Social Class in Australia 35 03 CHAPTER Society

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Sample social class in australia 35 03 CHAPTER Society

is social stratification? is social social theories behind are the We do like to think of ourselves as above above as ourselves of to think like do We pages But there’s a big step between taking stratification? what what what snobberies are a thing of the past in Britain, snobberies are a thing of the past how understand and Australia to go then life. In class penetrates every aspect of English social your from not free, be can you Australia, matters.” class, but from the feeling that it about class. And there’s something glorious trap- the way Australians treat the outward spring racing pings of class as a joke. At the to play carnival, all kinds of people come stilettos. A the toff in hired suits and muddy Boxing Day hundred times a day during the amongTest, a roaring Mexican wave collapses hats of the the obdurate tweed and sensible boos with members’ pavilion, and everyone gleeful derision. This class business is a hoot. the piss out of class divides and concluding, therefore, that we don’t really have any. As Craig McGregor puts it in his book, Class in Australia, the “attempt to run away from class

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“At public schools, the girls are skanks,” “At public schools, the girls are much, “class” the word She doesn’t use she notes with dismay. But she’s not unsym- But she’s not dismay. with notes she of state pathetic. The problem is that parents about their school kids just don’t care enough schools. Thiskids to send them to good private “povvo” their by children “povvo” of neglect that I am parents forms a “cycle of skankiness so glad I am not a part of”. now less but then Australians generally don’t, the against grates Class politics ever. than And that egalitarian idea we have of ourselves. onReflecting too. us of have apparently, others, battling the countries between differences the for the Ashes this winter, English sportswriter Simon Barnes wrote: “If you think social blazerless wasteland. Australia truly is a classless society, then a classless society, then Australia truly is to tell Ja’mie King, star of the someone forgot High Summer Heights. ABC TV mockumentary school high public ordinary an into Inserted non- for a semester, Ja’mie, “the smartest herself in aAsian” at Hilford Girls’ College, finds Stratification Chapter 3 36 ments that egalitarianism is a pervasive ideology in Australia, albeit not a ments thategalitarianismisapervasiveideologyinAustralia,albeitnot with theperceptionthattheyare‘middleclass’,givingweighttoargu- identify as‘workingclass’,nowmostAustraliansseemcomfortable W Radicals stilltalkclass,buttheirrevolutionaryhopes, or persecuted, but either way stunningly diminished. been—depending on your point of view—reformed and parasites. But in recent decades those unions have unions andtheirbelligerenttalkofsilvertails,fatcats of thepoliticalclassrhetoriccameoutblue-collar edge to it; it sounds like it’s looking for trouble. Much stream. Perhapsbecausethewordhasahectoring sters thattheybelieveinequalityisgrowing. past decade,largemajoritieshaveconsistentlytoldpoll- becoming anon-corevalue.Invariouspollsoverthe evidence thatAustraliansrealiseegalitarianismis times fasterthanthoseofthebottomfifth.Butthere’s mid-2000s, incomesofthetopfifthearnersgrewfour unequal developednation.Betweenthemid-1990sand Development Program, we’rethe world’s fifth-most According todata gathered bythe United Nations the facts.Australianinequalityis,infact,world-class. people aredividedup—thoughnottotheirmind”. is oneofthemostinvidiousandunfairwaysinwhich does credittotheheartofAustralians—becauseclass Social Stratification Yet classstilldoesn’tgetmuchofaruninthemain- Our egalitarianself-imagecertainlydoesn’tmatch income heor she earned worker couldliveoffthe meant toassureafull-time Minimum Wage—a wage to assistpeopleinneed Welfare—a programcreated to class.WhereasoncemanyAustralianswerewilling Australians haveshownabroadshiftinperceptionsrelating hich classdoyoubelongto?Overmanydecades,surveysof is and/or prestige usually wealth,power some objectivecriteria, individuals basedon the orderlyrankingof Sample which created key conceptsare Social Reform term for what was once known as the ‘middle class’). The Labor govern- anyone, excepttheexceptionallywealthy)or‘battlers’(ageneralised preferred totalkabout‘elites’(atermwhichcouldincludejust the ‘C’word.TheHowardCoalitiongovernment(1996–2007)instead and politicians,frombothleftrightpersuasions,assiduouslyavoid reality. Australiansnolongerevenliketo talk muchaboutsocialclasses, August. T. McCamish(2009).‘WhateverHappenedtotheClasslessSociety?’,TheAge,16 nouveau richetypes.Class?You’restandinginit,darl.’ riches ofourcashed-upbogans,latte-sippers,feralsor or too seriously.Andwedon’t.FlickonthetellytoFatPizza things areaboutpreference,wedon’thavetotakethem live orwhatpaperweread,ifany.Sincemostofthese the makeofourcar,kids’schools,religion,wherewe markers—things likeourage,job,clothes,sexuality, out ofsight.Whatdefinesusineverydaylifearesocial economic basis ofour social divisionshas largely faded has more layers than a MasterChef gateau. But the socio- “class wentintoahiatusforsociologists”. tion academicatMonashUniversity,inarecentpaper, intensified globally,” argued John Pardy, an educa- sifying and the concentration of power and wealth faith intheexplanatorypowerofclasswaning. forlorn thanever.Eveninacademiccircles,somesee seem to understand its Marxist destiny, seem more vested inafragmented“workingclass”thatdoesn’t investments work orthrough received through to themoney Income—refers to see the comic Kath &KimorrerunsofTheCastletoseethecomic Of course, everyone knows that Australian society Of course, everyone knows that Australian society “Just whenclassdifferencesseemedtobeinten-

which leadto pages + poverty andwealth how peopleperceive Symbolic interactions— classes person tochangesocial refers totheabilityofa Structural mobility— the thingsyouhave but alsoaddsthevalueof Wealth—includes yourincome, this influences

understand which helpyou and education) factors (neighbourhoods and povertyonsocial the impactofwealth Income Distribution explains which this showshow lower middle,working,underclass) Class Structure(upper, uppermiddle, residual, absolute,relative)and Poverty (transitional,marginal, five groups are dividedamong income andwealth understand how this helpsyou this relatesto which caninfluence of esteem) prestige your will) (the abilitytocarryout people receivepower (thelevel 37 Social Class in Austraia (the level ustralian people receive power (the ability to carry out your will) A prestige of esteem) which can influence that whereas American tourists wanted to

this relates to this helps you understand how pages When the Our nation began with a gross act of indecency. the of act first the Rock, Plymouth in landed Mayflower First Fleet landedpassengers was a prayer meeting. When the a lot It explains at Port Jackson, their first act was an orgy. about the ensuing characters of our two nations. success or differ- Australians’ disdain for what might be considered tratification in tratification ociety suggests was partly the result of shifts in political attitudes following following attitudes in political of shifts the result was partly suggests - socioeco recently the more However, Soviet Union. of the the demise has prompted global financial crisis generated by the nomic upheaval inequality in and the nature of wealth to again examine class academics of these recent will explore some societies. This chapter contemporary Australia. with class analysis in debates associated findings and S S story is well known. It involves the ‘rags to riches’ The ‘American dream’ top. of the economic heap and climbing to the of starting at the bottom and is is not absent from Australian culture, The ‘rags to riches’ narrative media to suggest a high degree of social mobilityregularly invoked by the the fact that research repeatedly suggestsin Australian society, despite which steadfastly fixed in the social class into that most of us will remain be also holds close to the notion of what may we were born. Yet Australia premised upon the advocacy of samenesscalled the ‘egalitarian dream’, Australianan on observed once operator tourism Irish An ordinariness. and television program Getaway dwelled in the ruined castlebelieve that their ancestors might have once he encountered wereup on the hill, lording it over the land, the Australians had once ploughed the fieldsmore ready to identify with the peasants who delighted to discover theybelow the castle. Many Australians are also once been considered thehave convict ancestry, transforming what had pride. When the Australiannation’s ‘birth stain’ into a source of national doctorate by a Britishnovelist Kathy Lette (2010) was awarded an honorary her convict ancestoruniversity in 2009, she gave a speech celebrating transported to Australia inMary Frost, who as a 14-year-old had been Lette played to the idea1789 following a conviction for theft. In her speech, free of the cultural baggageof Australia as a relaxed and casual nation, (including class) of Old Europe. She observed: ence has been articulated with reference to the ‘tall poppy syndrome’— income and wealth are divided among five groups

Poverty (transitional, marginal, residual, absolute, relative) and upper middle, Class Structure (upper, lower middle, working, underclass) this shows how Sample Sample which explains Income Distribution

the impact of wealth and poverty on social factors (neighbourhoods and education) In this chapter, we will examine if In this chapter, we will examine  by class. Australia is a nation defined Even academics have been relatively silent of late on the issue Even academics have been relatively silent

>>> ment has shown a preference for the term ‘working families’, which the term a preference for has shown ment to as ‘working class’ and seems to be inclusive of groups once referred to talk about a ‘ruling class’ ‘middle class’. Amidst all this, no one likes themselves as belonging anymore, and almost no one would identify for Australia in 2004, John to such a grouping. Outlining a new vision class or by defined a nation be never should ‘Australia stated: Howard and achievement.’ envy, but rather a nation united by mateship Australian sociologist, has of social class. Michael Gilding (2004), an during the 1970s and 1980sobserved that there was a flurry of research tradition, evident in the on wealth in Australian society. The Weberian while the Marxist tradition, work of Sol Encel (1970), examined ‘elites’, drew attention to that captured in the work of R.W. Connell (1977), likes to talk about anymore. Australian ‘ruling class’ that no one much which Gilding the 1980s, away in and elites fell Research on ruling class which help you understand this influences —includes your income, Wealth but also adds the value of the things you have Structural mobility— refers to the ability of a person to change social classes Symbolic interactions— how people perceive poverty and wealth + which lead to Income—refers to the money received through work or through investments Social Reform key concepts are which created the orderly ranking of individuals based on some objective criteria, usually wealth, power and/or prestige is a program created Welfare— to assist people in need —a wage Minimum Wage meant to assure a full-time worker could live off the income he or she earned Social Stratification Chapter 3 38 many Australians havesincecometoglorifythe notionthatAustralia the pervasivenessinAustralianlifeofegalitarianideologyitself: 1960s, recognisedthedarkersideofegalitariandreamand noted suspicion inAustralia. ent ideas and lookeddifferentwere feared orregarded with some acknowledgement ofsocio-culturaldiversity.Peoplewhohaddiffer- as ahomogeneous(British)peoplediscouragedthepromotionand the egalitariandreamofaworkers’paradise.TheideaAustralians Historically, women,immigrantsandAborigineswereexcludedfrom were. AsWardmakesclear,thetypicalAustralianwasawhitemale. how thetypicalAustralianwantedtobeseen,nottheyreally Australian bushman. that egalitarianism was first articulated with reference to the 19th-century to locatetheegalitariandreaminasocio-historicalcontext.Heargued the ‘fairgo’.ThehistorianRussellWardwasoneoffirsttoattempt consciousness, withfrequentreferencestonotionsof‘mateship’and ought tobecutbackdownsize.EgalitarianismpervadestheAustralian the ideathatifafellowAustralianrisestoomuchabovepackthey Horne viewed the egalitarian dream with some distaste. Although satisfying ideologicalvictory.(Horne1965:19–20) people havewon—orhaddelivered tothem—aprofoundand inequalities ofwealth,powerand opportunity;buttheordinary substance ofanaccompanyingequality ismissing;therearestill The spiritoffraternalismpermeates thenation.Sometimes enjoy someofthethingsheenjoyshimself,willnotlikeAustralia. like ordinarypeopletothinktheyareasgoodheis,or sometimes tipthemthesmallchange.Apersonwhodoesn’t prefer theirpassengerstositwiththeminthefrontseatand tensions ofracialismorthehorrorsautocracy.Taxidrivers obvious classdistinctions,casteorcommunaldomination,the Australia isthemostegalitarianofallcountries,untroubledby In outwardform,andasfarordinarypeopleknoworcare, Donald Horne, writing ofAustralia as the ‘lucky country’ in the As Wardobserved,thiswasanideologicalrepresentation:itis may beinthewrong.(Ward1966:1–2). with hismatesthroughthickandthin,evenifhethinksthey policemen. Yetheisveryhospitableand,aboveall,willstick when thesequalitiesareembeddedinmilitaryofficersand ent personwhohatesofficiousnessandauthority,especially distinguished byphysicalprowess.Heisafiercelyindepend- people unless,asinthecaseofsportingheroes,theyare good dealbetter,andsoheisagreatknockerofeminent as goodhismasterbut,atleastinprinciple,probablya cultural pursuits generally. He believes that Jack is not only skeptical aboutthevalueofreligionandintellectual stoically ratherthanonewhoactsbusily.Heisa‘hardcase’, he isusuallytaciturnratherthantalkative,onewhoendures on occasion.Thoughheisthe‘world’s‘bestconfidenceman’, and consistently,gamblesheavilyoften,drinksdeeply no impulsetoworkhardwithoutgoodcause.Heswears capable ofgreatexertioninanemergency,henormallyfeels content withataskdoneinwaythatis‘nearenough’.Though ever willing‘tohaveago’atanything,buttootobe appearance ofaffectationinothers.Heisagreatimproviser, man, roughandreadyinhismannersquicktodecryany According tothemyth‘typicalAustralian’isapractical

Sample McGregor (1997:2–3): of classandtheirresentment of it(McGregor1997:13).According to strength ofthetraditionisatestamenttoAustralians’consciousness societies, whileothershavecometotheoppositeconclusion:that led sometoconcludethatAustraliaislessclassconsciousthanother McGregor hasarguedthatthestrongegalitariantraditioninAustralia terms ofeducation,healthandwork.ThesocialcommentatorCraig structure of Australian society. Class determines who gets what in such ascars.Asinallothermodernsocieties,classprovidesthebasic with Australiansbeingobsessedtheacquisitionofstatussymbols Horne noted, for example, a strong materialistic streak in Australia, with regardtoculture,inmaterialtermsAustraliaisfarfromegalitarian. (‘elites’) treatedwithsuspicionanddistrust. education. Thishaspersisteduntilrecenttimes,witheducatedpeople mankind’. Onecostofegalitarianismwasadisdainforcultureand derived fromabeliefinthe‘essentialsamenessandordinarinessof with lifestylethanachievement.InAustraliaa‘cultofinformality’reigned, was acountryrunbysecond-ratepeoplewhoweremoreconcerned rather thanthroughindustriousnessandinnovation.ForHorne,Australia Australians enjoyedarelativelyhighqualityoflifethroughgoodluck, is literallya‘luckycountry’,Hornecoinedthetermascriticism:

one ofSydney’s mostaffluent suburbs. $18 millionhomeis situatedinVaucluse, >>> countries intheworld. according toclass,butthatAustraliaisoneofthemosthighlystratified

live without reference to class.. It isimpossibletounderstandAustraliaorthelivesAustralians While theremaybeanideologyofegalitarianismthatmanifests In short,McGregorrecognisesthatnotonlyisAustraliastratified lege andinequality,indeedlivedifferentlives. speak indifferentways,experiencecrucialdifferencesprivi- ent suburbs,gotodifferentschools,getincomes, different socialclasseshavesortsofjobs,liveindiffer- impossible toliveinAustraliawithoutcomingrealisethat some peoplearebossesandworkers.Itis wealthiest business tycoons.His James Packerisone ofAustralia’s pages

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. Class largelyexplains why

39 Social Class in Austraia

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income, d P90 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2007–08 Income ($ per week) Income STRATIFICATION Median Mean Median

P10 pages 0 200 400 600 relates to the ranking of people and the and the the ranking of people relates to Social stratification

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unequal country in the world behind In 2008, Australia was the fourth most

Sociologists, generally, like to rank individuals based on objective on objective based rank individuals like to generally, Sociologists, of their rank, or stratify, the members society have ways to All forms of and/ to divide groups by their access to wealth In Australia, we tend %

isposable househol Distribution of equivalise Cat. No. 6523.0. Cat. No. >>> Note: Persons with an income between $25 and $2,025 are with an income between Persons Note: in $50 ranges on the graph. shown of Statistics Bureau Australian of Australia, © Commonwealth Source: 2007–08. Distribution, Australia, and Income Income (ABS) Household SOCIAL d

the US, Portugal and the UK (Livingstone 2009: 31).

DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH is reflected in the fact The reluctance to acknowledge class in Australia distribution wealth country’s the into investigation serious last the that survey found that wealth was conducted in 1915. This comprehensive 1915, In income. than that time at significant differentials were more criteria. including wealth, objective criteria, often receive based on rewards they prestige. power and/or soci- of stratification can vary a great deal between populations, but the level separate Some societies may use political power to eties (Salzman 1999). others. members special privileges unavailable to people by giving party - for work or through invest or income. Income refers to the money received month or pay cheque you get at the end of each ments. Whether it is the receive from your share portfolio, the money you the dividends you receive yourall to refers hand, other the on , income. Wealth considered is regularly youeverything take to If you were including income. possessions, material fair market computer, clothes, etc.—and sell it all at a owned—your car, your more than raise a considerable sum that would be value, you could probably the twoIt is important to know the difference between your monthly income. can affect your social standing. and to understand how each of these factors IS

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to stratify people. Although Japan is a Some societies use birth as a way

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S urge to rank displayed an obsessive societies have Modern Western and you’re sure end of a given year, up any magazine at the things. Pick albums or books (or worst) movies, ten’ lists ranking the best to find ‘top 1,Chapter we saw in act. As the can even get in of the year. Sociologists asked Sociological Association (TASA) were members of The Australian most influential books in Australian sociologyin 2003 to rank the ten The top two ranked books (by R.W. Connell(Skrbis and Germov 2004). both we will come to later in this chapter) were and Michael Pusey, who five stratification, with the next three in the top concerned with class stratification class and gender Clearly, stratification. gender with concerned for Australian sociologists, but such interestshave been important issues sociology. Nor is the tendency to rank.aren’t restricted to Australian get the topic: the get democracy with a prime minister, nobility such as Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko are among Japanese society’s most elite and wealthy members.

Chapter 3 40 in incomes at the top end of the spectrum, but slower growth in the middle Bob Hawkeand Paul Keating.Duringthisperiod,there wasstronggrowth US, respectively,wasinstigatedin AustraliabyLaborgovernmentsunder was conducted under the Thatcher and Reagan regimes in the UK and trial tofinancecapital.Ironically,the dismantlingofthewelfarestate,which Connell hasarguedthatthe1970s witnessedashiftinpowerfromindus- on aneo-liberaldismantlingofthe ‘Keynesian’welfarestateapparatus. new phaseofdevelopmentsince the1970s.Thisnewphaseiscentred and MichaelPuseyhavearguedthatAustraliancapitalismhasentered a 2001). Thishasallchanged. 1970s, it rose again in the 1980s and 1990s (Saunders 2001; Thompson that whileincomeinequalityfellinAustraliabetweenthe1950sand the so, havethingsalwaysbeenthisway?Thereismuchevidenceto show least wealthy20percentofAustralians.Thishardlyseemsegalitarian; wealthiest 20percentofAustraliansare56timeswealthierthan the of $1.38millionandthebottom20percent$24000.Thismeans the 2004 thewealthiest20percentofhouseholdshadanaverage wealth 20 percentofhouseholdscontrolabout1overallwealth.In control about90percent ofoverall household wealth, is largelyconcentrated.Whilethewealthiest20percentofAustralians households inAustraliawas$563000.Thedatasuggestthatwealth more unevenlydistributedthanincome. by households. As with the 1915 survey, the data show that wealth is Australian BureauofStatistics(ABS)analysisdistributionnetworth concentrating insteadonincome. The onlyofficialresearchin this areais Australia. Thecensusdoesn’taskquestionsaboutwealthholdings, ian self-image—weknowverylittleabouthowwealthisdistributedin to examinethisissue—perhapsbecauseitmightshatterouregalitar- tion ofwealthinAustralia.Becausegovernmentshavebeenreluctant successfully resistedpressuretoestablishaninquiryintothedistribu- 5 percentowned66cent.In1986,theHawkeLaborgovernment 1 percentofmen owned 30percent of thecountry’swealth,and wages andsalaries. >>>

Prominent Australian sociologists Raewyn (formerly R.W.) Connell Prominent AustraliansociologistsRaewyn(formerlyR.W.)Connell ABS data indicate that in 2005/2006 the average net worth of Data suggestthattheinequalitygapin accumulated wealthistwicethatof

Sample the bottom

options forunskilledworkers.Theso-called‘nohopers’hadnothing. people, while the rugby league and RSL clubs were the most likely bosses. ThebowlingclubandMasonswereutilisedmostlybytrades - arts council.ThecountryclubandLionsorganisationwerefavoured by elites tendedtooptforthegolfclub,LiberalPartymembership orthe of organisationalaffiliationsafter-workleisureactivities.Forexample, as ‘no-hopers’.Majorstatusdivisionsinthetownmaterialised terms tions, andanunderclassofsemi-skilledworkersthosereferred to and managers, trades and skilled workers, manual and serviceoccupa- of landholders.Townspeopleweredividedintofourgroupsbosses of townconstituted20percentthepopulationandconsistedmostly fringes oftownandthetownspeoplethemselves.Thoseonoutskirts in the country town of ‘Bradstow’ between upper income groups on the social orpoliticalprimacy.RonWild(1974)foundmajorstatusdivisions business, bureaucratic and political elites, none of whom had total In Australia,SolEncel(1970)foundevidencefortheemergenceof States asmallgroupcalledthepowereliteholdsimmensepower. unlimited power. C. Wright Mills (1956) suggested that within the United steward theeconomyintooroutofarecession. power toauthorisethedeploymentoftroopsintoamilitaryconflictor when theyrepresentthepeoplewhoelectedthem.Theycanusethis to facultybytheuniversity.MembersofParliamenthavedelegatedpower power toeducateinauniversityisdelegated,meaninggivenorassigned, is toenrolinordropthecourse.Whyarethingsthisway?Because great dealofpoweroverwhatisintheirclasses,andstudents’only and theorderinwhichtheywillcoverthem.Inshort,alllecturershavea great power.Theyselectthetextbooks,topicsclasswillcover, will and impose it on others. In university classrooms, lecturers possess Another measureofstratificationispower—theabilitytocarryoutyour POWER over $600000. there wereapproximately60000peopleinAustraliawithincomesof twice therateotherworkersduringpreviousdecade.Inthisperiod for 9.8 per cent of all income, with thepays of this group increasing at 2007/2008 financialyear,therichest1percentoftaxpayersaccounted the turnoflastcenturythishadincreasedto98timesmore.In top-50 rankedcompanyearned27timesthenationalaverage,butby began torisesharplyduringthe1990s.Inearly1990saCEOin richest Australianslargelyfellfromthe1920suntil1980sandthen by aboutathirdattheturnoflastcentury(Saunders2001). These tworedistributivemeasuresoperatedtoreduceincomeinequality been greaterduringthisperiodifnotforsocialtransfersandincometaxes. increase forthetop20percentofhouseholds.Inequalitywouldhave the bottom10percentandmiddle20ofhouseholds,an the 1990s,withadeclineinshareoftotalincomecakegoingto and thebottom.Thegapbetweentopmiddleincreasedduring struggle toearn respect inasocietythatstigmatises theirwork. jobs. Notonlydo low-wageworkersstruggletopay theirbills,theyalso paying jobshavelessprestigebecause ofthestigmaattachedtosuch various typesofjobsholddiffering levelsofprestige.Generally,low- social standing.Mostofus want others to holdus in highregard,but Prestige refers to the level of esteem associated with our status and PRESTIGE Individuals havevaryingamounts of power,butnoonehastotally pages Atkinson andLeigh(2006)arguethatthetopincomeshareof 41 Social Class in Austraia The The

is very small class is very small elite’ large landholders, financiers, entrepreneurs, some self- employed, managers and include employing groups, include employing groups, professionals. They are the population. This class may may class This population. least visible of social classes least visible of social classes sought to nationalise Australian banks in the late 1940s. much as 10 per cent of the much as 10 per cent of the in Australia; however, Connell (1977) has argued that when (1977) has argued that when the sanctity of private property appears threatened this class appears threatened this class will mobilise, as was the case when the Chifley government grouping, it might constitute as Another example of this mobi- lisation, cited by Connell, was the dismissal of the Whitlam Connell’s 1975. government in shows they of this group study don’t only have material clout; they also control worldviews as reflected in media, educa- tion and the arts. Generally, this or ‘ managers—were included in this middle class—such as high-level middle class—such as high-level

Indeed, if some sections of the upper ruling’ ‘ , Ironically, the United States leads the the the United States leads Ironically, as upper middle class (McGregor 1997). as upper middle class (McGregor 1997). of the population, not including about 8 per of the population, not including about 8 per cent of Australians who consider themselves group probably constitutes about 1 per cent group probably constitutes about 1 per cent in number and holds significant wealth. This in number and holds significant wealth. This world in the total number of millionaires as well total number of millionaires world in the millionaires percentage of new as the highest run Many of these millionaires (Frank 2004). large contribute or government in positions for causes. In fact, of the donations to political 1995 Senate, 40 were 100 members in the 2007). millionaires (Dannheisser upper’ ‘

Upper/Ruling/Elite Upper/Ruling/Elite Class outcomes. your perspective, opportunities and long-term your perspective, opportunities and long-term membership of one class or another might influence membership of one class or another might

working class and underclass. Ask yourself how your how yourself Ask underclass. and class working For our discussion, however, let’s look at four different For our discussion, however, social classes in Australia: upper class, middle class, upper class, middle class, social classes in Australia: pages

children live in households classified as ‘food in households classified children live that change are households insecure’, which or frequently or quality of their food the quantity (USCBbecause of limited incomes skip meals cent of the children living2008). In 2005, 7 per lived in extreme povertyin the United States 2000). These families(Ross, Reynolds and Geis per cent of the povertyhave incomes below 50 2008). threshold (ChildStats.gov

Sample Sample Paris Hilton is a celebrity primarily because she was born into extraordinary wealth, but

>>> she has used the wealth, power and prestige of her family name to pursue television, modelling, musical and fashion design careers. Prestigious jobs are generally ranked on a scale from Prestigious jobs are generally into benefits its carry may job prestigious A Wealth, power and prestige are The United States has the greatest percentage States has the greatest The United other with compared poverty in living children of (Rainwater and Yanceyindustrial democracies per cent of children 1968). In the US, 17.4 in poverty (US Censusunder the age of 18 live and 17 per cent of theseBureau [USCB] 2008), From One Extreme to Extreme From One Another 0 to 100, with 0 being the lowest. As you might suspect,might you with 0 being the lowest. As 0 to 100, of 86 physicians and lawyers top the list with ratings up the and 75; and street corner drug dealers bring rear with a 13 (Nakao and Treas 1994). take other areas of life. For example, you might start-up successful a from tip investment an the CEO, but it’s doubtful you would take advice of a minimum-wage-earning grocery bagger. You don’t expect someone who works as a bagger to be able to give you a great investment tip. Otherwise, why would he or she be working in such a low-status job? Occupational prestige varies a great deal between jobs and shows the general respect we have for certain work. Few people look at their newborn baby and hope she a fast-food will grow up to become cook rather than a doctor. the basis for the stratification system used to characterise the population, so these three components can also be used to analyse the class system of Australia. Most Australians like to consider to consider like Australians Most themselves as belonging to one big homogeneous middle class, despite there being wide inequali- ties in the distribution of wealth in Australia. While Australian sociolo- gists claim that there is significant stratification in Australian society, they have varying opinions on how many classes there should be and what constitutes each class. CLASS STRUCTURE IN AUSTRALIA Chapter 3 42 information and ideas about the future. The relaxing nature of a social information andideasaboutthefuture.Therelaxingnatureofasocial class tounify.At these retreats, politiciansandnationalspeakersprovide are listedinWho’sWhoAustralia.Membershipishighlyrestricted. tions inAustralia.Approximatelyone-thirdoftheclub’s1500members figures, includingofficersordirectorsfrom40ofthe50largestcorpora- Members areawho’swhoofAustralianbusinesstycoonsandpolitical racy in1839.Thecluboffersluxuriousretreatstoitsexclusivemembers. all-male Melbourne Club, established by the wealthy Victorian squattoc- upper class.Moststatecapitals have suchclubs. One suchclubisthe family. ing toexclusivesocialclubs,andbeingbornintoawealthyorpowerful of thisclasscomesfromattendinganexclusiveprivateschool,belong- work studyingtheupperclass.Accordingtohisfindings,membership where theyinvesttheirwealth(Encel1970;Gilding2004). marry andmixwithsocially,thetypeofworktheydo,companies tion intermsoftheschoolstheyattend,peoplearelikelyto workplace structures. this grouphasbecomedetachedfromnationalvaluesandegalitarian its wealthfromsalariesandbonuses,ratherthanstatus.Increasingly, their strategiccontroloflargecapitalflows.Thisgroupderivesmuch also high-level managers who control industry andgain benefits from this groupincludesnotonlyownersofthemeansproduction,but entertainers andprofessionalathletesarealsopartofthisclass.Notably, to thethreecomponentsofclass:wealth,powerandprestige.Many much of thecountry’s‘old money’, which affords themgreataccess tion controlsmostofthenation’swealth.Theupperclasspossesses to powerin1972. ineffective, aswasthecasewhenWhitlamLaborgovernmentcame but will support the Australian Labor Party when these parties seem class supportstheLiberalandNationalpartiesinAustralianpoliticallife, of theclub isbyinvitationonly. >>>

Domhoff (1970; 2002) suggests that such clubs allow the upper Domhoff (1970; 2002) suggests that such clubs allow the upper Membership of private clubs is often available only to members of the Sociologist G.WilliamDomhoff(1970;2002)hasdoneextensive In Australia,thisclasshasbeentypifiedbyahigh-levelconcentra- We havealreadylearntthatonlyasmallproportionofthepopula- club establishedin 1839. Membership The MelbourneClub isamales-only

Sample Middle Class Middle middle classcomeprettyclosetomatchingtheelite’sstatus. that most people only dream of having. However, members of the upper relaxed atmosphere.Theupperclass’smoneyaffordsthemopportunities members becauseofitsclimate—thatis,socialcohesionincreasesinthe club, suchastheMelbourneClub,alsoincreasessocialintegrationofits moderate incomes. Middle-classworkersgenerally aren’tinvolvedin and affluenttradespeople. Ingeneral,lower-middle-class peoplehave workers, operatorsofsmallbusinesses, clerks,salespeople,teachers in thisgroup(Gilbert2003). your solicitorortheownerof localsupermarketchainmaybelong high-status joboftenpropelsa personintothisgroup.Yourdentist, Owning asmallbusiness,having aprofessionalcareer,orholding components ofthisgroupareoccupationalprestigeandeducation. positions ofauthoritywithintheirjobs(Kerbo2006).Thetwoprimary They ownproperty,havehighoccupationalprestige,andoften hold and have achieved a level of incomethat makes theirlives comfortable. among the super-wealthy. Thesepeopleoccupy professional positions high-income membersofsocietywhoarewelleducatedbut aren’t the purposesofourdiscussion,uppermiddleclassconsists class, thedefinitionofuppermiddleclassisfairlysubjective. For two spheres,thesebeingupperandlower.Aswithalldistinctions of cent in2004.Mostsociologistsdividethemiddleclassintoat least from 5.7percentoftheAustralianworkforcein1911to31.2 als intermsofhealth,welfareandeducation.Professionsincreased has ledtoanincreasedgovernmentdemandforskilledprofession- as hasincreasingcomplexityintermsoftradeandcommerce.This state contributedtothegrowthofthisclass,especiallyafter1930s, depending onhowsuchagroupisdefined.TheAustralianwelfare group mayaccountforasmuch60percentofthepopulation,

tends toberegardedasanelitesport. activities occupyyourleisuretime.Polo of sociallife,includingwhattype >>>

The Class isn’tconfinedtowhatyoudoin the workplace.Itaffectsmanyaspects

lower middle classis thought to consist of white-collar pages

Australian studieshavesuggestedthatthis

43 Social Class in Austraia <<< <<<

.

.

to say to yourself, ‘Well, I cannot trust I cannot trust to say to yourself, ‘Well, any negotiation anyone.’ And you begin the premise. That’s that on deal any or way it is, I’m afraid and that’s very sad. It’s awful that you really start off by having It’s awful that you really There’s no doubt that those of us who us of those that doubt no There’s those school, certainly went to a private a private boarding school— who went to as our best friendsour kids and I still have with. school to went we people those you got to know The reason for that is, That’s them. trust can you and them tee, because there pretty well down to a conduct, I guess. was a certain code of from all over theNow with people coming communities.. world and from different

When you graduate from university pages >>> Michael Pusey (2003) argues that this group is shrinking and is Michael Pusey (2003) argues that this group Hamilton, Downie and Lu (2008) have questioned the idea that the and get your first job, you are likely to start out in the middle class. under attack from neo-liberal capitalism, which has broken up and and up broken has which capitalism, neo-liberal from attack under life that gave meaning reconfigured forms of community and family been increasingly to turn to to this class. One coping mechanism has has Pusey life. to value and meaning of sense a give to consumerism by double income argued that the middle class is feeling squeezed more government assis- professionals and a working poor who receive tance than they do. He notes an increase in part-time work and a decline challenged hasOne group particularly of ‘real wages among this group’. been single-income households. Australian middle class is really doing it tough, distinguishing between real and imagined hardship. They note that, in 2005, disposable income for all households was $48 193. For a couple with at least one depend- ant and headed by someone of working age (41 per cent of the popu- lation), household income was $69 073, at a time when the average income for all households was $76 778. They argue that the middle class had not shrunk, but had actually grown slightly in the decade leading to 2005/2006. They have argued that a middle class under stress is a ■

a small group of families, the upper class upper class of families, the a small group of a radical reconfiguration has undergone decades. and values in recent its practices with its emphasis on Dynastic succession, has been chal- the family unit, for example, norms emphasis- lenged by contemporary autonomy. While there ing self-fulfilment and unity among this had been some institutional studied at the same group, with most having similar ethnicity, being schools, being of a exclusive social clubs members of the same intermarrying, and boards, company and those interviewed there was a feeling among being now was culture common that this - challenged by an emergent ‘entrepreneurial lack a now was there that felt It was ism’. of unifying institutions and institutional trust the upper class. New among members of money had diverse interconnections, based on ethnic diversity, political pragmatism and globalisation. The old system of social closure, based on ethnicity and religion, could not keep newcomers locked out. Gilding (2004: 137) cites Alexander Waterman, one of the BRW top 200, who spoke with regret about the decline of traditional families: Sample Sample - examine the social atti BRW’s rich list to Gilding argues that while the media, media, the while that argues Gilding Gilding has argued that, despite the There has been ongoing debate in Australia regarding the conse- There has been ongoing debate in Australia , exalts new money (90 per cent such as BRW, exalts new money (90 their fortune since of those listed had made entrepreneurs mobile upwardly with 1945), - being highly visible, the 200 individuals repre for sented on the rich list most likely account Most super-rich. the of 20 per cent about only of wealth is old money, resting in the hands - inconspicuous families who haven’t dramati cally increased their wealth holdings in recent times. Most of this old money isn’t invested with individuals. Instead, to minimise taxes and protect against bankruptcy, it is spread among groups linked by kinship. of hands the in holdings wealth of stability Australian sociologist Michael Gilding (2002; Michael sociologist Australian people with 43 interviews conducted 2004) from wealthy Australians. In tudes and practices of point into the rich 1999 the minimum entry with the largest fortune list was $72 million, agreedwho those Of billion. $6.8 at estimated men. Their averageto be interviewed, 39 were was wealth median their and 56, was age $128 million. manual labour, but they may be skilled labourers (such as electricians). manual labour, but they may be skilled labourers certificate school high a least at have class middle lower the of Members credits. Such attainment and many have technical training or university prestige. affords them a moderate level of occupational the Australian middle class. quences of economic rationalist policies for the that notion the reinforce to quick been have media the and Politicians middle class (Howard’s ‘battlers’ and Rudd/Gillard’s ‘working families’) are doing it tough in the face of mortgage stress and interest rate rises and the rising cost of everyday living, as evident in petrol and grocery prices. Chapter 3 44 with otherthings,createdbyoverworkandthepressuretosucceed. They arguethatthemiddleclassesarenotstrugglingwithfinances,but they want,creatingasenseofmaterialdeprivationintimeplenty. on whattheyhave,butthegapbetweenhaveand perception, asopposedtoamaterialreality.Themiddleclassfocusnot 2008). motivation forworkers toboosttheirmarketable skills(LankardBrown is an increasing amount of competition for work, which is a further blue-collar andevenwhite-collar jobsthataremovingoverseas.There ability toraisetheirsocialclassis hinderedbytheincreasingnumberof are increasinglyrareandthateducation opensdoors.However,their students come from the working class. They understand that ‘good jobs’ limited opportunities for job improvement. Many non-traditional university work by the hour and lack formal education, the working class has very working classearnanhourlywageinsteadofasalary.Because they ‘proletarianisation’. less autonomousandrewarding.Thisprocesshasbeenreferred toas middle-class privilegesmovingdownthescale.Theirworkhasbecome ment, withsomeclerksandsecretarieswhopreviouslyenjoyed some collar jobshavebeenincreasinglyroutinisedbytechnologicaldevelop - class interests.Butnotallthetraffichasbeenupwards.Many white- aligned withtherightofpolitics,moreinterestedinconsumption than class affluence.Assuch,largesectionsoftheworkinghavebeen vehicles for class action, but became bargaining agents to gain middle- It hasbeensuggestedthat,inthisperiod,tradeunionswerenolonger adopting manyoftheculturalpracticesandtastesmiddleclass. middle classinthelatterhalfoflastcenturybecamerelativelyaffluent, Australia of a post-industrial service sector. Those that didn’t join the of thedeclineinthisnumbermaybeaccountedforbygrowth workers accounted for 75 per cent of all Australian workers. Some having declined asthe middle classgrew.AtFederation (1901), manual and mayaccountforaslittle30percentoftheAustralianpopulation, class wasthoughttohaveshrunkduringthecourseof20thcentury people withhighschoolcertificatesandlowerlevelsofeducation.This Working Class Working >>>

Unlike those in the middle and upper middle class, members of the Unlike thoseinthemiddleandupperclass,membersof Middle-class familiesoftenhaveto survive onasingleincome.

The working classisgenerallymadeupof Sample

Bradbury 2007) has argued that in 2003/2004 there were approximately Bradbury 2007)hasarguedthatin2003/2004therewereapproximately per cent.TheAustralianCouncilofSocialServices(Saunders,Hilland shows varyingestimates,from5percentofthepopulationto22.6 of Australia,SenateStandingCommitteereport(2004)onpoverty certain governmentbenefitsfallbelowthepovertyline.AParliament Line, whichmeasureshouseholddisposableincome,hasindicatedthat government pensionsandbenefits.However,theHendersonPoverty source ofincomefor26–28percentAustralianhouseholdshasbeen lacking abreadwinner.TheABSsuggeststhatsincethe1990smain The faceofpovertychangedfromthatanagedpensionertofamilies was anincreaseinthenumberofpeoplelivingpovertyAustralia. insufficiently ‘cool’comparedwithyourfriend’sphone. experience relative poverty if you feel like your mobile phone is old and occurs whenwecompareourselvestothosearoundus.Youmight Sudan arelivinginabsolutepoverty.Relativepovertyisastatethat survive. ThepeoplewhoarestarvingtodeathintheDarfurregionof absolute povertyissopoorthatheorshedoesn’thaveresourcesto children experience this type of poverty. A person who experiences ending cycleofpovertythatpassesontotheirchildrenandgrand- is chronic andmultigenerational.Peoplewho live ina seemingly never- when theseasonends.Thenext,moreseriouslevel,residualpoverty, pool duringthesummerseason,youmightexperiencemarginalpoverty lacks stableemployment.Forexample,ifyourjobislifeguardingata loses ajobforshorttime.Marginalpovertyoccurswhenperson Transitional povertyisatemporarystatethatoccurswhensomeone middle class. are designedtoleadstudentsemploymentthatwilllandtheminthe the privilegesofattendingauniversityandreceivinghighereducation pales incomparisontotheexperiencesofworkingpoor.Afterall, poor. However,inmostcases,therelativepovertyoftheirsituation university studentsmightthinktheyunderstandwhatitmeanstobe class. Thankstotheskyrocketingcostsoftuition,foodandrent,many members ofsocietywhotrulyfeeltheeffectspoverty:under- Underclass make upmost oftheworking class. >>>

One resultforthedismantlingofwelfarestatein1980s Sociologists haveseveraldifferentwaysofdefiningpoverty. Blue-collar factoryworkers, farm workers orwhite-collar clericalworkers pages

Finally, anotchbelowtheworkingclassare

45 Social Class in Austraia Spatial analysis >>>

of wealth indicates that, worldwide, most wealth is concentrated in the Northern Hemisphere. Wealth also tends to be concentrated in industrial or urban settings. The concentration of poverty in a single geographic area is area is in a single geographic of poverty The concentration pages bourhoods densely populated by other poor people. Simultaneously, the Simultaneously, poor people. by other populated densely bourhoods tend to live in cities, those who particularly of society, members well-off Raskell 2002; (Jargowsky 1996; affluent suburbs cluster in economically gives us a clear end of the spectrum Looking at each St John 2002). in Australia. and affluence dynamics between poverty vision of the increased drug as high crime rates, to various issues such correlated (2002) Raskell homes. single-parent of numbers increasing and use, a massive realignment of the spatial economy found that there was of the unprecedented economic growth period of Australia during the along the eastern seaboard such as Sydney. 1990s, especially in cities surged ahead in terms of growth of householdWhile pockets of Sydney the experienced a decline in fortunes, especially income, other areas and regional and rural centres. Raskell concludedouter suburban areas posedin inequality in Sydney’s suburban enclaves that the dramatic rise cohesion. a serious threat to social CLASS EDUCATION AND SOCIAL land of opportunity, and We have all heard it said that Australia is the free education to every in many ways it lives up to this image. It grants educationalall Unfortunately, status. socioeconomic of regardless child, schools public example, For same. the exactly aren’t opportunities But what difference frequently offer different educational opportunities. do these opportunities really make? ensity

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P Sample GD Sample The underclass is typically The underclass is typically

The underclass is typically considered the chronically unemployed the chronically is typically considered The underclass considered the chronically considered the chronically unemployed or underemployed, pensioners, recent NESB migrants, sick, disabled, and families who have no breadwinner or who are work poor. >>> NEIGHBOURHOODS AND SOCIAL NEIGHBOURHOODS AND CLASS have observed how neighbourhoods influence Recently, sociologists increase in the geographicbehaviour. Their findings have determined an and other Anglophoneconcentration of poverty and affluence in Australia people are living in neigh- countries, such as the US. Over time, poor or underemployed, pensioners, recent NESB (non-English speaking speaking (non-English recent NESB pensioners, or underemployed, have no bread- and families who migrants, sick, disabled, background) poor. Workers who cannot bargain for increasedwinner or who are work few labour power—resulting in low wages and rewards by using their occupa- such Typically, group. this within fall also benefits—might fringe NESB) women, some ethnic groups (especially tions are populated by a large Australia, Aboriginal people also make up and young people. In Single parents also constitute a high proportionproportion of this group. all people who live on their own (especiallyof those in this class, although underclass the of feature A poverty. into falling of risk at are aged) the been intergenerational poverty. in recent decades has 1.5 million people living in poverty in Australia, including 350 000 children. 350 000 including in Australia, living in poverty people 1.5 million in living Australians of cent per over 40 that consider to staggering is It albeit part-time or both parents work, in families where one poverty live homeless. are classified as Over 100 000 Australians or casually. Source: Gallup et al (1999). Reproduced by permission of Sage Publications. Chapter 3 46 the toptenpreventablehealthissuesrequiringurgentattention.The Obesity isrankedbytheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)asamong AND FICTIONS HEALTH ANDSOCIALCLASS:FATS cantly (BowdenandDoughny2009). 20 percentshort,affectinglowersocioeconomicgroupsmoresignifi- gap between aspiration and enrolment levels. The aspirations gap falls university. Thedataalsoshowa are morelikelytoaspireattend higher socioeconomicbackgrounds data showthatAustraliansfrom and socioeconomicstatus.Survey factors includeeducationofparents pational outcomesofstudents.Such influence theeducationalandoccu- higher education.Structuralfactors underrepresented inAustralian nomic backgroundsaresignificantly in privateandpublicschools. These relationsimpacteduponthequalityandformofeducationoffered market-driven ‘clientele’model,andwasmoreauthoritativeremote. parents. Indeed,theirrelationshipwithparentswasbasedlessona responsive tostateinterestsandhadmuchlessinformalcontactwith ent relationshipwithchildrenandparents.Theteacherswereprimarily bureaucratic statemodel,teachersattheseschoolshadaverydiffer- of therulingclass.Becauseworking-classschoolswererunona and sharedinterestamongtheoftendiversecompetitivesections these schoolsprovidedanimportantmeanstocreateasenseofunity and parentstonetworkformactivesocialrelationships.Assuch, Ruling-class schools providedasharedspaceforteachers, students schools werelargelypublicrunthroughabureaucraticstate. schools wereprivate,runlargelythroughthemarket,whileworking-class of schoolsdefinedas‘workingclass’and‘rulingclass’.Ruling-class 400 interviewswithparents,teachersandchildrenfromtwoclusters et al.’s A seminalstudyonclassandeducationinAustraliaisConnell People fromlowersocioeco- Making the Difference (1982). The authors conducted over gain moreskillsthrougheducation. working-class adultswhowantto Many non-traditionalstudentsare

Sample More andmoreadultsaregoing back toschoolforadditional training andnewcareers.

companies are outsourcing manual labour overseas to developing experiencing intragenerationalmobility. work andthentenyearslaterownaconstructioncompany,you are begin yourworkingcareerasanunskilledlabourerdoingconstruction ladder isaprimeexampleofthistypemobility.Forinstance, ifyou social standing,especiallyinthe workforce. Climbing the corporate vertical mobilityhasoccurred. previous example got a master’s degree and became a principal, then in theformofademotion.Forexample,ifsameteacherfromour can beeitherupward,intheformofapromotionatwork,ordownward, involves movingfromonesocialstatustoanother.Thistypeofmobility different location. Her movement is lateral, not vertical. performs the same tasks; she just happens to be doing these things at a has occurred.Theteacherisearningthesameamountofmoneyand one school to take a position at another school, horizontal mobility within thesamestatuscategory.Forexample,whenateacherleaves ture thatdistributesthesepositionsremainsfixed. instant. Likewise,themortgagecrisisandcorporatedownsizinghavesent lottery orinvestingintherightshares,oursocialclasscouldchangean happen to us that would changeour status. Whether it is winning the Wherever we are inlife, there is always the chance that something could S the mostmarginalisedethnicgroups. and income,residinginruralremoteareas,beingfromamong factors, withmostoftheoverweightpopulationhavinglesseducation sion. Prevalenceratesforobesityareassociatedwithsocioeconomic and responsestoit,theseremainlargelyinvisibleinpublicdiscus- inequalities arerelevantinthedebateaboutcausesofobesity style andpersonalchoice,forwhichweareresponsible.Whilesocial priority. Australian governmentalsoconsidersobesitytobeaNationalResearch public is$3.7 billionayear. population overweight. Thecosttothe rate intheworld,with 25percentofthe ocial Mobility In Australia,thelabourmarkethaschangedimmensely.Many Intragenerational mobilityoccurswhenanindividualchanges Horizontal mobility, as the name suggests, refers to moving One argument hasit that obesity is aproductof modern life- >>> Australia hasthefifth-highest obesity pages

within theclassstructure,struc- erable changeinfamilyfortunes argued that while there was consid- and NewZealandmobilityin1986, Davis (1988), in a study of Australian mobility are possible. Jones and down it. Several patterns of social occurs whenweclimbeitherupor class is aladder, social mobility to changesocialclasses.If is atermthatdescribesthisability meting into poverty. Social mobility many middle-classfamiliesplum- Vertical mobility Vertical mobility

47 Social Class in Austraia

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working-class family to become working-class family to become pages Julia Gillard came from a Julia Gillard came Therefore, if you get ahead, it is based on some ability or drive Therefore, if you get ahead, it is based on is inevitable, since we stratification means that sense, it this In In a non-scientific student study I use in my classes, I yield the

>>> onflict what are the what are the

the first female Australian prime the first female Australian minister in 2010. C of conflict as the role on the focus Unlike functionalists, conflict theorists basis of stratification. Every society has limited resources to go around, so groups struggle with one another for those resources. Melvin Tumin (1963) offers a critique of Davis and Moore that supports the conflict is that system a in rooted is inequality social Tumin, For view. of point happens because people have different abilities, and those abilities are happens because people have different abilities, more or less important to society. Delayed gratification, or the that you have that pushes you to get there. want, can also determine ability to wait in order to get something you time to go to university and your success. If you are willing to put in the work hard, you are likely to be successful. who Those desire. and drive intelligence, same the have all don’t get ahead tend to be those who use these individual forces to reap society’s rewards. same results virtually every year. I ask students if they ‘agree with the hard’ ‘Working ahead’. ‘get people why regarding statements’ following education’ good a ‘Getting students, of cent per 98 by with agreed is by 94 per cent. ‘Being smart’ receives agreement from 80 per cent, and ‘Taking risks’ only 60 per cent. What do you think? Do people in Australia determine their own success? Sample Sample

Davis and Moore believe that each society has important positions important society has believe that each and Moore Davis On the other hand, the reason KFC is able to pay its employees refers to the change that family the change that family mobility refers to Intergenerational affect large numbersStructural mobility occurs when social changes Australia, suggests that, within The concept of exchange mobility

unctionalism Functionalists believe that systems find equilibrium, or balance, so strati- equilibrium, or balance, Functionalists believe that systems find balance. Theorists fication must be the result of some kind of functional the common argument Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore summarise States is inevitable and aids that the stratification system in the United in the smooth functioning of that society (Davis and Moore 1944). This meritocracy argument states that those who get ahead do so based on their own merit. that must be filled. The more important the position, the more we reward those who choose to pursue it. Doctors in the US generally get hefty pay cheques because everyone needs a doctor to tend to their health society position, important fill an to someone to get In order needs. care offers a reward to anyone who is willing to fill it. The rarer the skill or the longer the training period, the greater the rewards can be. If you faint at the sight of blood or if you can’t stand the thought of spending a good portion of your life at university, you probably shouldn’t become a doctor. the minimum wage is because you can learn to fry chicken in about two hours. But why would anyone become a medical doctor, considering the stress and training involved? Davis and Moore say that society has to offer greater rewards to entice people to take particularly tough or stressful jobs. To sum up the functionalist view, stratification inevitably F think sociologically: members make from one social class to the next through generations. class to the next through from one social members make you hope for your parents did, then to live a better life than If you hope to do much However, if you expect mobility. upward intergenerational against you. A are probably stacked your parents, the odds better than have found that while intergenerational mobility number of researchers class to climb only a little higher on the social does occur, children tend (Solon with their parents, if they climb at all ladder when compared 1992; Zimmerman 1992). benefit booms, some climb the ladder and of people. During economic Think of the success that the automobilefrom changes in the economy. mid- the of prosperity economic the during experienced manufacturers have heads into a recession, workers who 1990s. When the economy experience downward structural mobility.lost their jobs to outsourcing number of people. If you each social class contains a relatively fixed move down. someone else must move upward into a class above you, talked income over time that we When you consider the changes in generally support the idea about earlier, you can see that such data much, though the people that social stratification levels don’t change who make up each layer may be different. countries. Australians who previously performed this type of work find of work find this type performed previously who Australians countries. mobility. slows upward in turn, of a job, which, out themselves theories behind social stratification? theories behind 51 Social Class in Austraia

47 47

46 refers to the 46 47

47 48

? is a concept suggesting 46 ?

is the ability to change social 47 44

46

Symbolic Interactionism 48 vertical mobility refers to moving from one social status to another. intragenerational mobility occurs when an individual changes social standing, especially in the workforce. that each social class contains a relatively fixed number of people. meritocracy argument states that those who get ahead do so based on their own merit. classes. intergenerational mobility change that family members make from one social class to the next through generations. exchange mobility occurs when we compare ourselves to those occurs when we compare ourselves to those around us. social mobility horizontal mobility refers to moving within the same status category. structural mobility occurs when social changes affect large numbers of people.

nteractionism stratification 44

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44

39 pages 44 social

social class and our understanding of it are relative to our personal social class and our understanding of it are belief system question poor for example, middle-class citizens would not about marriage and people’s behaviour if they held similar beliefs childbearing empty lives, so they many poor women think childless people lead than on marriage place more emphasis on the maternal relationship the higher our socioeconomic status, the less we believe social the higher our socioeconomic status, the less class matters ? ymbolic

44 stratification • • • S •

44 is a temporary state of

is a state of poverty is poverty so severe that behind

44

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social stratification is the result of some kind of functional balance, is result of some kind of functional stratification is the

class stratification is

theories elative poverty is a state of poverty that

r marginal poverty that occurs when a person lacks stable employment. poverty is chronic and residual multigenerational poverty. absolute poverty one lacks resources to survive. disadvantaged neighbourhoods that are characterised by four components: poverty, family disruption, male unemployment, and lack of individuals in high-status occupations. poverty that occurs when someone loses a job for a short time. lower middle class is a social class that consists of those who have moderate incomes. working class is a social class generally made up of people with high school certificates and lower levels of education. under transitional poverty

Functionalism 47 Conflict Theory 47

the

Sample Sample 40 40 social

functionalism: in the smooth functioning of society inevitable, and aids likely to is rooted in a system that is more conflict theory: social inequality your abilities more on where you start than on reward you based social class affects how he or a person’s particular symbolic interactionism: in general she discusses class the ranking of people and the rewards they receive based on objective criteria, on objective criteria, receive based the rewards they of people and the ranking and/or prestige wealth, power often including

are is what

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estige pper or elite class is a social class that is heory onflict generally, one’s parents and the opportunities they can provide generally, one’s parents and the opportunities determine social class social mobility rarely occurs in a dramatic way intelligence, drive and personal choice influence a person’s social intelligence, drive and personal choice influence class that differences in social all people are different, so it makes sense class exist social class is connected to a person’s ability to negotiate the social social class is connected to a person’s ability world wealt upper middle class is a social class that consists of high-income members of society who are well educated but don’t belong to the elite super-wealthy class. very small in number and holds significant wealth. including income. including delegated power elite hold immense power. u with one’s status and social standing. income through investments. power impose it on others. pr social stratification is the ranking of people and the rewards they receive based on objective criteria, often including wealth, power and/or prestige. unctionalism

Key Social Stratification 39 Social Mobility 46 • • C • • F •

T get the topic: Chapter 3 52 Wild, R.(1978).SocialStratification inAustralia(Sydney: Pusey, M.(1991). EconomicRationalism inCanberra:ANation-Building Pakulski, J.andWaters,M.(1996). TheDeathofClass(London: Marx, K.andEngels,F.(1985). TheCommunistManifesto McGregor, C.(1997).ClassinAustralia:WhoSaysAustraliaHasNo Gerth, H.andMills,C.W.(eds)(1970).FromMaxWeber:Essaysin Durkheim, E.(1964).TheDivisionofLaborinModernSociety (New Crompton, R.(1998).ClassandStratification:AnIntroductiontoCurrent Connell, R.W.(1977).RulingClass,Culture:StudiesofConflict, Baxter, J.,Emmison,M.andWestern,J.(eds)(1991).ClassAnalysis F 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. These multiple-choicequestionsaresimilartothosefoundinthetestbankthataccompaniesthistextbook. S

urther ample manufacturing plantismostlikelyamemberofwhichsocialclass? A highschoolgraduatewhoworksonanassemblylineina A doctortransferringfromonehospitaltoanotherisanexampleof Which ofthefollowingistrueupper,orelite,class? Which ofthefollowingisnotamemberpowerelite? People withseasonaljobsmostlikelyexperience d. c. b. a. d. c. b. a. d. c. b. a. d. c. b. a. d. c. b. a. State Changesits Mind(Cambridge:Cambridge UniversityPress). Longman). (Harmondsworth, UK:PenguinBooks). Class System?(Melbourne:PenguinBooks). Sociology (London:Routledge&KeganPaul). York: TheFreePress). Debates (Cambridge:PolityPress). University Press). Power andHegemonyinAustralianLife(Cambridge:Cambridge and ContemporaryAustralia(Melbourne:Macmillan).

Manufacturing class Middle class Working class Underclass exchange mobility. vertical mobility. horizontal mobility. intergenerational mobility. They aregenerallyregardedhighlyfortheirspecialisedskills. They makeupasmallproportionofthecountry’spopulation. They havehigherratesofteenpregnancy. Most membersarenewlywealthy. A townmayor A corporateCEO A militarygeneral The CommonwealthAttorneyGeneral transitional poverty. marginal poverty. absolute poverty. residual poverty. R T est Questions eading

Sample Allen &Unwin).

ANSWERS: 1. c; 2. d; 3. c; 4. b; 5. b downloadable flashcardsandotherhelpfulresources. Check www.abs.gov.au/ andwww.melbourneinstitute.com/hilda/ For moreinformationonthedistributionofwealthinAustralia,goto www.poverty.com/ For moreinformationonhungerandpovertyintheworld,goto www.acoss.org.au/ For moreinformationonpovertyinAustralia,goto W 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. E Wright, E.O.(1997).ClassCounts:ComparativeStudiesin Dannheisser, R. (2007).‘RichCandidatesAbound asPresidential Connell, R.W., Ashenden, D., Kessler, S. and Dowsett, G. (1982). Connell, R.W.(1977).RulingClass , ChildStats.gov (2008).‘America’sChildreninBrief:KeyNational Bowden, M.andDoughny,J.(2009).‘Socio-economicStatus,Cultural Atkinson, A.andLeigh, A. (2006).‘The Distribution of Top Incomes R ssay

eferences beliefs ofconflicttheorists? How doestheconceptofexchangemobilityconflictwith Australian society? How canegalitarianismbecharacterisedasanideologyin What istherelationshipbetweensocialclassandeducation? How isthemobilityofunderclassrestricted? How doesprestigeaffectone’ssocialstanding? here Analysis (Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress). Campaign Costs Rise’,America.gov,www.america.gov/st/wash- Making theDifference (Sydney:George Allen&Unwin). University Press). Power andHegemonyinAustralian Life(Cambridge:Cambridge dren/econ_fig.asp, accessed21 July2008. Indicators ofWell-Being,2008’,www.childstats.gov/americaschil - Suburbs ofMelbourne,Australia’,HigherEducation,59:115–129. Diversity, andtheAspirationsofSecondaryStudentsinWestern Discussion Paper,no.514,March. in Australia’, The ANU Centre for Economic Policy Research, for additional information, www.pearson.com.au/mysoclab foradditionalinformation, pages

to S tart Y our Ruling Culture:StudiesofConflict, R esearch

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