Disastrously Creative K-Pop, Virtual Nation, and the Rebirth of Culture Technology Suk-Young Kim

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Disastrously Creative K-pop, Virtual Nation, and the Rebirth of Culture Technology Suk-Young Kim

SM has always been searching for ways to create a nexus among music, video, and SNS in the age of robots. — Lee Su-man, Chief Creative Producer, SM Entertainment (in Sim 2015)

The proscenium stage at COEX Artium succumbs to dark silence, clearing the way for something extraordinary. The audience expects nothing less than extraordinary in this state-of-the- art theatre in the heart of the prosperous Gangnam district, which gained worldwide fame with Psy’s 2012 hit song “Gangnam Style.” An onscreen projection unveils a rainbow-colored DNA structure rotating and evolving into colorful cells. The gyrational movement is accentuated by

Figure 1. Human bodies wearing masks that make them appear uniform at the unveiling of SM Entertainment’s new boy band Neo Culture Technology (NCT) in SMTOWN: New Culture Technology, 2016. (Screengrab by Suk-Young Kim; www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ky5NvWsXnn8&t=1574s)

Suk-Young Kim is Professor of Theater and Director of the Center for Performance Studies at UCLA. She is the author of Illusive Utopia: Theater, Film, and Everyday Performance in North Korea (2010); DMZ Crossing: Performing Emotional Citizenship Along the Korean Border (2014); and most recently, K-pop Live: Fans, Idols, and Multimedia Performance (2018). Her research has been acknowledged by the James B. Palais Book Prize (2013) and the Association for Theatre in Higher Education Outstanding Book Award (2015). [email protected]

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/dram_a_00894 by guest on 29 September 2021 Disastrously Creative 23 what does the — garbed in impeccable white shirts and garbed in impeccable — SM Entertainment hoped to diffuse this —

marching out from backstage into the aisles of marching out from backstage 1 — teen performers who quickly age out of their roles R.U.R. — human celebrities as agents of individual creativity versus robots as mere machines human celebrities as agents of individual —

The word “robot” is derived from the Czech noun “robota” (forced labor or compulsory work) and first appeared compulsory or labor (forced appeared first and work) “robota” noun Czech the from derived is “robot” word The play 1920 Čapek’s Karl in At this climactic revelation, the dizzily paced electronic music halts to highlight the epic music halts to dizzily paced electronic the revelation, At this climactic the chief artistic Lee Su-man, in the music and dance studios of This is the vision produced a 2011 speech Lee had already proclaimed in NCT, Five years prior to this 2016 unveiling of and I predicted most of the nineties, The age of information technology had dominated culture SM Entertainment and I see come next. that the age of cultural technology would is much more exquisite and complex than But cultural technology as a type of technology. 2015:152) (in Seabrook information technology. If the gist of culture technology is to envision robots and celebrities as interchangeable If the gist of culture technology is to envision 1.

birth of the new era. Three brightly projected letters are presented as heavy male choral music heavy male choral music are presented as projected letters Three brightly new era. birth of the Radiating stage the occasion. emphasizes the monumentality of playing in the background and dozens of young people lighting reveals dozens white and silver masks pants with matching their bodies simulate cyborgian ges- more like machines than humans, Looking the auditorium. green and blue laser lights uniformity is accentuated by the horizontal and their corporeal tures, 1). bodies (fig. that cut across their over two decades has been the whose namesake company for producer of SM Entertainment, The name Korean entertainment. leader in the highly competitive world of undisputed industry better Technology, Neo Culture SM Entertainment’s latest boy band, that Lee bestowed upon coining as his company’s cen- the term Lee has been credited with promotes known as NCT, born out of the marriage of cultural and technologi- “culture technology,” tral modus operandi, cal innovation. at the Stanford Business School: “robots a seismic transition to a new era where Lee characterized his vision as a force enabling of information Whereas the age (in Sim 2015). and celebrities are going to be at its center” in the ways digitally transmitted information orga- technology brokered unprecedented change posi- Lee postulates that culture technology nized societies and created new social networks, force behind the creation of such organizations and tions robots and celebrities as the central embodied this futuristic ambition by fusing in Lee’s vision, The white-clad cyborgs, networks. two antithet- Rather than projecting them as the machine (robots) with the human (celebrities). ical forces sleek and languid electronic dance music that gradually picks up tempo to make listeners’ hearts to make listeners’ hearts picks up tempo music that gradually electronic dance sleek and languid opens The globe then image of the Earth. congeal to form an fluid cell structures race as the “Neo Culture for an abbreviation “NCT,” center of which at the 2-D world map, out into a blue neon light. appears in bright Technology,” work whose only use is to provide mechanical dichotomy by promoting images of robots as creative and laborers as mechanized. as creative and laborers as mechanized. dichotomy by promoting images of robots when the then we have to ask: what happens laborers that will dominate creative endeavors, human performance is dominated by the precision of robots? and often imperfect, irregular, labor The question might be a futile one in light of the irreversible mechanization of human Given the K-pop industry’s proclivity for that has already been taking place with automation. disposable human labor trajectory of one of SM Entertainment’s latest boy band, NCT, tell us about the neoliberal NCT, trajectory of one of SM Entertainment’s latest boy band, And finally, labor practices that have plagued not only Korean but also global marketplaces? pan out how did SM Entertainment’s aspirational move to implement new culture technology policy in the broader context of the South Korean government’s pursuit of a creative economy while dis- (2013–2016) that aspired to enhance the nation’s soft power through creative projects guising troubled labor relations? Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/dram_a_00894 by guest on 29 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/dram_a_00894 by guest on29 September 2021

24 Suk-Young Kim as thebackboneofSMEntertainment’ssuccess: a broadsmilethatsealedhisself-congratulatorytone, Lee proclaimedculturetechnology(CT) and askedarhetoricalquestion: “Have youseenthepaththat I’vejustwalkedoutfrom?” With HEART]” in2002. As thelastachievementwasrollingup, LeeSu-manstrodeontothestage Korean artisttoachieve1stplaceonOriconChartwithJapan album[LISTEN TO MY be listedontheKOSDAQ [Korean stocktradingmarket]” in2000andproclaim “BoA thefirst ing offtheupperedge, thetranslatedsubtitlesnameSMas “the firstentertainmentcompanyto Among thecompany’smilestones, rollingupfromthebottom ofthescreenanddisappear ment, SM’smajorachievementswereprojectedontoa screeninaversionofStarWars’ opening. highlights ofthecompany’spast. Contextualizingthehistorical significanceoftheannounce- Al Gore’sAn nology (SMTOWN 2016b). Lee’sfuturisticpresentation, whicheasilyrivaledthelaunchof Lee Su-manunveiledfivenewprojectsofSMEntertainment’sinitiativeonculturetech- Just afewmomentspriortointroducingthewhite-cladcyborgfiguresinCOEX Artium, SM New Culture Technology anxiety overposthumanlaborrelations. omy vate corporationbecamedeeplymiredinthenation’sfraughtambitionforitscreativeecon crucial proxiesofcreativity. InthecaseofSMEntertainment, thestrategicbrandingofapri 2012:56). The Koreanvariantofthecreativeeconomyhasnotroubleimaginingcyborgsas the CreativeClassexhibitastrongpreferenceforindividualityandself-expression” (Florida (2009:47). Morespecifically, creativityisacharacteristicoftheindividualhuman: “Members of that “we needtoseecreativeworkasabasichumanright, orentitlement, oftheworkforce” bute thatdistinguishesus, ashumans, fromotherspecies” (2012:5)and Andrew Rossproposes with thehuman. Forexample, RichardFloridaclaimsthatthe “creative impulse” is “the attri mechanical forces. Inthe Western academictradition, creativityisconventionallyassociated enterprises collaboratetopresentcyborgsasprimeagentsofcreativityratherthanmere neoliberal initiativescarriedoutunderthebannerofpromotingcreativity. view thatoftenprojects Asian bodiesasmachinesdevoidofhumanity, andvalorizesthestate-led mation andhowthatprocessbothreinforcestheproblematictenetsoftechno-orientalism, a and musicvideoinvitesbroaderdiscussionsofwhatitmeanstoreplacehumanlaborwithauto- Looking closelyatthenarrativesbehindNCT’sformationandcreationoftheirdebutsong technology oftheirproductionprocessandformulatoownsuccess” (Lee2018:203). departure fromconsideringtheidolasmereperformer, butasavesselthatcarries[...]thevery ies scholarLeeSo-Rimhasremarked: “Neo Culture Technology asanidolgroupsignalsthe vate entertainmentcompaniesandtheSouthKoreanstate. the uniquepursuitofcyborgizedcelebrityculturethatemergedasacollaborationbetweenpri- labor practicesintheK-popindustry, theSouthKoreaninflectionofcreativeeconomy, and postindustrial era. At eachvertexofthisdynamictrianglelieprobingquestionsaboutneoliberal try, SouthKorea’snationalpolicy, andthemorphingdiscourseonculturetechnologyin all aroundtheworld. (SMTOWN 2016b) “Hallyu-Korean Wave” and “K-pop” notonlyinthedomesticmarketand Asia butalso basis, wehavebeenproducing andspreadingourowncreativecontents, which iscalled in otherwords “CT” technology, asitsownproducingtechnology. With CTbeingour For alongperiodoftime, overtwodecades, SMhaskept itsownCulture Technology, The casestudyofNCTpresentsfullytheconvergencetheseforces. As performancestud- Triangulated forcessustainSMEntertainment’snewculturetechnology:theK-popindus- What emergesasacentralparadoxinthisprocessishowtheKoreanstateandprivate — ultimately revealingtheironythattoutingcreativitycanbeflipsideofmasking Inconvenient Truth in2006orany Apple productinitshi-techdazzle, beganwith - - - - Disastrously Creative 25

SM SM — standing for the keywords of SM’s formula for success: casting, training, producing, producing, training, standing for the keywords of SM’s formula for success: casting, , Lee Su-man in the middle of a hexagon hexagon a of middle the in Su-man Lee 2016, Technology, Culture New SMTOWN:

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pro- According to John Seabrook’s New Yorker What lies at the core of culture technology? prioritized a careful study of localized tastes and The first generation of culture technology the And while the first phase of culture technology organized the star assembly line into file of SM Entertainment, “Lee combined his ambitions as a music impresario with his train- “Lee combined file of SM Entertainment, Lee’s for what became the K-pop idol assembly line.” ing as an engineer to create the blueprint (“what chord progressions to use in what coun- methodical approach to the production process should wear in a particular country; the exact try; the precise color of eyeshadow a performer the camera angles to be used in the videos”) have hand gestures he or she should make; and star factory that “would make the it in Seabrook’s sardonic words of praise, worked so well that, 2012). (Seabrook a mom-and-pop operation” Berry Gordy created at Motown look like according to Lee, culture technology, “new” while the their micromanaged implementation, has brought producers and consumers into a dynamic con- which “interactiveness,” centers on stand- claimed Lee, ‘interact’ with all of you,” and “SM’s desire [is] to communicate fluence. “T,” “C,” with four vertexes marked with the initials ing at the center of a hexagon projection “M,” “P,” Lee presents himself as the visionary mastermind who actualizes the 2). and management (fig. promised interactiveness. new version of the and management, producing, training, highly calculated stages of casting, producers and culture technology emphasizes the interactive networks created by stars and fans, introduced Lee feel deeply involved in all four stages. so that the fans and consumers consumers, in virtual new project initiatives to underscore the significance of interactivity and inclusion The of empowerment as professional K-pop producers. which gave amateur fans a sense space, effect was the elimination of human-to-human contact. Figure 2. In In 2. Figure surrounded by the four initials standing for casting, training, producing, and management and producing, training, casting, for standing initials four the by surrounded Entertainment’s own system of production for its artists. (Screengrab by Suk-Young Kim; www.youtube.com Kim; Suk-Young by artists.its for (Screengrab production of system own Entertainment’s /watch?v=Ky5NvWsXnn8&t=1574s) Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/dram_a_00894 by guest on 29 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/dram_a_00894 by guest on29 September 2021

26 Suk-Young Kim Korean nationtravelsthesameroadinoppositedirection, attemptingtocorporatizeitself. If privateentertainmentcompanieshavebeenprojectingthemselves asanation, thentheSouth like SMEntertainment, hasbeenassertivelymoldinga nationalimageasabastionofcreativity. ture technologyemergesoutofabroadercontextinwhichthe SouthKoreangovernment, just The evolutionaryarcfromLee’s2011declarationtothe2016 launchingoftheagenewcul- Creative Economy, theKorean Redux culture technology. izens whowillhelphumanstransitionfromtheageofinformationtechnologyto K-pop idolsbeingthemostattractiveembodimentoftheirintersection pings andpowerstructures. InLee’simaginednation, robotsandcelebrities alized productofpolycentricworldsbutasaroutetonationhoodwithinstitutionalizedtrap- inevitable pathfortheK-popcommunity. Leeseestheborderlessculturenotasadeterritori- virtual communityisneitheraroguenationnorpseudo-nation;itthedestinationof tual nationandbestowthemwithitscitizenship” (inSeo2011). InLee’sgrandvision, SM’s tual nation” and “invite[d] citizensofallnationstoKoreadeclarethefoundingvir 2011 World KnowledgeForum, Leenotedhow “the ageofborderlessculturecreatesavir Although Black’sobservationisbasedonJapaneseidols, itholdsforNCT. a livingbody, dependenceuponaphysicallypresentperformerisnotinevitable” (2012:209). of performance. While, ofnecessity, thismodeofperformanceismostcommonlygeneratedby action withfans. As DanielBlacknotes, idols “exist primarilyasacarefullyconstructedmode ence formostfans, celebritiesfunctionasonline-onlyavatars, simulatingaface-to-faceinter any illusionsofactualhuman-to-humancontact. Actual starsbyvirtueoftheirvirtual-onlypres- rate” (2004:8)? tion ofMarc Andrejevic’s observationthat “labor andleisurearegrowingeverhardertosepa- the illusoryprocessthroughwhichaparticipatorycommunityiscreated?Isn’titmanifesta- into producers. Butdoesn’tthisfluidconfluenceoffans’freelaborwithleisureactivityreveal looks likeaninclusiveplatformwhereamateurscantransformintoprofessionals, consumers where aficionadosofK-popmusicandcelebrityculturearebroughtintotheproductionprocess tos arerevealedonlytothosewhousetheapp. Suchaseeminglyopeninvitationtoengagement producers gainmembershipinanexclusivecommunity:theSMstars’never-before-seen pho- share intheprofitsandIdonotfindanyevidenceuserswerecreditedanywhere. Fans-cum- album andbegivenanopportunitytoworkasinternsatSM back. Moreover, theuserswerepromisedtheywouldbecreditedasproducersofdebut “rookies” activity realizedinsmartphoneapplications, usersareabletobecomeSMproducerswhotrain this virtualspacewhereactualrecordingstudiosanddancefloorsconvergeinhyperrealinter Mobile Application,” whichtransposesSM’sproducingsystemdirectlytoamobileplatform. 2. SM’s networkembracesanambitiontocreatecommunitiesbefittingavirtualnation. Atthe At thecenterofthisfusionstandcelebritieswhosenaturalhabitatisamobileapp, dispelling One projectthatillustratesthisdualitymostconspicuouslyisthe “Rookies Entertainment forms of content. beauty tipsandweb dramaswithanautotranslation function,withtheaimofexpandingfrom justmusictoother director (“everyshot”); (4) MCN (multichannel network), an SM celebrity channel that airs models sharing their (3) a 24/7 digital playground where users can sing a duet with a celebrity (“everysing”) and become a music video OWSLA Records: switching models from “performance to enjoy to watch and listen to performance together”; week for one year;day every (2) EDM ScreaM Records, in collaboration with Swedish Refuge Music and US The other four business projects include: (1) the digital music channel “STATION” to release songs on a set

— the officialnamegiventoSM’spre-debutidoltrainees — but theywouldnotgetpaidor — by providingonlinefeed- — will befirst-classcit- — immaculate - - - 2 - In Disastrously Creative 27 - - especially the unmar — ideally satisfy the demands for labor flexibility and mobility” (Lukacs and mobility” ideally satisfy the demands for labor flexibility — South Korea was bailed out with US$58 billion from the International Monetary out with US$58 billion from the International South Korea was bailed 3 the two pillars that sustain South Korea’s brand of neoliberalism. South Korea’s brand of neoliberalism. the two pillars that sustain

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In 1997 South Korea was hit by a massive liquidity crisis and had to appeal to international funds, most notably notably most funds, international to appeal to had and crisis liquidity massive a by hit was Korea South 1997 In debt, its off paid completely Korea South 2001 In bankruptcy. from itself save to loan billion $58 a for IMF, the crisis, IMF as the to referred commonly crisis, this financial However, over. officially was crisis the that declaring stable of myth the shattered that layoffs massive From life. Korean South of aspects many on impact lasting a had - val family traditional of disintegration the from stemming rates divorce surging to elites social for employment 2018:219n8). Kim (see relations social conventional of restructuring drastic a in resulted it ues, Since its shift around the turn of the millennium from an export-driven manufacturing an export-driven of the millennium from around the turn Since its shift Asian financial cri- after the began in earnest in South Korea The pursuit of neoliberalism While neoliberalism is marked by “the rise of the free market and the concomitant with- “the rise of the free market and the concomitant While neoliberalism is marked by Infused with neoliberal aspirations of promoting “employability, flexibility, and self- flexibility, “employability, Infused with neoliberal aspirations of promoting 3. economy to a service-driven postindustrial economy, the South Korean government has been government has the South Korean economy, a service-driven postindustrial economy to in Christopher As described networks. technological the importance of creating promoting sig- which highlights the (1987), and Economic Performance Policy seminal Technology Freeman’s supported networks South Korea and corporations, consumers, of linking producers, nificance government enacted the South Korean in 2001 For instance, heart of innovation. as the vital biotechnology, technology, Common Law to promote information Technology the Science and Like a constitution, technology. and space technology, environmental/energy nanotechnology, lists a whole slew of recommenda- it Instead, include binding directives. does not “law” this spectacular rise of the ensuing With prosperity of science and technology. tions for ensuring the Culture came to be technologies. soon became important to these various culture Korean pop, Creativity economic effort. uniting different technologies in a concerted imagined as a catalyst achievements and national now heralded simultaneously as both individual and innovation were virtues causing a massive financial foreign investment was suddenly withdrawn, when sis of 1997–98, meltdown.

2015:387). Yet, despite a system that prevents the young from achieving stable employment, employment, despite a system that prevents the young from achieving stable Yet, 2015:387). by neoliberals as the individual’s failure to success- youth’s economic precarity is often framed fully compete. privatiza- encouraging policies of deregulation, drawal of the state from the social sector, on the level in a broader context and Kim 2014:362), (Cheng and labor flexibilization” tion, as self- “asserts its power by defining its governable subjects of micromanagement the state translation of The neoliberal individuals (362). and self-advancing” self-sufficient, managing, into the language of the marketplace intensified dur national innovation and individual success Fund. In return, the government promised to restructure the country’s financial and industrial the government promised In return, Fund. South Korea’s transition from a developing state to a The financial collapse expedited systems. South Korea had dramatic reshaping of its labor market. This brought about a neoliberal state. “a sharp in But the restructuring of its economy resulted nearly full employment until 1997. 2.5 percent to 7–8 percent in 1998–99; this statistic increase in the unemployment rate from young people who continued seeking employ- did not include homemakers and unemployed leaving the The myth of secure lifetime employment was shattered, (Lukacs 2015:384). ment” The neoliberal one part-time job to the next. young labor force precariously hopping from “incorporates youth in its growth strategies because young people state ried and the childless In 2010, Park Geun-hye (2013–2016) administrations. ing the Lee Myung-bak (2008–2013) and on National Competitiveness (PCNC) and launched Lee established the Presidential Council calling for its subjects to compete in the entity, a campaign to brand South Korea as a global “In Lee declared: of the PCNC on 26 October 2010, During the 23rd meeting global market. we Therefore, the competition will be fiercer. the process of recovery from the world economy, (PCNC 2011). need to make an effort to be more competitive” individualism ahead of social welfare and (Song 2009) by placing entrepreneurial sufficiency” Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/dram_a_00894 by guest on 29 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/dram_a_00894 by guest on29 September 2021

28 Suk-Young Kim economy comparedtoSilicon Valley. applied welltoSouthKorea(Ross2009:16). SouthKoreawasalatecomertotheITjackpot ship, anditspractitionerswerecitedasthehit-makingmodelsforIPjackpoteconomy” observation that “cultural workwasnominatedasthenewfaceofneoliberalentrepreneur ernment interventiontocultivatetheidealnationalcitizen” (DaCosta2016:9). Andrew Ross’s neoliberal policies, suchasinIndia, wherecultureserves “as atechnologyof, andspacefor, gov- italist subjects” (Schwak2016:427). This goalresonatescloselywithotherstate-sponsored coercive technologiesoftheself, inseekingtotransformKoreancitizensintocompetitivecap- collective well-being, thenationalbrandingcampaigninvolved “combining coercionandnon-

raising vehiclespromotingthecreativeeconomyinitiative(Choe 2016). This becameacolossal companies ment fundsandpressuredbusinessconglomeratestosupport her confidanteChoeSun-sil’s the fallof2016, aseriesofnewsreportsrevealedhowPark Geun-hyemisusedgovern- ative economypolicyfromitsveryinceptionwasmiredincorruption andcronyism. In Telecommunication Union Annual ConferenceinBusan, SouthKorea(Kim 2018:129–60). to therealbodyofPresidentParkwhenshegaveanopening speech tothe2014International cals enmasse, themostprominentinstanceofwhichwas Psy’sholographicappearancenext the publicimpactofherpolicy, K-popstarsstarted toappearinhologramconcertsandmusi- US$2 billionintheindustryovernextsevenyears(Heo2014). As ashortcuttomaximize cess ofhercreativeeconomypolicy and YG Entertainmenttofosterthehologramindustry, whichParksawasthekeytosuc- omy. The ParkadministrationalsopartneredwithK-popgiantssuchasSMEntertainment by smilingK-popidolssaturatedthemedia, sealingherimageasapatronofthecreativeecon- Concert” (Kim2013). Organizedinhastetopromotethestatevisit, photosofParksurrounded Broadcasting SystemsummonedK-popidolstoperformfora “Korea-China Friendship newly inauguratedpresident’sfirstofficialstatevisittoChina(27–30June2013), theKorean high visibilitytoandattractpopularsupportforherkeypolicy. Justtwoweekspriortothe (see Jeong2013). Lee Su-manenvisionedinteractivenessasthedefiningfeatureofhisnewculturetechnology the aggressivepromotionofICTasinevitablein “hyperconnected” society, similartohow Future Planningtoimplementthecreativeeconomypolicy. Suchtop-downstatesupportsaw ing office, shecreatedtheMinistryofInformationandCommunications Technology (ICT)and moted thecreativeeconomyasmeanstoleadKoreaaprosperousfuture. Uponassum- South Korea’sascentasamajorhubofglobalpopculture. Herpresidentialcampaignpro- (2018:7). The creativeeconomypolicywasPark’spoliticallegacy, intendedtocapitalizeon power “iron triangle” of “legislative committees, statebureaucracy, andinterestgroups” According toShannonSteen, “the creativitycomplex” isasoft-poweranaloguetothehard- neoliberal economicpoliciesbutbrandedthemwiththecatchyphrase “creative economy.” cultural sectorasashortcuttogainingsoftpowerandsurpassingtheearlybirds. South Korea’sservice-driveneconomyasanationalbrand, Lee’sadministrationpromotedthe SM Entertainmentfostereditsownbrandofculturetechnology. When attemptingtoestablish paign involvedthecultureindustryinasystematicanddeterminedway, notunliketheway 4. But thistop-downpolicysoontookabizarreturnwhenitwas revealedthatthecre- Park’s opencourtshipoftheentertainmentindustry, especiallyK-pop, wasintendedtogive When Lee’ssuccessor, ParkGeun-hye, becamepresidentin2013, shecontinued Lee’s employees except to change everything their wives and children. houses while Japanese products were dominating the market. At the conclusion of this trip, he famously urged his Samsung’s chair Gun-hee Lee expressed dismay that Korean electronic products were collecting dust in ware - dustrial economy is evidenced by an episode involving Samsung Corporation: when visiting Europe in 1993, The fact that South Korean companies considered inthe postin- themselves as latecomers to the IT industry — K-Sports Foundationand The BlueK — 4 The centralethosofSouthKorea’snewnationalcam- so muchthatshepromisedin2014toinvestroughly — which manybelievewereillegalfund- - Disastrously Creative 29 - which — labor force. Her imperative was labor force. the campaign generated some the campaign generated 5 — was undoubtedly informed by projections that humans was undoubtedly informed by projections from the experimental merging of music and technology of music and technology merging from the experimental — — and therefore more efficient — at least its rhetoric —

Despite their anticipated automation of the labor force, the Park administration staged a the Park administration labor force, Despite their anticipated automation of the and technology as engines of creativity was information, Behind the performance of science, As of September 2019, former president Park Geun-hye’s corruption trials are ongoing. The main players in the the in players main The ongoing. corruption are trials Geun-hye’s Park president former 2019, September of As close Geun-hye’s (Park artist)video music K-pop (former Sun-sil Choi and corruptionEun-taek Cha scandal, numerous with ties close have to said were scenes), the behind president facto de the as acted who confidant indi- and direct artistsK-pop entertainmentand industry’s K-pop the about speculations wild fueling companies, 2018:235n24). Kim (see scandal the in involvement rect The South Korean government’s forceful top-down push generated a special brand of cre- push generated a special forceful top-down Korean government’s The South ders that were once permeated by barriers. It is about going beyond the rudimentary It is about going beyond the rudimentary ders that were once permeated by barriers. on the and creating new markets and new jobs by building expansion of existing markets, of a creative economy lie science technology At the very heart bedrock of convergence. (in Cha 2015:37) as key priorities. areas that I have earmarked and the IT industry, A creative economy is defined by the convergence of science and technology with indus- is defined by the convergence of science A creative economy and the blossoming of creativity in the very bor the fusion of culture with industry, try, 5. to combat the irreversible trend of automation by creating more jobs for humans. But how? by creating more jobs for humans. to combat the irreversible trend of automation corruption-plagued administration had we now know that Park’s of hindsight, the benefit With As illustrated by the nor any strong desire to actually implement its declared policy. no idea, Unions Trade led by the Korean Confederation of infamous suppression of the 2015 protest [...] tempo- “make it easier for big business to fire against Park’s labor legislations that would workers whose jobs Park had little regard for the 2015), (Choe ‘irregular’ workers” rary contract policies. would be erased by automation and corporate-friendly performances featuring the coexistence of human and machine labor series of charades, figures of NCT or what Lee So-Rim terms the is precisely what is captured in the cyborglike NCT’s debut in early 2016 emerged out (Lee 2018:204). “human embodiment of technology” in the government’s policies for a creative economy of this context where the lack of substance and the Not only did SM Entertainment was made to look real by the power of performance. but their simulation of each other’s vision created an South Korean government collaborate, The uncanny echo between Park’s 2013 inaugural speech and Lee Su-man’s 2016 presentation. illusion could not be sustained. labor rights. a nefarious backstage reality: the effort to reduce human labor costs and suppress who need to borrow Emma-Lee Moss’s expression, “music slaves,” are for instance, Holograms,

with mixed results ative economy most disgraceful political “one of the into artists and producers that dragged to absurd schemes Park’s stultify- (Kim 2018:145). South Korea has ever seen” scandals that corruption-familiar even pressured the chief producer the policy were so coercive that she ing directives promoting econ “creative- to feature the , Infinite Challenge TV show, popular variety of South Korea’s most Although the disreputable end of topic of one of its episodes (Baek 2018). as the central omy” policy resulted in Park’s imprisonment, the creative economy - exposing the govern and winter of 2016/17, Korea in the fall that shook South political scandal in from office her removal impeachment, led to Park’s of power that eventually ment’s abuse 2016). sentence (Kim and a 24-year prison March 2017, will soon be elbowed out by robots and artificial intelligence (Gownder et al. 2017). Park placed 2017). intelligence (Gownder et al. will soon be elbowed out by robots and artificial with the help of a creative economy that great emphasis on revolutionizing labor relations would lead to a technologized Park’s speech groundbreaking innovations, such as the world’s first 3-D hologram in 2015. Marked by both hologram in 2015. such as the world’s first 3-D groundbreaking innovations, South Korean brand of creative the and notable accomplishments, grotesque political scandal in which she attempts to define the Park Geun-hye’s 2013 speech, legacy. economy has a mixed offers another perspective on the policy: creative economy, Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/dram_a_00894 by guest on 29 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/dram_a_00894 by guest on29 September 2021

30 Suk-Young Kim techno-orientalism (Kim2018:7). for “Kleenex,” becauseitsidolsaredisposableandreplaceable effective, disposabletemporarycontractors. As Ihavestatedelsewhere, the “K” inK-popstands claims toenrichhumanlife, whileactuallydisenfranchisinglabor, turningemployeesintocost- and suppresslaborunionactivities(Kwack2018;Yonhap News2018). Creativeeconomypolicy the globalITindustry, butrecentinvestigationsrevealtheconglomerate’sschemestomonitor neither foodnorsleep(Moss2015). SamsungElectronicsisSouthKorea’sforemostpioneerof their bodiestotechnologicalinvasion. a five-memberboyband, inparticular, exposestheK-popidols’disturbingtendencytolend vacuous playingfieldwheretechnologyofallsortscanbetestedout” (Kim2018:142). NCT U, fication throughtraining, strictdiets, andinvasivecosmeticsurgery, “idolsmaketheirbodiesa the fantasiesoftechno-orientalism. Idols’bodiesaremalleable;afteryearsandofmodi- very antithesisof Western liberalhumanism” (5). Yet some Asians arecomplicitinpropelling advancement, therebycastingthem “as meresimulacra” ofthenaturalandhuman(2015:5): of “Asians asthecogsofhyperproduction” onthemind-blowingracetrackoftechnological ates inthe21stcentury. still-devalued laborhasled Asian American studiesscholarstoreconsiderhoworientalismoper fledged humans. Theuneasyassociationbetweentheunnaturalnessof Asianbodiesandtheir formances conjureatime-provenorientalistviewofsomethingstrange, “not us,” lessthanfull- world viaperfectlychoreographedphysicalroutines;atthesametime, theirmechanizedper and somethingnew. They embodythespiritoffuture, theveryvisionoftechnologized In theeyesofglobalaudience, K-popidolspresentastrangeconcoctionofsomethingold NCT UandtheSpecters of Techno-Orientalism intertitle “SYNCHRONIZATIONOF YOURDREAMS.” each dimlylitperformeruntilallconvergeinonedancescene. The videoendswiththetelling and dust(obviouslyconnectingthepresentmomentpast childhood), thecamerafollows their diversepresentlivestocommonpast. Onapostapocalyptic setdominatedbysand The nextsequencesshowthefiveharkingbacktotheirmemories ofthewhitedunes, linking to commenceajourney. The scenecutstosegments featuringfiveyoungadults, thenewNCT. tized, beingpulledbyanirreversibleforce. The boyeventuallyendsupbytheshore, asifready around theageof10appearsonscreen. Heisalonewalking onwhitedunesasifheishypno- Accompanied byheavychoralmusicsignalingamagnificent birth, anethnicallyambiguousboy group, akintolaunchinganewelectronicsproduct, avideoshowingNCT’soriginswasplayed. ture technology, thenewartistgroupNCT!” FollowingLee’striumphantintroductionofthe the mostup-to-datetechnology: “I wouldliketointroducethecompletionofSM’snewcul- 6. Techno-orientalism “maintains aprevailingsenseoftheinhumanity Asian labor Orientalism, likeOrientalism, placesgreatemphasisontheprojectofmodernity. (3) alike, ofan “Orient” undergoingrapideconomicandculturaltransformations. Techno- and oftencontradictoryspectrumofimages, constructedbytheEastand West tional, andoftenpremodernimaginary, techno-Orientalismpresentsabroader, dynamic, Whereas Orientalism, asastrategyofrepresentationalcontainment, arrests Asia intradi- According toDavidRoh, GretaNiu, andBetsyHuang, techno-orientalismextendstheview When LeeSu-manlaunchedNCTin2016, heexultedhislatestproductmanufacturedby Dream, and it was a five-member NCT U that was first introduced tothe public. a versatile image for the group. NCT was divided into several subunits, such as NCT 127, NCT U, and NCT companies createEntertainment subunits for the sake of releasing single albums at a fast pace while creating new prominent case being TaeTiSeo, a trio created as a subunit of the nine-member girl group Girls’ Generation. In the K-pop world, it is a common practice to divide a boy band or a girl group into several subunits, the most 6

— as pertheproblematictenetsof — the - - Disastrously Creative 31 features scenes saturated with a a with saturated scenes features Sense 7th The their desire to have dreams their desire their dreams have to be pro- their dreams have to — — either seemingly frozen in a glass tube or in a —

Figure 3. NCT’s3. video music 2016 Figure www Kim; Suk-Young by (Screengrab darkroom. a resembles that tone red heavy .youtube.com/watch?v=3UGMDJ9kZCA)

Taeyong, Ten, Mark, Ten, — Taeyong, This histrionic and fantastic version of the group’s origin shows how cultural technology origin shows how cultural of the group’s and fantastic version This histrionic This curious cross-imaging When the NCT members rehearsed during their pre-debut training, testing different rehearsed during their pre-debut training, When the NCT members used a hypnotic refrain “The 7th Sense,” it is not surprising that NCT’s debut song, Thus, The video opens with a full- is used to emphasize the common aspirations of NCT members aspirations of NCT the common is used to emphasize promoted in of the human and the machine highlights the importance of humanizing machines The ensuing segment subtly but unequivocally presents the idea that the performers’ the video. The darkroom sequence quickly cuts to scenes where bodies are artificially developed in the lab. vitro” “in individual members find themselves Doyoung, Doyoung, and Jaehyun — in an intricately interwoven cho- reographic sequence with their entangled bodies moving in coordination until they eventually untangle themselves. Hypnotically but precisely moving to the heavy hip hop groove they and a future bass pattern, are in an unidentified space. The saturated red of a darkroom makes it seem as if they are a photograph of bots being devel- Or the red may signify oped. 3). human fetuses in a womb (fig. that originate in the same place. By visually claiming that all present members of NCT evolved of NCT evolved that all present members By visually claiming in the same place. that originate coding system than an anthropomorphic in the video is more the boy source, from a common - it can also manip into multiple bodies; clone a single organism can Technology a human child. analysis that this contrast to Lee So-Rim’s In cloned entities. of the newly ulate the memories K-pop group that metonymi- ‘foundation myth’ narrative for the overall “constructs an video I see something much bleaker: a (Lee 2018:210), pan-Asian community” cally stands in as a new that anchors discursive radical reduction of expansive human experience vision haunted by the “programming”). or “coding” common origin (i.e., individuals to one common titled SR15B Bassbot. they staged a dance significantly formations, dynamics within various potential members of the future mechanization of the human body, Flaunting an impeccable perfect robots more than coordinated performance that resembled NCT created a precisely just like the might be, As awe-inspiring as their physical synchronicity flawed human beings. dream machines cannot film Blade Runner, cyborgs in the 1982 does that for their newly SM Entertainment who created them. grammed by the mastermind dream the same who all the consummate products of their culture technology, assembled idols, dream and dance the same dance. / It con- “In the same dream / I hear a familiar song that calls to me to make this very point: represent an altered version of the intertitle given to The lyrics 2016a). (SMTOWN nects us” But this time they accompany a music Dreams.” Your Of “Synchronization their origin video, close-up profile shot standing for the typical video featuring a sleek sequence of each idol’s the music however, On a closer look, music videos. visual grammar of the SM Entertainment from their sleep to download premade programming, video tells a story of how the robots rise which becomes their consciousness. body shot of five NCT U members cultivated for experimentation: a high camera angle as if they are some species being hothouse, Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/dram_a_00894 by guest on 29 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/dram_a_00894 by guest on29 September 2021

32 Suk-Young Kim nology intoahumanbodyand byhumanizingthemachine, whattheSouthKoreannation and crossover betweenrobotsandcelebrities. Bysuperimposingtheunfolding/downloading oftech- version promotedbySMEntertainment isauniquealbeittroublingvariantthatembracesthe are indistinguishable. Unlike theconventionalnotionofcreativityashumanandindividual, the trying tocultivate:thecelebrity andtherobotshouldsimulateeachothertopointthatthey from acommonorigin. from someprogram, reiteratingthelogicoforiginvideo where therobot’smemoriescome suggests thespeedoflight, theclose-upsimulateshow hismind/memoryisbeingdownloaded ber Mark’sprofilefeaturesarapidlyevolvingcityscape(fig. 6). Movingatadizzyingpacethat where theoutlineofacharactercreatesspacetobefilledby panoramicimages, NCTmem- In ascenecloselyresemblingtheopeningtitlesequenceof US TV dramaTrue Detective, ies, itmovesontohowtheirnewlygeneratedbodiestransition intothenextphaseofcreation. both amuseumandhothouse(fig. 5). tation of Ten, whoisconfinedinaglassdisplaycaseamidplantsaninterior spacemarkedas he isthesubjectbeingobservedandmonitored(fig. 4). Thenthescenecutstoasimilarpresen- looks downonto Taeyong’s body, placedinaglasscagesaturatedwithcoolshadeofblue, as if These hauntingimagesunabashedly illustratethekindofcreativeoutputthatSMhasbeen Once themusicvideohasestablishedvisuallogicof “cultivating” theseidols’bod- .youtube.com/watch?v=3UGMDJ9kZCA) (Screengrabs by Suk-Young Kim; www experiment in as if they are of a laboratory part members Taeyong and Ten are presented Figures 4 & 5. The bodies of NCT The 7th Sense, 2016.

Disastrously Creative 33 - - - after benefit- — Figure 6. The close-up scene of Mark’s profile features a rapidly moving moving rapidly a features profile Mark’s of scene close-up The 6. Figure mind/memoryhis how to alludes which cityscape, downloaded. being is www.youtube.com/ Kim; Suk-Young by (Screengrab 2016. Sense, 7th The watch?v=3UGMDJ9kZCA) and — NCT members echoed their producer’s words. By their own admission, By their own admission, words. NCT members echoed their producer’s 7 left to pursue their own individual fame and financial gain. What better substitute financial gain. left to pursue their own individual fame and

—

Lee further claims that the individual teams are based in every city in the world and will debut in order: the the everyin based furtherLee order: in debut will and world the in are city teams individual the that claims Shanghai. and Beijing in cluster second the Japan, and Seoul in career their launch will groups of cluster first which languages, local different sung in be will song one and suit follow will America Latin and Asia Southeast 2016b). (SMTOWN Hallyu” of localization “the actualize will The malleable nature of such The malleable nature 7. ing from the rigorous training and promotional campaign that made them known to the global ing from the rigorous training and promotional audience than the mechanized labor of robots, who will neither ask for their rights nor betray the agree- who will neither ask for their rights nor betray than the mechanized labor of robots, all of their lucrative career? ment that binds them to the company for NCT is “a worldwide group that aims at the concept of limitless expansion and limitless open- “a worldwide group that aims at the concept of limitless expansion and NCT is is Lee’s mistrust of What deeply undercuts this ostensibly liberating discourse (M2 2016). ness” in the eyes of the company who, SM Entertainment’s former star employees,

The Future of Creativity The Future of Creativity featured a staggeringly large lineup of 18 mem- “Black on Black” NCT’s 2018 music video epito- members from different NCT subunits, bers: 3 new members were added to 15 existing SM as a self-declared nation and expandability. mizing SM Entertainment’s vision of openness but genuine inclusion is difficult to attain for idols offers flexible citizenship to willing parties, The unusually large number of idols while exclusion is easy for the company to quickly achieve. The newly reflects this double-edged citizenship forged under the name of cultural technology. stage technically per black suits and uniforms, all clad in fashionable arranged 18 members, fect coordination, looking like cogs in an impressive machine, hardly distinguishable from one impressive machine, looking like cogs in an fect coordination, utopian merger of a seemingly The blatant staging of this techno-orientalist vision, another. just as easily dissembled and dis- just as easily dissembled kinds along with the carded, sub- and of consciousness and can unconsciousness its brain download or erase. chair’s bodies enable the SM the com- deep desire to control pany’s prized creation — its idols — because idols inevita- bly bring human unpredictabil- Lee has ity into the equation. idols have broken their contracts and left SM faced significant loss when his highly popular including boy band EXO’s Kris and Asia and beyond, after becoming immensely popular in in the after It is not surprising that NCT’s model of flexible membership was devised Luhan. to Lee, according uniqueness,” Technology’s “Neo Culture math of their departure in 2014: “NCT will have no Therefore, 2016b). ‘expandability’” (SMTOWN ‘openness’ and “lies in and with this new concept of a limitless num- restrictions for [the] new addition of members career [sic] with the whole world being their per ber of members they will perform their artist forming grounds.” the private entertainment com- the private triumph of culture pany see as is revealed as techno- technology all its in The body, orientalism. a becomes hybridity, dystopian various parts can product whose be created and assembled Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/dram_a_00894 by guest on 29 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/dram_a_00894 by guest on29 September 2021

34 Suk-Young Kim the technologizingworldanxiouslydancingtowardtheirprecariousfuture. tion, perfect-lookingidols, half-humansandhalf-machinesareembodimentsofidealcitizens tions converginginacorporatizednationhoodandnationalizedcorporation. At theintersec- mutual obsessionoftheSouthKoreangovernmentandSMEntertainment, whoseetheirambi- cal accomplishment. controlling, anddisposingofitslaborforcewhilebestowinguponithighpraisefortechnologi- of artisticdevelopment” (2015:151). ForSM, thesystemhasevolvedintoamethodoftraining, ogy, accordingtoSeabrook, isthat “stars shouldbemade, notborn, usingasophisticatedsystem creativity andculturaltechnology, invitescriticalscrutiny. The coreideaofculturaltechnol- 8. Jeong, Myeong-ju. 2013. “The Accomplishments andChallengesofICTPoliciesbytheMinistry Heo, Jun. 2014. “Government toSupportHologramIndustry andInvest240Billion Won intheNext Gownder, J.P. etal. 2017. “The FutureofJobs, 2027: Working SideBy With Robots.” Forrester,3 April. Freeman, Christopher. 1987. Technology Policy andEconomicPerformance: LessonsfromJapan . London:Pinter Florida, Richard. 2012. TheRiseoftheCreative Class, Revisited:10th Anniversary New Edition. York: Basic Da Costa, Dia. 2016. Politicizing Creative Economy: Activism andaHunger Called Theater. Urbana:University Choe, Su-min. 2016. “Munchebu saeopseo ‘K’myeongching ppaenda” [“K” isdisappearingfromproject Choe, Sang-Hun. 2015. “South KoreanLaborLeaderLeaves Temple toSurrender Authorities.” New Cheng, Sealing, andEunjungKim. 2014. “The ParadoxesofNeoliberalism:Migrant KoreanSex Workers Cha Doo-won. 2015. “The CreativeEconomyoftheParkGeun-hye Administration.” Korea’s Economy Black, Daniel. 2012. “The Virtual Idol:ProducingandConsumingDigitalFemininity.” InIdolsandCelebrity Baek, Seungho. 2018. “Infinite Challenge Was PressuredbyParkGeun-hyetoFeature ‘CreativeEconomy’ Andrejevic, Mark. 2004. RealityTV:WorkWatched The Being of . Lanham, MD:RowmanandLittlefield. References K-pop idolsaretheposterchildrenofKorea’stechnologicaltriumph. Technophilia isa (AKS-2015-LAB-2250002). of the Republic of Korea and the Korean Studies Promotion of the Academy Service of Korean Studies This workby the wasLaboratory supported Program for Korean Studies through of the Education Ministry December. Accessed 31 August 2014. http://kiss.kstudy.com/thesis/thesis-view.asp?key=3191636. and FuturePlanningunderParkGeun-hye Administration.” System, KoreanstudiesService Information Seven Years.” +With+Robots/-/E-RES119861. Accessed 29 April 2017. www.forrester.com/report/The+Future+Of+Jobs+2027+Working+Side+By+Side Publishers. Books. of IllinoisPress. 2016.20 December http://v.media.daum.net/v/20161219175924498. titles supportedbytheMinistryofCulture, Sports, and Tourism]. Daum, 19December. Accessed -korea-trade-union-arrest.html. York Times, 10December. Accessed 20December2015. www.nytimes.com/2015/12/11/world/asia/south 21, 3:355–81. in theUnitedStatesand ‘Sex Trafficking.’” SocialPolitics: StudiesinGender, International StateandSociety cha_0.pdf. 30:35– Macmillan. in Japanese MediaCulture , _kr_5ac8243ce4b07a3485e4cc98. Programming.”in Their 46. Accessed 14 August 2018. www.keia.org/sites/default/files/publications/kei_koreaseconomy_ inews24, 27 August. Accessed 14September2016. http://news.inews24.com/view/844946. Huffpost, 7 April. Accessed 30January2019. www.huffingtonpost.kr/entry/story ed. Patrick W. GalbraithandJasonG. Karlin, 209–28. New York: Palgrave 8 Disastrously Creative 35 44. . New York: W.W. Norton and Company, Inc. Norton and Company, W.W. York: New . Factory New York: New York New York Times. New York: Can Get It: Life and Labor in Precarious You if Work Nice

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