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University of South Florida Scholar Commons Graduate Theses and Dissertations Graduate School 2011 Egyptian Body Size: A Regional and Worldwide Comparison Michelle H. Raxter University of South Florida, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd Part of the American Studies Commons, Anatomy Commons, and the Evolution Commons Scholar Commons Citation Raxter, Michelle H., "Egyptian Body Size: A Regional and Worldwide Comparison" (2011). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/3305 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at Scholar Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Scholar Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Egyptian Body Size: A Regional and Worldwide Comparison by Michelle Helene Raxter A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anthropology College of Arts and Sciences University of South Florida Major Professor: Lorena Madrigal, Ph.D. David A. Himmelgreen, Ph.D. Christopher B. Ruff, Ph.D. E. Christian Wells, Ph.D. Sonia R. Zakrzewski, Ph.D. Date of Approval: October 10, 2011 Keywords: postcrania, ancient health, ecogeographic patterning, Northeast Africa, Egypt, Nubia Copyright © 2011, Michelle Helene Raxter ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would first like to thank my all-star dissertation committee: Dr. Christian Wells. Dr. Wells was so great at explaining details to me, especially in stats. He is also super super cool. Dr. David Himmelgreen. Points Dr. Himmelgreen has highlighted to me have really helped me improve my work. He is awesome. Dr. Sonia Zakrzewski. I was beyond ecstatic when Dr. Zakrzewski agreed to be on my committee. Her own research and publications, expertise and comments were so critical to my work. Dr. Zakrzewski rocks! Dr. Christopher Ruff. Dr. Ruff is so influential to me. I would not have reached this point without him. He is just the highest order of brilliance, both as a mentor and as a person. There just aren’t sufficient superlatives to cover it, so I won’t even try. I am just so fortunate and grateful to know him and have his guidance. Dr. Lorena Madrigal. When I first met Dr. Madrigal at an AAPA meeting, I knew she was meant to be my advisor. This was even before we found out we have similar eating habits and that we both love all things Austen. She is the most amazing mentor in the multiverse, whose insight and direction has been invaluable to all aspects of my academic career. She is also just a fantastic person! I am grateful to Dr. Benjamin Auerbach, Dr. Michele Buzon, Dr. Moushira Erfan, Dr. Trent Holliday, Dr. Jerry Rose, Dr. Sonia Zakrzewski, and Bill Schaffer for contributing their skeletal measures to the present study. I would also like to thank the following people for their support over the years: Dr. David Hunt, Dr. Douglas Ubelaker, Dr. Maria Teschler-Nicola, and Dr. Karin Wiltschke-Schrotta. The Smithsonian, particularly the sections I had the most experience with - the Anthropology Department and Mammals Division of the Department of Systematic Biology - were such a significant impact on me and my perspectives on research. I would like to thank the researchers and staff there who never hesitated to take the time to help me, whether it was to offer technical advice or aid in locating literary sources, but also for offering to assist me, even when I didn’t ask, with other things like carrying really heavy drawers. They also showed concern like when I had to use the giant ladder or if I had to walk to the Metro alone in later hours. I very much appreciate their kindness and it was a privilege to be surrounded by professionals of the highest esteem. Finally, thank you to my parents, Buddy, Liza, Art, and Tina, and my grandparents, Ed, Linda, Lee and Elvira. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES v LIST OF FIGURES xviii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxii ABSTRACT xxiii CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1 Research Strategy 3 Major Issues Considered 4 Outline of the Study 6 CHAPTER 2 Methodological and Theoretical Framework 7 Human Adaptability 7 Human Growth and Development 9 The GH/IGF System 15 Early Life History 16 Heritability 18 Secular Trends 19 Factors Affecting Sexual Dimorphism in Body Size 25 Subsistence Strategy and Social Stratification 27 Evolutionary Forces 30 Ecogeographic Patterning 31 Major Issues in Bioarchaeological Analyses 39 CHAPTER 3 Historical Context and Hypotheses 43 Egypt and Nubia’s Geography 45 Summary of Egyptian History from the Paleolithic to Arab Conquest 49 The Paleolithic and Mesolithic Periods 49 The Predynastic Period 50 The Early Dynastic/Archaic Period (1st & 2nd Dynasties) 53 The Old Kingdom Period (3rd-6th Dynasties) 54 The First Intermediate Period (7th-10th Dynasties) 55 The Middle Kingdom Period (11th-14th Dynasties) 55 The Second Intermediate Period (15th-17th Dynasties) 56 The New Kingdom Period (18th-20th Dynasties) 57 The Third Intermediate Period (21st-23rd Dynasties) and Late Period (24th-31st Dynasties) 58 The Greco-Roman Period 59 Byzantine Era 60 i Arab Conquest to the 20th Century 60 Egypt Today 62 Egypt and Nubia 64 Climate and the Nile: Late Pleistocene to Dynastic Times 69 Animal and Plant Domestication and Formation of the Egyptian State 72 Ancient Egyptian Hierarchy 74 Diet and Subsistence 77 Population Affinity 80 Previous Ancient Egyptian Postcranial Studies 84 Aims and Hypotheses 88 Health/Nutrition 88 Ecogeographic Patterns 91 CHAPTER 4 Materials 92 Selection Procedure 92 Site Description 93 Egypt 96 Nazlet Khater - Early Upper Paleolithic Period (38,000-33,000 BCE) 96 El-Badari - Badarian Period (c. 5500-4000 BCE) 97 Keneh - Predynastic Period (c. 5500-3050 BCE) 98 Naqada - Predynastic Period (c. 4000-3000 BCE) 99 Abydos - Early Predynastic (c. 4000-3500 BCE) and Archaic Periods (c. 3050-2687 BCE) 99 Gebelein - Early Predynastic (c. 4000-3500 BCE) and Middle Kingdom Periods (c. 2061-1665 BCE) 100 El-Amrah - Late Predynastic Period (c. 3500-3150 BCE) 101 Hierakonpolis - Late Predynastic Period (3500-3150 BCE) 101 Mesaeed - Late Predynastic Period (c. 3500-3150 BCE) 102 Giza - Old Kingdom Period (c. 2687-2191 BCE) 102 Meidum - Old Kingdom Period (c. 2687-2191 BCE) 102 Lisht - Middle Kingdom (2061-1665 BCE), New Kingdom (c. 1569-1081 BCE) and Late Periods (c. 727-333 BCE) 103 Sheikh Farag - Middle Kingdom Period (2061-1665 BCE) 103 Amarna - New Kingdom Period (c. 1390-1330 BCE) 104 El-Hesa - Roman Period (c. 200-400 CE) 105 Kharga Oasis - Roman-Byzantine Period (c. 500-600 CE) 105 Luxor - Roman-Byzantine Period (c. 500-600 CE) 106 El-Kubanieh 106 Nubia 106 Jebel Sahaba - Late Upper Paleolithic (c. 12,000-10,000 BCE) 106 Kerma - Classic Kerma Period (c. 1750-1500BCE) 107 Tombos - New Kingdom Period (c. 1569-1081 BCE) 107 Sayala - Late Roman-Early Byzantine Period (c. 350-550 CE) 109 CHAPTER 5 Methods 111 Data Collection: Measurements and Techniques 111 Preparation of the Data 113 Groups Assessed 118 Statistical Methods 119 ii CHAPTER 6 Results 121 Results: Health/Nutrition 121 Temporal Analyses of Body Size Within Egypt 121 1. Within Egypt: Temporal Analyses: Stature and Body Mass 122 Stature and Sexual Dimorphism in Stature 122 Body Mass 131 2. Within Egypt: Temporal Analyses: Variation in Measures 137 Stature 137 Long Bone Lengths 138 Regional Comparison of Body Size 142 3. Egyptian and Nubian Comparison: Stature and Body Mass 142 Stature and Sexual Dimorphism in Stature 142 Body Mass 144 4. Egyptian and Nubian Comparison: Variation in Measures 145 Ancient v. Modern Comparison of Body Size 146 5. Ancient v Modern Comparison: Stature, Body Mass, and Sexual Dimorphism 146 Results: Ecogeographic Patterns in Body Size 150 6. Regional Comparison 150 Northeast African Region: Brachial and Crural Indices 151 Northeast African Region: Body Breadth 155 7. Worldwide Comparison 155 Brachial and Crural Indices 155 Body Breadth 158 8. Worldwide Comparison: Correlations with Latitude 159 CHAPTER 7 Discussion 165 Physical Environment 165 Diet and Subsistence Patterns 168 Health deterioration as related to agricultural intensification and increase in social stratification. 169 Cultural Changes 174 Egypt and Nubia 176 Sexual Dimorphism 179 Temporal Patterns in Egyptian Body Size Related to Previous Studies 180 Modern Egypt 184 Egyptian Body Plan: Ecogeographic Patterns in a Middle Latitude Population and Egypt at the Intersection of Continents 189 CHAPTER 8 Conclusions 191 Limitations of the Study and Directions for Future Research 194 LITERATURE CITED 197 Appendix 1: Additional Table: Chronology of Climatic and Cultural Events 233 iii Appendix 2: Additional Table: Egypt Mean Temperature by Month and Season 234 Appendix 3: Additional Tables: Tests with Sex and Time Period as Factors 235 Appendix 4: Additional Tables: Tests of Normality: Males 237 Appendix 5: Additional Tables: Tests of Normality: Females 243 Appendix 6: Additional Tables: Levene’s Statistic and ANOVA: Egyptian Males 250 Appendix 7: Additional Tables: Levene’s Statistic and ANOVA: Nubian Males 256 Appendix 8: Additional Tables: Levene’s Statistic and ANOVA: Males by Northeast African Region 262 Appendix 9: Additional Tables: Levene’s Statistic and ANOVA: Egyptian Females 264 Appendix 10: Additional Tables: Levene’s Statistic and ANOVA: Nubian Females 269 Appendix 11: Additional Tables: Levene’s Statistic and ANOVA: Females by Northeast African Region 274 Appendix 12: Additional Figures: Boxplots: Distribution of Measures: Males 276 Appendix 13: Additional Figures: Boxplots: Distribution of Measures: Females 284 iv LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1 Stages in postnatal life. 10 TABLE 2 Egyptian chronology and timeline of major historical events. 44 TABLE 3 Study’s skeletal samples by time period and site. 95 TABLE 4 Published Nubian data. 96 TABLE 5 Anthropometrics of modern Egyptians. 97 TABLE 6 Measurements and indices used in the analysis.
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