel. "Muddling Through - -' tience or 14;rertia'?" Public Ad- ministration Review, XXIV (Septembir, 1,964), 153-157., A critical' analysis ,af the incremental-change thesis df- Charles E. Lindblom de- t. veloped in "The Science of Muddling Through?" Public Administration Review, XIX (Spring,"11959), 79-88. . A 46. Drucker, Peter F."Management Science and the 'Manager," Management .Science,,) (January, 1955), 115-126: . a . '47. "Potentials of Management Sciegce," Harvard Business Re- XXAVII (January-February, .1959), 19 -30;.146-150. a ..48. Dubos, Rene.."We Are Slaves to Fashion in Research!" Scientific Research, II (Janway, 1967), 36-37; 54. , 1 Ne 49. Dutton, James M. and Richard E. Walton."Operational Research and the - Behayioral Sciences," Operational Researdiguarterly, XV (September, 19.64), '207-217. . ... %.

50. Eschenfelder, Alfred H. "Creating-an Environment far Creativity, ' 'search Management, XI (July,1968), 231240. V

eas

k ;

Gover.ning the -Technoscientific Superculture 491

V. 5c 51. ,Ftinberg,Mortimer. R.: "Fourteen Suggestions for Managing Scientific . Creativity," Research,Mcinagement, XI (March,1 968), 83-92. ." $2. Forrester, Ja)doW. "Industrial Dynamics - -A Major, Brealcthrough4 Dey-

cision-Makeri,"-1-larvard,§usiness Review, XXVI (JulnAugUst, -1958), , 4 r 36-66. 53. "Organize for Technology Transfer," HarvardbBUsinessite- XLIX (Novembei-December, 1 970,11 0 -12O

54. Frederick, Dolores A. "Motivating Scientists-and Engineers, "rj IntIustrial Research, IX (March, 1 967), 86-91.

55. Freeman, Linton. "Two Problems inCOmputer Simulation in the SOcIal and Behailotal Sciences," Soci4l Science I,n,ormOtion, X (Februar )g71),0 1-03-T09.

C . /56.V. fried, J.1-1;E'.''Stociciland Economic ROI& Of Engirieers techni*ians, " - International LabOur,Rsitiew; LV (June, 1947), 512'7.537. .

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. ,.58., Galloway, E:C.,. "ESaluatingR & D Performance- -Keep Iv Simple," Re- .. , silar ch Maagement, XIV (March, .1971),971), 5048.. of; i\ `59. .George, Flibrik1-1.,"Educational Te;IinologAandithe Systems A proach," Cybernetica,,X114- (Number'2, 1970), '105-1 14. .1 ," -, .' 60. Gdishinowitz, Harold: "National Differences in Styles orReseeirchMan-. its. - ., , agercerlt,4 Research Management, 'XII (May,. 1(69), 2 0541 8. A ) t. A .- 4 61...... 'Sustaining Creativity Against Organizational Pressures," - e A Research,Mcinagernenf III (Spring, 1960), '49-56. - . . .1 .. op .., . . Getzelik Jacbb W. and M. Csikszentaiiholyi., ""S .4ientific treativIty," Science Journal, III (September(1 96'7), 80-84.

Gibsoh, :Ralph E.'2,11 Systems \Approacti to,Researcti Management, Part I: Sclitrific Researa," Research Mandpriont, V (July, 1962), 21-5428; "'Part II; Technologiyand Its EnvirOltment," 1,bid-r-y-VIKLvember, 1962), ,423 -437; "Part 114i The Operatione'Ond Matia.geMent of Research and DeVelopmentOrganizOtions," Ibid., VI- (January, 1963), 15-27.

.4 4 6 '

.. 492 Policy Problems'of Science and Technology . -

64. Giddings,. Glfenn.W . and Lowell W. Steele ."Personcrl'Aucliti and Th)'Ir Effect upon ksearch Research Mawgement, I'l (Winter, 1.95?), 41-240.

a . -- 44 , 65. Gladstone, J."How a Systems Analysis Group Helps R & D Man- . V agernentsi; Research Management, XIV (Navemlimil 971), 71., 4 . ..,

( 66. Glicksman, Mauricey :112 & D,inJapan - -A Future Threat'WHI.Challenge. the U.S.,"ResearCh Management,XIV(Jinuary, 1V1), 28-37. r

o tt 4 . 67. Gomersall, Earl R."Cuitent and Future Factors/Affecting the MatiVatjpn b of Scientists, Engineers and Technicians," Research Management, RrIV (May,. 1971), 43-50. ,-. 0

Glitry, G.Anthony, and Michael S. Scott Morton."A Framewor k for Man- $ . agern'ent Inforination Systems," Sloan tilanagemenf.Revi.ew, XIII (Fall, . .v 1971), 55-7a. . .' ,,,. ,. 69. Grey, .0e rge21PwThe Nobel Prizes," Scientific American, CLXXXI (Dec ber,1 949), 1 iMcP . . . - 0 .. .1.

' 70. Ha II enberg, Edward X."Dual Abancemenf Ladder Provides Unique Recog- 4 A* o . nitionfdr the Scientist," Research Management, XIII' (May, 1970), 221- 4 , . , - .. 227. . .1 ** i . t 71.\ Hand, Herbert H.,'"The Mystery of Execi;tive EdyCacion,,9 Business Hori- zon, XIV (June, 1V71), 35-48. . f

Handy, C-harhes B. "Exploding the Management Education Myth,' Euro- pean Business, Number 29 (Spring, 1971), 79-86. .- 73. Harder, Eugene L."Computers and Automation," Impact of Science on Society, X (Number 1,.1 960), 3-15. AIL 74.. Harrington, Michael. "The So Or 's Maga- zine, CCXXXV (November, w Haskins, Caryl P. ".Sience and the Whole Man," Daedalus,,LXAXVI t(Septembere 1956), 1:13-1211.'

76. Henderson, H."Computers at the crossroads.," Futurist, V- (AUgust, 1971),

151-134. P

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, . 77. 6 Hertz, David B.' "The Management of Innovation,"Management Review, v(tkpri I, 145 49-52:

78.- Hil kowrenc S. "Computeri.in'R & D and Engineering--ProCeed.witil Ctre," Rearch' Mona errient, XIII*(May, 1970), 191-200.

79.. 'Hitch, CharlesJ. "The New Approach-to Management in this .5.,Defense Department," Management Science, IX (Octither, 1 962)71-8.

80. Hurni, Merlin L. "Observations on the Role of ikisinels Researchas an Aid to Managers," Cybernetica, III limber 3, 1960), 234-244.

81. Ingle, Dwight.J. "Psychological Barriers in Research," American Scien- List, XLII (April, 1954),183-293.

. 0 . , , 82; Johnson, Hiward W. "Education for Management and Technology:in t1 1 970's " Science, CLX (Ma10 '1 968)L 620-627 .s.;,. _ i ___:_-___ ..,.L___ _- -

:83. Johnson, Richard A Vremont E. Kast,- and Jontei e.Rosenisteia 4,"Systems Theory and Management," Management Science,, X (Jai ry, 1964), . 367-385, .- , , - 84. '.1.3ones, Graham. "The Marvger's Role is Vital," Ntw Scielitis°4 1.11 (De- ., q cember 30, 1 9/1),260-262..0-; t . I IR 1 A 85;' Kadanoff, Les P. -. "From Simuldfion Model to Public Policy,': American C Scientist, LX (January - February, 1972k, 74-79. .

I .. . 86. Kassem, M. Sarni and John S.Efroymson. Iillisia's CheogingtScience and Technology Policles," Research Management, XI V-'(JUly, .1971), 7-46. - 0- .-i . 87. Kassem, M. Sarni and W.B. Wagner."Scientists Who Migratein Teams-- 4 Ancl.HOW to Manage Them," Technology Re_y4w,LXXIII (December, 1170),. 2,-33.: - -. . . . , ' \'" , .." . - 88. Kast, Frentont E."Management COnceptsan41 Proctice,--European Style,"

Business Horizons, VII (Winter, 1964), 25-36.,.

.89. King,Alex1ander'."Management as a Techisalegy," Impact of Scienceon SocietY,.V.III (Number 2,1 957); 63-85. V

90. Kin% Robert W. 'Whithwhe Technological State?" Politcal Scene Cis uarterly, LXV (Marc-f1,1 950), 55:67. .. d 46g 494 Policy' Problems. of Science and Technology

. 91.= Kittel, Charles."The Nature and Development of OPeratiqitesearch," Science, CV (February 7, 1 947) 150-133. . ,

, . 92. Kolcum, Edward1-1. "Litton Investing in Greelf,F4ifure," Aviation Week 5ind.Sply,Technology, LXXXIX (August 5,- 1968),17197.

93.. Kubie4Lawrence.S. "The Fostering of Creative ScientificProductWity," 4.Daedalus, XCI (S:02), 294-309. . . * . g / , (I 94. Lakhtin, GiOrge &A. "Operational researchMethodsin the Management a , of Scienis Resebrch," Minerva, VI (Summer, 1968), 524 -540.

,95: Lar14s, Fred."What'Makes Technical Men Happy and Productive?".Re- ' search Management, XIV -(May, 1 971), 44-42. 0 INN f 96. I LangrodeGeorges."The Rationalization of Methods and Means of Action \.., , 'in Public Administration," InternationaisSocialScience Journal,XIP (Number 3, 1 960), 369-364. . , *1 . , at- . , _.: 97.;.10§avitt, Harold J. and ThoMas L. Whisier.*Management in the 1980's," Harvard Business RevieQ, XXXVI (November-December,.1958), 41-48'. . .' 9d Lesourhe, Jacques."The Place of Operational ftearch in the Develop- Ment of..Modem Society," Impact of ScienceoSociety, tk (Number 4, . 1?59), 1,97 -209.

9 tessiog,* Lawrence. Sysiems Engineering- Invades the City," &tune, usxy I I (January, 1 968), 154.

a roo. Lieklider; J. C.R. "The System System," in trurnanacjorls inTsohnology, by Edward-Bennet,. ef al.New York:McGraw -Hill, 1963,.67-, *641.

. , 1 1. ' Litscert, Rensis; % "Measuring Organkzational. Performance,"Harvard Busi-- _ 1., inessleview,,XXXVI (Mar51-1-Apri'l, 1958), 4150. - . tfle, 4,- I I 1102. ,Lindblom, .0rtes E."The Science of muddling Through," Public Admin- . : ' istration view, -XIX (Spring;ls;5 9), 79.-88. ,. .. , . 103. Lindsay, Edwin M."Financial. Manorment Of R di D: Pl9gning and Bud- ,geting, Project Authorization and Financial -Reporting,'ResearcltAan. agement, XIV (Jul.);,,1911), 58-66.r

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. 4 . Gov- elnin he. Tecbnoscientific Superculturd. 495 , it 1 044 Li ttel, Ri chatdJ.,"The Nel gstabl ishment ,A isilrpse,".Scientific Research,.11 (O'cto'ber, 1967), 48-50; 53-,56.

40-' 105. Lowry, W. Kertneth "Use-of Computers inn Information Systems," Science, 'CLX04./ (Feriary 25, 19472)f841-846. f z

106. undstedt, Sven.: 'Administrative Leadership andthe Use of Social Pow-: er," PubliC;Administration Review, X*(June, 1 965), )56-160.

1 07. LuRens, Matthias E-."practicingManagemtt-Theory,"Public ministration Review,' XVIII (Summer, 1958), .223-230.

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137. Schumacher, David."Cooperation of GoVernmont, ScienCe, cod Industry- in R Systems View," Policy Sciences, 11 (Summer; 1961), 279: 286. : ,. . . k 138'. I' Schwartz, Melvin."The Confli6t between Productivity and Creativity in s r Modern;Day Ph9sics," American BehavioralScientist, VI (December, ...11 . 1 962), 35-36.. . ' -. . . , a . 139. Scce Journal ."ScientisisandTheir Salaries," ScienceJournal? I (May, 63), 81-4: .., 1 , , . , . . , , . . 1 40: .Horace.A. "Motivating the, Industrial Research Scientist," Re- s' ch Management, III (Spring, 1?6q), 57-64. r. 141. Seiferf,-Howard S "Can We Decrease Our Entropy?" American Scientist, LXIX (June, 1961), 124A-134A. .14 .AA 142. Shell, Richard 1.#, and 'DavidlIF. Stelzer. . r, . ysteiris Analysis: Aid toDe- cision Making," Business Horizons; XIV- ( rber, 1 9?1),

143. Shepard; Herbert A. "Applied Behavioral Science-and R & D EffeCtive: ness,: Research Management; XI (September, 15168), 3T321

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152.. 4 ene."Design and Chance in Discoverj, and Invention," itnpactak' ieincesdn Sqciet,VI (December, 1455), 208-232.

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160. V eland, -.Clarence E. "Creative Thought in Scientific Research," Sci- entific Monthly, tXXV (December, 1952), 359-354.

. . 161. Whisler, Thorns L."Mbnater and the Computer,"-Journisl ofAccountiag, CXIX ,(January, 'F965), 27-32. .

162. Whii`e, Lynn/ Jr."The Act of Invention: Caui si Contexts, Continuities, COnsequences," Technic,' ogyand CultureI II (Fall1962)7486-500.

163. Wickesbarg,- Albert K. and ThomasC. Cronin. "Management' by Task Force," Harvard Business Review, XL (November-Decpmber, 1962), 111 -118. b .

164'. Winthrop; Henry.'Total Environmental Mariagement: An ApproaCh to the.Dikernma of 'the Affluent Society," Futures, II (December, 1970), 332-340. ,

165. Woodward; F. qt "Orgari i zed Cooperat ive Reiaarch in Europe," Research Management, XIV filanuary, 1 971),55-63.

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217. .erstenfeld, Arthur. Effective Management of Research arid Develoyment

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227.. Haber, Samuel.Efficiencyand Uplift: ScientifieManagement in the Pro- gressive Era, 1890 -1920. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964,

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4 234.Hill, Karl, eci: Th:s1Management- of Scientists:BcA5IS Press, 1964, 143.

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237.. Johnson, Richard A., Fremont E . K'asf, and James E .Rosenzweig. The Tl ory and Management ,of Systems.Revised Edition. New York: cGraiv-Hill, 1967, 513.

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1116 0 240. Karol, Alexander G. Soviet Research and Development.Camb?ldge, Massachusetts: M.I.T ."Press, 1965, 375.

241. Landau, Martin, ed:Management Information Technology--Recent Ad- vancesand Implications for Public dmintatico: A Symposium Based upon Papers Presented at the 1114 National Conferenceon Public Ad- ministration, New York Cify,. April 17, 1964. American Sciciety for Publit.Administration.Philadelphia: ,University of Pennsylvania-Fels Institute of Local and State Government, 1 965, 53.

242, Leonard, William P.The Management Audit: Anpproisal Manage- ment Methodbpnd Performance. Englewood'Clis, New'Jery: Pren7 tice-Hall, 1922, 238.

243. Leontief, Wassily:Input-Output Economics. New York: Oxford Uni- it versity Press, 1966, 257.

244. Lesher, Richard L. and George J. Howik. Assessing ',technology Trans- fer. Washington, D.0 Office of Technology Litigation,,Nationai Ae7onautic's and.Space Administratio'n,1966, 121.

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506 Policy Problems of Science and Technology /

246. Lyden, Frepiont J. and Ernest G. Miller, eds.PlAning Programming Bud- . geting: A Systems Approach to Management. Chicago: Markharn,.1968, 443. (..

247. McCamy, James, L.Science and Public Administration. University: Uni - versity of Alabama Press, 1960, 218.

241,3., McDonough, Adrian-M. and' Leonard D. Garrett. Management Systems: ,r-' -. Working Conceptsand Practices. Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin} 1965, 311.

249. Malcolm, Donald G.,, Alan J. Rowe, and Lorimer F. McConnell, eds. Management Control Systems. New York: Wiley, 1960, 375. .

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so'

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264. Novick, Ddvid, ed. Program Budgeting:program Analysis and the Fel- eral Budget,Cambridge,' Massachusetts:Harvard University Presl, '.,1965, 382.

fi 265, Optne, Stanford' L Systems Analysis for.Business Management:- A Systems Approach for Analyzing theeffectiveness of a Business.Engldvood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1960, 276. 4, A r 766. Orrnization. for Economic CooperatiOn Ind Development.Conditions Tor Success in Technological Innovation.Paris: OECD,11971, 172.

267. Pelz, D.C. and F.M. Andrews.Scientists in Organizations: Productive Climates for.Research and Development. New York:' Wiley, 1966, 318.

268. Quade, E.'S. and W.I. Boucher, eds.$ystetms Analysis and Policy Plan- , ning:, Application to Defense. New York: American Elsevier, 1968, * 453. . 269. Framo, Simon.Cure for Chaos: Fresh Solutions to Social Problems through the Systems 4ot-oath. New York: McKaY, 1969, 116. 14

$ .

)508 ' Po Way Problems of Science and 'Technolo6y ,.

. ,. 270. Raudsepp, Eugene.Managing Crea e Scientists and Engineers.New York: Macmillan, 1963, 254. .

271. Reagan, Michael D.The Managed Economy. New Yo-r1:. Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1963, 288.

272.* Redfield, Charles E.. Communication in Management: The Theory and Practice of Administrative Communication.Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1958, 314.

273. Reeves, E. Duet.Managementof Industrial Research. NewYork: Rein- hold, 1967, 207.

274. Richman, Barry M.Soviet Management: With Significant American Com- $ . parisons.Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1'965,-288.

275. Roberts, Edward B. The Dynamics af(tesearch and Development. New York: tlarper anl Row, 1964, 352.

276. Roethlisberger, Fritz J. and William J. Dickson. Management and the Worker: An Account of a Research Program Coucted by the Western .. Electric Company, Hawthorne Works, .Chicago.Cambridge, Massa- chusdtts:Harvard, University Press,) 94?, 61-5. , '

.. 277. Reissman, Joseph.Industrial Creaivity: The Psychology of the Inventor. Third Edition.' New Hyde Park, New York:University Books, 1964, 252. ( / i. 278. Rudwick, Bernard H.Systems Analysis for Effective Planning. New York: Wiley, 1969, 469. .. , . - i ,.:, i 279. Sasieni, Maurice, Arthur Yaspan, and.Laurence Friedmap . rations Research--Methods and Problems. New York: Wiley, 196, 16.

280.. Schel I, Erwin H .' Technique of Administration: Administrative Proficiency

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281. S chmookl er, Jacob. Invent' on and Economic Growth. Cambridge, Massa- 0 chusetts: .Harvard University 8ress, 194, 3332.

282. Schoderbek, Peter P., comoilerwitti the editorial col lal7oration pf Charles .G. Schoderbek. Mcenagement Systems. New York: -Wiley, 1971, 561.

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6 4 Governing the Technoscientific Superculture 511 4

LEADING QUESTIONS

1.How would you distinguish between theatdministra.tion of scientific and tech- , nologica,,I activities withiir the gOvernment and the administration of general ,(affecting theapplications of'iclence and technologyZ

. - 2.How much of anation's economic effart should be channeled into the'ac- vanceecent of science?By what criteria should allocations be made among sciences?

4 0 * 3.What's meant by the "bureaucratization" of science?Is this an inevitable concomitant of big science? ' ' 4.Should the administration of science be restricted to "scientists"? Can arnik administrator," without science credentials administer science policy? What has been the experience in government? n industry? In hospitals?In LA. versities?

5.'What policy and operational problems arise om the interrelationships among. universities,. industrial establishments, oprofeskonal groups, and various gOv- ernment agencies in the public administrationof science? Are these relationships consistent with traditionalconcepts.of governmental accountability and distinctions between public and private interests? 4 6.How.havescience and technolOgyinfluenced the 'character of the administrative prOcess generally What'are. specific illustrations_of technology in administration?,

7.What, aspects of administration have not yet been influenced significantly by science?In what respects could science most greatly Went administration today? How does "management science." attempt to improve management? .

8. I hnocracy" primarily a-consequencof the ambition or self-confidence . o lence ptofessionals arid engineers, or of popular ignorance, folly, or indifference? Are there other factOrs?

What should be the content of educ ation for the administration of science pkolicy; and how, when, and v;ohere,shOuld it be acquired?Is the same true

for applied science? rlik

fr10. Must the reconciliation of scientific and dimocratiC values be undertaken in large measure through the administrative process, broadly construed? Would t . it not be.enough to resolve differences through conferences and colloquia, or through public education toward a mote adequate' understanding of science? 487, :s