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The Politics of Groundwater Scarcity: Technology, Institutions, and Governance in Rajasthani Irrigation

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The Politics of Groundwater Scarcity: Technology, Institutions, and Governance in Rajasthani Irrigation THE POLITICS OF GROUNDWATER SCARCITY: TECHNOLOGY, INSTITUTIONS, AND GOVERNANCE IN RAJASTHANI IRRIGATION DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Trevor L. Birkenholtz, M.A. ***** Ohio State University 2006 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor Kevin Cox, Advisor Associate Professor Paul Robbins Assistant Professor Becky Mansfield Advisor Graduate Program in Geography Professor Lawrence Brown ABSTRACT This dissertation examines the conditions under which tubewell groundwater lifting technology in Rajasthan, India is adopted and adapted by producers, technicians, and bureaucrats, and how these adoptions later feed back into the landscape and political ecological processes. By examining the links between environmental knowledge, technology adoption, capital accumulation and ecological change, I demonstrate the ways that these processes operate recursively to produce new social institutions, alter social power relationships (including environmental knowledge) and ecologies, while informing the future creation of equitable groundwater governance strategies. My research contributes a new approach to the fields of political ecology, critical development studies, and science and technology studies (STS) through fresh exploration of the effects that agrarian technologies have on political ecological processes. First, findings include that tubewells, as one example of a scarcity-reducing technology, actually create scarcity for particular communities, alter existing relationships of power, and condition the production of new institutions and new kinds of modern ecological people (or subjects). For instance, tubewell adoption has led to the proliferation of new informal (e.g. sharing of tubewells and/or electricity for pumping ii between farms) and formal (e.g. Central and State Groundwater Boards and irrigation departments) institutions. Moreover, their use alters ecological conditions, including soil and groundwater quality, which undermines both their continued use and the continued production of high- yielding crops. Ironically, farmers are returning to the production of traditional crops as soils become sodic due to increasingly poor quality groundwater. Tubewell use has, therefore, undermined the original conditions under which it proliferated in a recursive process of ecological change, leading to further political ecological differentiation. Consequently, tubewells have capacity to motivate human and non-human processes, and are both cause and consequence of ecological change and social institution formation. Second, findings from the work also suggest that groundwater knowledge systems are a hybrid drawing on diverse sources including tubewell drilling firms, groundwater departments, and Hindu spiritual leaders. Third, tensions exist between these various knowledges and institutions, in particular those between farmers and the state, which impede the future creation and implementation of groundwater governance strategies. I examine this example of a scarcity-reducing technology to illustrate the complex interaction of traditional and technical knowledge and technologies with environmental change, local and state forms of power, and development policies. This project demonstrates the contradictory effects of ecological modernization around the world. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In preparing for, researching, and writing this dissertation, I owe a great debt to many people, institutions and non-humans in both the US and in India. The list is too long to record here and for those that go unmentioned, please accept my apologies and gratitude. First, I would like to thank the people of Rajasthan named and unnamed, who generously gave me their time and made available many resources, and without whom this investigation would not have been possible. This includes the hundreds of farmers who (mostly) patiently sat with me until I got it. They gave me keen insights into the perpetually changing conditions of their livelihood strategies. It also includes all of the government engineers and tubewell drillers who, in between teaching me colorful Hindi phrases, imparted more than they realized. I enjoyed my time with them. Of the help in Rajasthan that I received while conducting this research, I owe special thanks to many people. Specifically, I want to mention Jaywant Mehta, Ranju Mehta, and the rest of the Mehta family for their warmth and friendship; Dr. Surjit Singh, Dr. Varsha Joshi and Prem Prakash of the Institute for Development Studies in Jaipur for their contributions to the survey; and Dr. S.M Mohnot, Kuldip Singh, Rakhi Biswas and the Khejarli field staff in Jodhpur for their support and guidance. iv Second, Ohio State has been very good to me. I am grateful for the intellectual stimulation my fellow graduate students and the faculty provided. In particular, I owe a great intellectual debt to my advisor, Paul Robbins. Paul introduced me to critical geography and to India, and has always been there “in case of a bad decision.” His strength as an advisor, mentor and friend are unparalleled. Kevin Cox took over the reins as my “advisor of record” for the past year. Working with him was a richly rewarding experience. I owe him, as well as Becky Mansfield and Larry Brown, a great deal for their contributions to both my intellectual development and this project. This project would not have been possible without the initial support that The Ohio State University provided for two pre-dissertation research trips to India and for Hindi language training at UW-Madison, Wisconsin. My doctoral dissertation research in India, from January 2005 to January 2006, was supported by a Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dissertation Research Abroad (DDRA) fellowship. Finally, I owe more that I can express to my best friend and partner in life, Jessica Vantine Birkenholtz, whose love, support and encouragement continue to give me confidence and sustain me. My next project is for her. v VITA November 14, 1972…………………………Born – Des Moines, Iowa, USA. 1993…………………………………………A.A.S. Machine Technology, Indian Hills Community College. 1997…………………………………………BA with honors Geography, University of Iowa. 2000 – 2002…………………………………MA Geography, The Ohio State University. 2002 – Present………………………………Graduate Teaching and Research Associate, The Ohio State University. PUBLICATIONS Research Publications 1. Birkenholtz, T. Review of “Tubewell Capitalism: Groundwater Development and Agrarian Change in Gujarat”, in Economic Geography 80(1): 115-117, (2004). 2. Robbins, P and T. Birkenholtz. “Turfgrass Revolution: Measuring the Expansion of the American Lawn” Land Use Policy. 20: 181-194, (2003). 3. Robbins, P., A. Polderman, and T. Birkenholtz. “Lawns and Toxins: an Ecology of the City” Cities: The International Journal of Urban Policy and Planning. 18(6): 369- 380, (2001). 4. Savoca, Tobias, Sadorf, and Birkenholtz. “Herbicides and Nitrates in the Iowa River Alluvial Aquifer Prior to Changing Land Use, Iowa County, Iowa, 1996” 1997: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet. FS-085-97, 4p, (1997). FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Geography vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................ ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. iv VITA.................................................................................................................................. vi LIST OF TABLES.............................................................................................................. x LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... xi Chapters: 1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 1 1.2 The Problem of Groundwater Scarcity ............................................................. 9 1.3 Scarcity-Reducing Technologies: The Quintessential Tubewell.................... 12 1.4 Goals of the Dissertation................................................................................. 16 1.5 Theoretical Context......................................................................................... 17 1.5.1 South Asian Groundwater Resources Scholarship: Management, Markets and Distribution .......................................................................... 17 1.5.2 Neo-Liberal Water Supply: Markets and Resource Privatization.... 20 1.5.3 Technology, Knowledge, Institutions and the Social Transformation of Water .................................................................................................... 22 2. STUDY AREA, METHODOLOGY AND STRUCTURE OF THE DISSERTATION.................................................................................................. 28 2.1 Study Area: Jaipur District, Rajasthan............................................................ 29 2.1.1 Detailed Study Areas: Bassi Tehsil – Rajasthan.............................. 32 2.2 Methodology................................................................................................... 42 2.2.1 Pre-Dissertation Research & Methods............................................. 42 2.2.2 Dissertation Research Methods.......................................................
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