Field survey, host specificity and life cycle of the mesquite seed feeding bruchid prosopis (LeConte), Bruchidae, Coleoptera.

By: Mohamed Ali Sid Ahmed Salih

(١٩٨٢) B.Sc. (Agriculture) honors University of Khartoum

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of M.Sc. requirement at the faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum.

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY OF KHARTOUM ٢٠٠٥ JANUARY

DEDICATION

To the soul of my father

To the soul of my mother

To my beloved kids, Alaa, Hana, Doaa, my wife Nagat

To my dear brothers and sisters

I dedicate this work.

ACKNOWLEGEMENTS

I wish to express my sincere appreciations and deepest gratitude to my supervisor Professor Magzoub Omer Bashir, for his keen supervision, generous help, enthusiasm and advice during this course of study.

I am indebted to the head and staff of Plant Protection Directorate (PPD) Khartoum north for sponsoring my Msc. also to the head and colleagues of the Plant Quarantine Service Khartoum North and Port Sudan for their constant and friendly cooperation.

I also to express my deep and sincere thanks to my colleagues Hamid and Moawia (Nilan International) for their valuable assistance in providing me with references and papers related to scope of the study and facilitating internal and external contacts.

My great thanks are also to Prof. Elshazli (Head store Pests- ARC, Shambat) and Dr. Musa (Head Identification Unit – Wadmedeni) for their valuable suggestions during the journey to identify the species under study.

Thanks are also extended to the staff of ICIPE, field station, Port Sudan, for their valuable assistance and friendly cooperation.

Deepest and warmest thanks for those who have encourage me behind the curtains.

Before all my thanks to Allah, The God, the merciful and compassionate, who gave me the life, patient and energy to finish this work.

ABSTRACT

Algarobius prosopis is a mesquite seed feeding bruchid imported from Southwestern United States into South and Australia as a potential biocontrol agent against mesquite tree. The tree causes several ecological and economical impacts at different parts in Sudan. This biocontrol agent was found attacking Prosopis pods at several locations including Red Sea, Kassala, Khartoum and Northern States. The pathway or means of introduction of the species is unknown. revealed that, this species ,٢٠٠٤ The survey carried out during August, October occurred at most mesquite invasion areas in this country and it seems have no negative impact on groundnuts and Senna seeds. The percentage of damage on Prosopis pods collected from different parts in this ,for Kassala, Albutana ٪٩٠٫١٩ and ,٪٧٫٣١ ,٪٢٤٫٠٣ ,٪٩٫٦٦ ,٪٠٠ ,٪٤٫٧٩ country was found Khartoum (Kafouri), Khartoum (Soba), Northern State (Kelenarti) and Toker respectively. The age of the pods was unknown but it seems to be new crop except for months. The pods do not last long on soil ٨-٧ Toker where the age of examined pods was as they are utilized by herbivore before the make access to them. Ounce the pods are ingested by animals and passed the digestive tract, they are no longer suitable for the beetles. Most seeds pass the ’s gut undamaged, thus the animal droppings constitute the main factor for spreading of mesquite. Other natural enemies detected on mesquite in this country, include Caryedon serratus, Lasioderma serricorne and Cicada. Host specificity tests carried out on nine leguminous plants that include, Acacia nilotica, Acacia nubica, Acacia senegalensis, Prosopis chelensis, Arachis hypogaea, Vicia faba Phaseolus vulgaris, Vigna unguiculata, and Cassia senna, revealed that Prosopis is a potential host for this species. Cassia senna and groundnuts stands as lower ranked hosts with much longer developmental period. No development occurred on the other six plant species. The life cycle aspect that determined specificity was the first instar larvae. Studies carried out for host specificity at Australia on a number of plants including groundnuts, come in consistent with results obtained under this study, when they test meters apart ١٫٥ these plants in large cages where the seeds of test plants were placed from mesquite pods, adult Bruchids oviposited only on mesquite pods, no oviposition occurred on other test plant seeds. was found specific to mesquite. The agent was released at that country. In the life cycle study of the species reared on mesquite pods for two generations, the .days. The total larval period was two weeks ٥ incubation period was found to be days while ٧٫٤ days. The longevity of the male was found to be ٤ Pupation took about hours after adult ٣٦ days. Preoviposition period was less than ٩٫٦ that of the female was emergence. Algarobius eggs are laid in cracks and blemishes on the seed pods; the newly hatched neonate larva which is motile enters and entirely destroys a single seed during its development. Pupation occurs within the hallowed out seed and adults emerge through distinctive holes on the surface of the pods. Only the seeds within the pods are damaged by the beetles. The seed pods and vegetative parts of the plant are not affected. ﻣﻠﺨﺺ اﻷﻃﺮوﺣــــﺔ

Algarobius propsopis أﻟﻘﺎروﺑﻴﺲ ﺑﺮوﺳﻮﺑﻴﺲ ﺣﺸﺮة ﺗﺘﻐﺬى ﻋﻠﻰ ﺛﻤﺎر اﻟﻤﺴﻜﻴﺖ وﻗﺪ ﺗﻢ اﺳﺘﻴﺮادهﺎ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة اﻻﻣــﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ اﻟﻰ ﺟﻨﻮب أﻓﺮﻳﻘﻴﺎ واﺳﺘﺮاﻟﻴﺎ وذﻟﻚ ﻻﺳﺘﻐﻼﻟﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل اﻟﻤﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ اﻹﺣﻴﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻟﺸﺠﺮة اﻟﻤﺴــــــﻜﻴﺖ .

ﺗﺴﺒﺐ اﻟﻤﺴﻜﻴﺖ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺸﺎآﻞ اﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ واﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﻳﺔ واﻟﺘﻲ اﺛﺮت ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﻧﺘﺎج اﻟﺰراﻋﻰ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ اﻧﺤﺎء اﻟﺴﻮدان ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻣﻨﺎﻃﻖ ﻃﻮآﺮ ، اﻟﻘﺎش ، ﺣﻠﻔﺎ اﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪة ، ﻧﻬﺮ اﻟﻨﻴﻞ واﻟﺸﻤﺎﻟﻴﺔ .

وﺟﺪت هﺬﻩ اﻟﺤﺸﺮة ﻋﻠﻰ ﺛﻤﺎر اﻟﻤﺴﻜﻴﺖ ﻓﻲ وﻻﻳﺔ اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻻﺣﻤﺮ . اﻟﻤﺴﻮﺣﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ أﺟﺮﻳﺖ ﻋـﻠﻰ ﻋﺪد ﻣﻦ ﻣﻨﺎﻃﻖ اﻟﺴﻮدان أﺛﺒﺘﺖ اﻧﺘﺸﺎرهﺎ اﻟﻰ اﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ هﺬﻩ اﻟﻤﻨﺎﻃﻖ آﺎﻧﺖ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ اﻻﺻﺎﺑﺔ ﻟﻌﻴﻨﺎت أﺧﺬت ﻣﻦ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ اﻟﻤﻨﺎﻃﻖ آﺎﻵﺗﻲ : آﺴﻼ ٤،٧ % ، ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ آﺒﺮى اﻟﺒﻄﺎﻧﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻬﺮ ﻋــﻄﺒﺮﻩ ﺻﻔﺮ% ، وﻻﻳﺔ اﻟﺨﺮﻃﻮم (آﺎﻓﻮرى) ٩،٦٦% (ﺳﻮﺑﺎ) ٢٤،٠٣% اﻟﻮﻻﻳﺔ اﻟﺸﻤﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻣﻨـﻄﻘﺔ آﻠﻨﺎرﺗﻰ ﺟﻨﻮب ﺷﺮق اﻟﻘﻮﻟﺪ ٧،٣١% اﻣﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﻃﻮآﺮ ﻓﻘﺪ آﺎﻧﺖ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ اﻻﺻـــــﺎﺑﺔ ٩٠،١٩% . ﺗﺎرﻳﺦ اﻧﺘﺎج هﺬﻩ اﻟﺜﻤﺎر ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻌﺮوﻓﺔ وﻟﻜﻦ ﻳﺒﺪو اﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺔ ﺣﺪﻳﺜﺎ ﻣﺎﻋﺪا ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﻃﻮآﺮ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺗﻢ ﺟﻤﻊ اﻟﺜﻤﺎر ﻣﻦ ﻣﺨﺰن ﻣﻔﺘﻮح ﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺔ اوآﺴﻔﺎم اﻣﺘﺪت ﻓﺘﺮة ﺗﺨﺰﻳﻨﻬﺎ أﻟﻲ ٧-٨ ﺷﻬﻮر.

ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻌﺮوف ان اﻟﻤﺴﻜﻴﺖ ﻳﺒﺪا اﻹزهﺎر ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ ﻓﻲ أآﺘﻮﺑﺮ وﻳﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﺣﺘﻰ أﺑﺮﻳﻞ وﻳﻨﺘﺞ اﻟﺜﻤـﺎر ﻣﻦ دﻳﺴﻤﺒﺮ أﻟﻲ ﻳﻮﻧﻴﻮ ﻣﻊ ان ﺑﻘﻴﺔ ﺷﻬﻮر اﻟﺴﻨﺔ ﻻ ﺗﺨﻠﻮ ﺗﻤﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻣﻦ اﻹﻧﺘﺎج. ﺗﻤﺖ اﻟﺰﻳﺎرات ﻓﻲ اﻟـﻔﺘﺮة ﻣﻦ أﻏﺴﻄﺲ اﻟﻰ أآﺘﻮﺑﺮ وﻟﻢ ﻳﺘﻢ اﻟﻌﺜﻮر ﻋﻠﻰ ﺛﻤﺎر ﻗﺪﻳﻤﺔ ﺗﺤﺖ اﻷﺷﺠﺎر ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻻﻟﺘﻬﺎﻣﻬﺎ ﺑﻮاﺳــﻄﺔ ﺣﻴﻮاﻧﺎت اﻟﻤﺮﻋﻰ.

اﻟﻮﺳﻴﻠﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ دﺧﻠﺖ ﺑﻬﺎ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺤﺸﺮة اﻟﻰ اﻟﺴﻮدان ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻌﺮوﻓﺔ . إﻣﺎ إﻧﻬﺎ دﺧـــﻠﺖ ﻣﻊ ﺑﺬور اﻟﻤﺴﻜﻴﺖ ﻋﻨﺪ اﺳﺘﻴﺮادهﺎ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺨﺎرج او اﻧﺘﺸﺮت اﻟﻰ داﺧﻞ اﻟﺒﻼد ﻣﻊ ﺗﺤﺮآﻬﺎ ﺷﻤﺎﻻ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻨــﻮب أﻓﺮﻳﻘﻴﺎ ﺣﻴﺚ أﻃﻠﻘﺖ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻋﺎم ١٩٨٧ م ﻻول ﻣﺮﻩ .

اﻟﺘﺠﺎرب اﻟﺘﻰ اﺟﺮﻳﺖ ﻻﺧﺘﺒﺎر درﺟﺔ اﻟﺘﺨﺼﺺ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺪد ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﺎت اﻟﺒﻘﻮﻟﻴﻪ اﺛﺒﺘﺖ ان اﻟﻤﺴﻜﻴﺖ ﻳﺸﻜﻞ اﻟﻌﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻰ ﻟﻬﺬﻩ اﻟﺤﺸﺮة ﻣﻊ دورة ﺣﻴﺎة ﺗﺘﺮاوح ﻣﺪﺗﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ٢١ اﻟﻰ ٣٣ ﻳﻮﻣﺎ. واﻳﻀﺎ هﻨﺎﻟﻚ ﺗﻮاﻟﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻔﻮل اﻟﺴﻮداﻧﻰ واﻟﺴﻨﻤﻜﻪ وﻟﻜﻦ ﺑﺎﻋﺪاد ﻗﻠﻴﻠﺔ ﺟﺪا " ﻣﻊ دورة ﺣﻴﺎة ﻃﻮﻳﻠﻪ (ﻣﺪﺗﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻔﻮل اﻟﺴﻮداﻧﻰ ٥٧ ﻳﻮﻣﺎ " وﻓﻰ اﻟﺴﻨﻤﻜﻪ اآﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻋﺸﺮة اﺳﺎﺑﻴﻊ ) . ﻟﻢ ﺗﺴﺠﻞ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺤﺸﺮة آﺂﻓﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ هﺬﻳﻦ اﻟﻤﺤﺼﻮﻟﻴﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻮدان وﻋﻴﻨﺎت اﻟﻔﻮل واﻟﺴﻨﻤﻜﻪ اﻟﺘﻰ اﺧﺬت ﻣﻦ ﻣﻨﺎﻃﻖ اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻻﺣﻤﺮ وآﺴﻼ وﺣﻠﻔﺎ اﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪة ﺑﺎﻻﺿﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﻰ اﻟﻌﻴﻨﺎت اﻟﺘﻰ ﺳﺤﺒﺖ ﻣﻦ هﺬﻩ اﻟﻤﺤﺎﺻﻴﻞ اﻟﻤﻌﺪة ﻟﻠﺼﺎدر اﺛﺒﺘﺖ ﻋﺪم اﺻﺎﺑﺘﻬﺎ ﺑﻬﺬﻩ اﻟﺤﺸﺮة . ﻓﻠﺬا ﻧﻌﺘﻘﺪ ﺑﺎن هﻨﺎﻟﻚ ﺛﻤﺔ اﺧﺘﻼف ﻣﺎﺑﻴﻦ اﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻌﻤﻞ وﻣﺎ ﻳﺤﺪث ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ.

اﻟﺘﺠﺎرب اﻟﺘﻲ أﺟﺮﻳﺖ ﻓﻲ اﺳﺘﺮاﻟﻴﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺪد آﺒﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﺎت ﻣﻦ ﺿﻤﻨﻬﺎ اﻟﻔﻮل اﻟﺴﻮداﻧﻰ آﺎﻧﺖ ﻣﺘﻮاﻓﻘﺔ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎ " ﻣﻊ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرب اﻟﺘﻰ اﺟﺮﻳﺖ ﺗﺤﺖ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ وﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ اﺟﺮوا ﺗﺠﺎرب ﺑﻮﺿﻊ ﺛﻤﺎر اﻟﻤﺴﻜﻴﺖ وﺑﻘﻴﺔ اﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﺎت ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﻌﺪ ١،٥ ﻣﺘﺮ ﺛﻢ وﺿﻊ اﻟﺒﻴﺾ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﻜﻴﺖ ﻓﻘﻂ وهﺬا ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ان هﺬﻩ اﻟﺤﺸﺮة ﺗﻀﻊ اﻟﺒﻴﺾ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﺬور اﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﺎت ﻏﻴﺮ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻬﺪﻓﻪ ﻋﻨﺪ اﺧﺘﻼﻃﻬﺎ ﻣﻊ ﺛﻤﺎر اﻟﻤﺴﻜﻴﺖ وهﺬا ﻻﻳﺤﺪث ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ " ﻓﻰ اﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ . ﻓﻘﺪ ﻗﺮر اﻟﻌﻠﻤﺎء ان هﺬﻩ اﻟﺤﺸﺮة ﻣﺘﺨﺼﺼﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﻜﻴﺖ ﻓﻘﻂ وﺗﻢ اﻃﻼﻗﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻏﺎﺑﺎت اﻟﻤﺴﻜﻴﺖ ﻟﻼﺳﺘﻔﺎدﻩ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل اﻟﻤﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ اﻹﺣﻴﺎﺋﻴﺔ.

اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ أﺟﺮﻳﺖ ﻋﻦ دورة ﺣﻴﺎة هﺬﻩ اﻟﺤﺸﺮة واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻤﺖ ﺗﺮﺑﻴﺘﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺛﻤﺎر اﻟﻤﺴﻜﻴﺖ ﻟﺠﻴﻠﻴﻦ ﻣﺘﻌﺎﻗﺒﻴﻦ أﺛﺒﺘﺖ أن ﻓﺘﺮة ﺣﻀﺎﻧﺔ اﻟﺒﻴﺾ ٥ (ﺧﻤﺴﻪ أﻳﺎم ). وﻓﺘﺮة اﻟﻴﺮﻗﺔ ﺑﺄﻃﻮارهﺎ اﻷرﺑﻌﺔ أﺳﺒﻮﻋﻴﻦ .اﺳﺘﻐﺮق ﻧﻤﻮ اﻟﺸﺮﻧﻘﺔ أرﺑﻌﺔ أﻳﺎم ، ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ ﻋﻤﺮ اﻟﺬآﻮر ٧،٤ ﻳﻮم وﻣﺘﻮﺳــــﻂ ﻋﻤﺮ اﻹﻧﺎث ٩،٦ ﻳﻮم. اﻣﺎ ﻓﺘﺮة ﻣﺎ ﻗﺒﻞ وﺿﻊ اﻟﺒﻴﺾ ﻓﻜﺎﻧﺖ اﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ٣٦ ﺳﺎﻋﻪ ﻣﻨﺬ ﺧﺮوج اﻟﺤﺸﺮة اﻟﺒﺎﻟﻐﻪ ﻣﻦ داﺧﻞ اﻟﺒﺬرﻩ. ﺗﻀﻊ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺤﺸﺮة ﺑﻴﻀﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺸﻘﻮق واﻣﺎآﻦ اﻟﻜﺴﺮ ﻓﻰ ﺛﻤﺎر اﻟﻤﺴﻜﻴﺖ وﻻ ﺗﻠﺼﻘﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺜﻤﺎر آﻤﺎ ﺗﻔﻌﻞ اﻏﻠﺐ اﻟﺤﺸﺮات اﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﻨﺘﻤﻰ إﻟﻰ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﻌﺎﺋﻠﺔ (Bruchidae). ﻋﻨﺪ ﺧﺮوج اﻟﻴﺮﻗﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﻴﺾ ﻓﺎﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﺘﺤﺮك ﺑﺤﺮﻳﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ اﻟﺜﻤﺎر اﻟﻰ ان ﺗﺨﺘﺎر اﺣﺪ اﻟﺒﺬوز وﺗﺨﺘﺮﻗﻬﺎ وﺗﻨﻤﻮ ﺑﺪاﺧﻠﻬﺎ اﻟﻰ ان ﺗﺼﻞ اﻟﻰ ﻃﻮر اﻟﺤﺸﺮة اﻟﻜﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻬﻠﻜﺔ ﻣﺤﺘﻮﻳﺎت اﻟﺒﺬرة ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺠﻌﻠﻬﺎ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺻﺎﻟﺤﺔ ﻟﻺﻧﺒﺎت. ﺗﻘﻀﻰ اﻟﺤﺸﺮة ﻓﺘﺮة اﻟﺘﺸﺮﻧﻖ داﺧﻞ اﻟﺒﺬرة اﻟﻰ ان ﺗﺨﺮج اﻻﻃﻮار اﻟﺒﺎﻟﻐﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻓﺘﺤﺎت ﻣﻤﻴﺰة ﻓﻲ ﺳﻄﺢ اﻟﺜﻤﺮة. ﻳﺘﻢ اﻟﻘﻀﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺒﺬور ﻓﻘﻂ ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺤﺸﺮة اﻣﺎ اﻟﺜﻤﺎر وﺑﻘﻴﺔ اﺟﺰاء اﻟﻨﺒﺎت ﻓﺎﻧﻬﺎ ﻻﺗﺘﺎﺛﺮ. ﺑﻘﻴﺔ اﻻﻋﻀﺎء اﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﻜﻴﺖ واﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﻢ رﺻﺪهﺎ ﺗﺸﺘﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺛﺎﻗﺒﺔ ﺑﺬور اﻟﻔﻮل اﻟﺴﻮداﻧﻰ Caryedon serratus وﺧﻨﻔﺴﺎء اﻟﺘﺒﻎ (Lasioderma sirricorne) وأﻳﻀﺎ ﺣﺸﺮة اﻟﺴﻴﻜﺎدا. آﻤﺎ ذآﺮ ﻓﺎن اﻟﺜﻤﺎر اﻟﻤﺘﺴﺎﻗﻄﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻرض ﻻﺗﺒﻘﻰ ﻃﻮﻳﻼ ﺗﺤﺖ اﻻﺷﺠﺎر ﻻن ﺣﻴﻮاﻧﺎت اﻟﺮﻋﻰ ﺗﻠﺘﻬﻤﻬﺎ ﻗﺒﻞ وﺻﻮل هﺬﻩ اﻟﺤﺸﺮات اﻟﻴﻬﺎ . ﻓﻌﻠﻴﻪ ﻓﺎن ﺗﺮك هﺬﻩ اﻟﺤﻴﻮاﻧﺎت ﺗﺮﻋﻰ ﺑﺪون ﺿﻮاﺑﻂ ﻗﺪ ﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎﺋﻘﺎ" اﻣﺎم اﻧﺘﺸﺎر وﻓﺎﻋﻠﻴﺔ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺤﺸﺮات ﺧﺎﺻﺔ وان ﻣﻌﻈﻢ اﻟﺒﺬور ﺗﻤﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل اﻟﺠﻬﺎز اﻟﻬﻀﻤﻰ ﻟﻠﺤﻴﻮاﻧﺎت وهﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻤﻪ ﻣﻊ زﻳﺎدة ﻗﺪرﺗﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﻧﺒﺎت ﺑﺎﻻﺿﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﻰ ﻋﺪم ﺻﻼﺣﻴﺘﻬﺎ آﻐﺬاء ﻟﻬﺬﻩ اﻟﺤﺸﺮات.

LIST OF CONTENTS

CONTENT PAGE NO ١ DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS II ABSTRACT III ١V (SUMMERY ( IN ARABIC ١ INTRODUCTION ١ Description of Mesquite tree -١ ١ Distribution -٢ ٤ Problems of Mesquite -٣ ٩ LITERITURE REVIEW ٩ Mesquite history in Sudan -١ ١٢ Control of Mesquite -٢ ١٣ Mesquite management scenario ١-٢ ١٣ Method of control ٢-٢ ١٣ Preventive measures ١-٢-٢ ١٤ Mesquite eradication and replacement ٢-٢-٢ ١٤ Mechanical control ١-٢-٢-٢ ١٦ Burning ٢-٢-٢-٢ ١٦ Chemical control ٣-٢-٢-٢ ١٨ Mesquite natural enemies -٣ ٢٠ Mesquite biocontrol efforts -٤ ٣٣ MATERIALS AND METHODS ٣٣ Field survey -١ ٣٣ Identification of the species-٢ ٣٤ Stock culture -٣ ٣٥ Host specificity tests -٤ ٣٥ Group tests ١-٤ ٣٦ Pair tests ٢-٤ ٣٧ Starvation tests ٣-٤ ٣٧ Life cycle – ٥ ٣٩ RESULTS ٣٩ Field survey -١ ٤١ Natural enemies detected on Mesquite during study -٢ ٤٢ Identification of the species-٣ ٤٢ Host specificity tests -٤ ٤٢ Group tests ١-٤ ٤٤ Sub-list group tests ٢-٤ ٤٦ Pair tests ٣-٤ ٤٦ Prosopis versus Arachis hypogaea ١-٣-٤ ٤٦ Prosopis versus Cassia senna ٢-٣-٤ ٤٦ A.hypogaea versus C. senna ٣-٣-٤ ٤٨ Starvation tests ٤-٤ ٥٠ Life cycle-٥ ٥٠ The egg ١-٥ ٥١ The larva ٢-٥ ٥٤ The pupa ٣-٥ ٥٤ The adult ٤-٥ ٥٨ DISCUSSION ٥٨ Field survey -١ ٥٩ Host specificity tests-٢ ٥٩ Group tests ١-٢ ٦١ Pair tests ٢-٢ ٦١ Prosopis versus A.hypogaea ١-٢-٢ ٦١ Prosopis versus C. senna ٢-٢-٢ ٦٢ A.hypogaea versus C.senna ٣-٢-٢ ٦٢ Starvation tests ٣-٢ ٦٨ Life cycle -٣ ٦٨ The egg ١-٣ ٦٨ The larva ٢-٣ ٦٩ The pupa ٣-٣ ٦٩ The adult ٤-٣ ٧٠ CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ٧٣ REFERENCES APPENDIX : HARD COPY LETTER ( IDENTIFICATION OF THE SPECIES)

FIGURES Page No. Percentage damage seeds of different plant species exposed to .١ Figure ٤٤ .A. Prosopis in group tests Percentage of damage expressed as number of emerging adults .٢ Figure ٤٥ .From exposed seeds of different plants in sub-group tests – Percent damage in pair tests (A-Prosopis V A.hypogaea B .٣ Figure ٤٨ .(Prosopis V C.senna and C- A.hypogaea V C.senna Percentage damage of seeds of different plant species in .٤ Figure ٥٠ .Starvation tests Proportion of various development stages in two generations .٥ Figure Of A. prosopis reared on mesquite pods under laboratory ٥٧ .conditions

PLATES:-

٥٢ Full grown larva of Algarobius prosopis inside mesquite seed .١ Plate Brown head capsule of A. prosopis larva visible through an egg .٢ Plate ٥٢ .Chorion ٥٣ Neonate larva of A.prosopis bearing long thin hairs .٣ Plate ٥٣ ٤th larval instars of A. prosopis & ٣rd ,٢nd .٤ Plate Pupa and adult of A.prosopis inside mesquite seed emerging .٥ Plate ٥٥ .Through an exit operculum .Male and female A. prosopis .٦ Plate Neat round holes on mesquite pods as a sign of adult A.prosopis .٧ Plate ٥٦ .departure LIST OF TABLES .The area visited and degrees of infestation by the bruchid A .١ Table ٤٠ . prosopis on mesquite pods Number of sound and damaged seed of different plant species .٢ Table ٤٣ .exposed to adult A. prosopis in group tests

Number of sound and damaged seeds of different plant .٣ Table ٤٥ species exposed to adult bruchids in sub-group tests

The number of sound and damaged seeds of plant .٤ Table ٤٧ .species seeds exposed to adult A.prosopis in pair test trials

Number of sound and damaged seeds of different plant ٥ Table ٤٩ .Species in starvation tests Duration of different developmental stages of A.prosopis .٦ Table (Mesquite seed feeding bruchid) reared on mesquite pods ٥٦ (under laboratory conditions (days

INTRODUCTION

-:Description of Mesquite tree -١ Mesquite Prosopis spp. are woody leguminous trees or shrubs belonging to the family Leguminoseae (Mimosoidae). They are well adapted to growing in semi-arid and arid regions often thriving in extremely arid saline and inhospitable locations where native trees can not survive. The species which are distributed mainly in ٤٤ genus Prosopis comprises about the arid and semi-arid areas of North and South America. Mesquite reproduces sexually by producing abundant seeds, vegetative regeneration commonly occurs following damage to the above ground portion of the plant. Although mesquite inflorescences contain hundreds of flowers, generally only few fruits develop per inflorescence. Due to fluctuation in the weather, fruit production can be quite variable form year to year for plants growing in semi desert areas. Plants growing along washes where they have access to permanent underground water, produces fruits quite predictably from year to year. -:Distribution-٢ species are native to ٤٠ ,species comprising the genus ٤٤ From the South and North America. The species Prosopis africana is native to Africa and extends as a belt from Senegal to Sudan. The other three species (Prosopis Koziana, P. farcta, P cineraria) are native to the Middle East and Pakistan. Mesquite is naturalized in many parts of the world. It can withstand different climatic conditions ranging form hot dry to cold humid areas and grow in different soil types ranging from clay to sandy alkaline, acidic, saline and degraded soils. It is found mainly in South America (Argentina, Peru, Chile, Ecuador, and Brazil). In USA the main distribution of mesquite is confined to central and southern Arizona, extreme southwestern New Mexico, Where .(١٩٦٢ adjacent northern Mexico, California and Texas (Johnston .years period ٤٥ over a ٪٧٥ stocking rates in New Mexico were reduced by ٣٩ The area infested with mesquite in USA was estimated to reach about This cause losses that amount to .(١٩٩٤ million hectares (Doloech and Cuda figure) to the livestock and supported ١٩٨٤) $million US ١٥٠٠-٦٠٠ industries. In South Africa, mesquite is by far the most aggressive species complex in the northwestern parts. The tree was introduced to South Africa six taxa have ,١٩٨٧ According to Harding .(١٩٨٧ ١٨٨٠s, (Harding in the been naturalized namely, Prosopis chilensis, P. pubescens, P. Juliflora, P. glandulosa var glandulosa, P. glandulosa var trreyana and P. velutina, but identification to species level is sometimes difficult as hybridization is quite common. Prosopis occurs over wide areas with the most severe infestations Zimmerman ,١٩٨٧ in the dry and hot western parts of the country (Harding The propagation of mesquite trees throughout many drier parts of .(١٩٩١ South Africa was encouraged by the department of Agriculture and forestry The tree causes many problems in .(١٩٩١ Zimmermann) ١٩٦٠ until about other African countries like Sudan, Somalia, and Namibia, while in Australia; Prosopis is a declared noxious weed and regarded as a serious economic and environmental threat. It occurs in all mainland states with the largest batches of dense infestation occurring in Western Australia. Mesquite hectares in ٨٠٠٠٠٠ infestation currently occurs over approximately There do not appear to be any climatic or .(٢٠٠٠ Australia (Thorp geographical limitations to the spread of mesquite over much semi-arid Australia. Also the tree is found in Asia (Israel, Turkey, Iran, Yemen, Gulf States, India, and Pakistan etc.). s, mesquite spreading has become a,١٩٧٠ In Sudan, since the end of problem in most of the irrigated schemes, particularly in northern and eastern Sudan. In the Toker Delta the area under flood irrigation was .feddans ١٥٠٠٠٠ and ١٠٠٠٠٠ feddans* to between ٤٠٦٠٠٠ reduced from feddans are seriously infested by mesquite and other species ٢٥٠٠٠٠ About feddans are completely dry ٥٠٠٠٠ Paspalidium desertum) and more than) because flood water could not reach due to mesquite coverage giving a net feddan only. It covers Khor Baraka from it’s ١٠٠٠٠٠ productive area of ١٣٠km., it covers river Gash from up stream at Gash delta down delta up to to the Eritrean borders. However, its natural regeneration hastened its spread in very large scales along river Gash, river Atbara and in water collection pits along Gedarif, Kassala, and Prot Sudan highway. Since then and up to mesquite is spreading at a fast rate on degraded areas and agricultural ٢٠٠٢ %٣٩٫٩ Feddans of Gash delta and ٦٥٠٠٠ lands. The tree covers about Feddans.) of new Halfa agricultural scheme and creating problems ١٣٧٦٥٥) along the River Nile and Northern states and also it is found in Kordofan and Darfur states. The tree was introduced mainly to combat desertification and lessen sand movement. Most parts of the country are climatically suitable for mesquite, and the spread of the tree at the water courses and along the main roads (Khartoum- Port Sudan highway), and probably along Gedarif- Galabat at near future, poses a direct threat to the valuable irrigated and rain fed lands. the tree spread naturally to new areas ,١٩١٧ Since its introduction in reaching the point where it is declared as a serious weed within some flood plain and irrigated schemes. Prosopis chilensis trees are aggressive and may easily become pests, especially when pastures are overstocked and grass cover depleted. Although the Cabinet has issued a decree for eradication of mesquite square meters ٤٢٠٠ = *Feddan .but so far there is no national plan for its eradication ,١٩٩٥ in Mesquite establishes itself naturally mainly through seeds of seeds passed the gut of %٦٥ encapsulated in animal droppings. In cattle of seeds passed by %٣٢ the animal intact and readily germinate, but only The seeds may be transported also .(١٩٥٥ sheep are viable (Glendening et al by water, which play considerable role in treating the seeds and encourage germination. Also mesquite may be transported by winds to favorable sites. Perhaps the most effective dispersal vehicles of mesquite are humans, since they have transported the plant across the landscape and across the world for use in various purposes. :Problems of Mesquite -٣ species of Prosopis, P. chileniss seem to be the most ٤٤ Of the serious species it causes so many economic as walls as ecological problems. Most of the problems stem for the standing capabilities of the species. Prosopis chilensis is native to the pacific coast of Peru, central Chile, and eastern Argentina. It grows well in most of the soil types under extreme conditions of drought and heat. This species, which is introduced in Sudan, meters high, frequently ١٥-٨ is small to medium sized thorny tree. It grows multi- stemmed with spreading crown consisting of pendulous branches hanging down to the ground. Occasionally occurring as a prostrate bush. It has compound leaves often with more than nine leaflets. Its trunk is black or brown shallow fissured and has stout yellow thorns. The flowers colour ranges from green to yellowish green. It has slender yellow seedpods, each seeds, which are extracted with some difficulty. The ٢٣ pod contains up to ٥mm) wide (Benson-٤) ٨mm) long and-٥) seeds are glossy brown, oval The .(١٩٥٥ seeds per kilogram (Glendening ٢٩٥٧٣ There are about .(١٩٤١ tree produce pods within the first year of growth. In Sudan one tree can seeds (Ali ٢٠٠٠٠ grams of seeds per year that is about ٧٦٨ produce up to -٦٣٠٠٠٠ In South Africa, one tree can produce between .(٢٠٠١ Eltayeb et al The tree has a deep root .(١٩٩١ seeds per year (Zimmermann ٩٨٠٠٠٠ ٢٠ system and branches freely; the main root is very long and may reach meters. On sites where soil is shallow, or moisture does not penetrate deeply, the tree has an extensive system of lateral roots that reach several meters cm ٣٠-١٥ form the plant base. Laterals are often concentrated in the zone of Plants can also extract water .(١٩٧٥ below the soil surface (Morton et al These adaptations .(١٩٧٧ from soil held at high matric forces (Mooney et al allow the species to retain an entire complement of leaves through the most severe droughts. Although the tree has some benefits that include combating desertification, nitrogen fixation as a leguminous plant, increasing the global green coverage, using its timber for furniture, fencing and fuel, also as animal feed. However, recently it was realized that the problems caused by the plants far overweigh the benefits derived from them. These problems include the following: Mesquite competes with other corps for space, nutrients and water and ١-٣ with its suppressive and invasive characteristics; it replaces almost all other native species and become a dominant tree. The tree affects the scarce underground water by sending its long tap ٢-٣ meters) below and laterals several meters wide decreasing the ٢٠) root quantity of water and probably its quality making it bitterer as some people argued. It blocks irrigation canals draining water at the sides and deposit more ٣-٣ silt that increases the cost of repairing and clay removal (New Halfa agric. Project). In addition its roots block water pipes stopping or decreasing water flow (Port Sudan- Arbaat water pipes). Mesquite has negative impact on biodiversity and affects natural ٤-٣ vegetation decreasing the stock hold capacity in many parts of the world. million hectares ٣٩ reported that, in USA, which (١٩٩٤ Doloech & Cuda) ١٥٠٠-٦٠٠ are infested with mesquite, the animal industry loose about million US$ annually. Prosopis chilensis tree parts are not eaten by all animals except the ٥-٣ mature pods, which are used as animal feed. Even though, lewis & Elvin reported that ingestion of pods over long periods, will result in death ,١٩٧٧ in cattle. Further they reported that the pollen may cause allergic rhinitis, goes ١٩٦٤ bronchial asthma and or hypersensitivity pneumatics. Kingsburg into some details on mesquite poisoning in cattle, including cases where autopsies showed pods and seeds in the rumen nine months after cattle have reported a disease known as jaws and ,١٩٦٤ ingested them. Sperry, et al tongue trouble, characterized in cattle by profuse salivation, continuous chewing a protruding tongue and a tilted head. Animals gradually become of their weight. Acute symptoms, such ٪٥٠ emaciated and may loose up to as loss of appetite, rapid weight loss, nervousness, a wild expression and days. Also ٤-٢ plugging of the eyes develop and animals usually die within said that, in cattle excessive building of mesquite ١٩٥٧ Dollahite & Anthony beans in the rumen apparently destroys the rumen bacteria that digest cellulose and synthesize B vitamin. Mesquite poisoning may induce permanent impairment of the ability to digest cellulose. Felker and reported that if Prosopis pods are the sole food source for ١٩٧٩ Banddurski cattle some die and others become sick with compacted pod ball in the rumen. Death is attributed to high sugar content repressing the rumen The nature of the tree .٦-٣ .bacterial cellulose activity characterized by short shoots and mostly multi-stemmed, in addition to its many narrow branches and stout thorns, makes its utilization for furniture and fencing purposes very limited. The eradication of the mesquite tree is very difficult, costly, and require .٧-٣ continuous monitoring over long period. This is because:- seeds/tree/ year under ٢٠٠٠٠ The tree produces abundant seeds (about ١-٧-٣ seeds/ tree/ year in South Africa), and they ٩٨٠٠٠٠-٦٣٠ ,Sudan conditions are protected in a bony endocarp that allows the seeds to remain viable for a long period. The seeds remaining in pods and not consumed by animals remain dormant until the seed coat is broken by weathering. The underground seed bank starts to germinate over a long period. When the above ground portion is damaged or killed, the new sprouts ٢-٧-٣ ٢٠-٧) growing from the defined dormant bud zone on the underground stem cm below), are more problematic than the original plant. The mesquite thickets reduces the cultivable areas as in the case of ٨-٣ to ١٠٠٠٠٠ feddans to between ٤٠٦٠٠٠ Toker delta which is reduced form feddans are seriously infested with ٢٥٠٠٠٠ feddans. About ١٥٠٠٠٠ feddans are completely dry ٥٠٠٠٠ mesquite and other species and more than because floodwater could not reach due to mesquite coverage. Prosopis chilensis have little value as shade tree because it stands ٩-٣ normally as multi- stemmed shrub in addition to its long narrow branches that are drooping to the ground. The mesquite growing at the main road sides may be a reason behind ١٠-٣ many traffic accidents in addition that its thorns may damage farm machinery and vehicle tyres. .Some criminals may escape and hide in mesquite thickets ١١-٣ .No bird is seen nesting on mesquite and rarely park and rest on it ١٢-٣ -:Mesquite tree protect itself by the following ١٣-٣ ,The tree is not grazed by any quantity including leaves, branches ١-١٣-٣ flowers and immature pods. Only the mature pods are eaten by animals after they fall or when still hanging on the tree. The tree is not felled for making furniture, fuel or charcoal unless it ٢-١٣-٣ finished its development and that may extend for four seasons by then it produces and spreads its seeds over large areas. It sends its roots laterally and horizontally for long distances almost ٣-١٣-٣ though all soil types (clay, sand) seeking water and moist parts in away that exceeds most of other plants. No effective natural enemies are now available under Sudan ٤-١٣-٣ conditions to curb its spread. .The seeds pass through rumen digestive tract without being harmed ٥-١٣-٣ In addition the digestive juices make scarification and increase the germination percentage of the seeds. The Forestry department abandon planting the tree in areas where the ١٤-٣ ٢٠٠mm. The tree is recommended for desert annual precipitation exceeds and semi-desert areas, but under Sudan conditions where there is no control upon animal movements and nomads migration, in addition no legislations preventing the transportation of seeds from one area to another, makes the spread of the tree to new areas very likely to occur.

LITERATURE REVIEW

- :Mesquite history in the Sudan-١ by government ١٩١٧ Mesquite had been introduced to Sudan since botanist Mr. Edward Massy by seeds imported from Egypt and South Africa under the name of Prosopis juliflora. and (١٩١٧) The plant was established at limited area at Shambat it was planted at Elshagera, Kilo٥ ١٩٣٨ In .(١٩٢٨) near Khartoum airport near Khartoum and then extended to different parts of the country (Port Sudan, Sinar, Elfoung, Elgalabt, Kordofan & Darfur). It had been introduced the tree was introduced again ,١٩٦٥ In .(١٩٨٦ Abdelbari) (١٩٤٧) to Kassala mesquite is ,١٩٨٦ to be planted at the green belt area south of Khartoum. In distributed to different parts of Kassala State by seed distributing and selling it was introduced to New Halfa for fencing the ,١٩٦٦ of seedling and in experimental farm. through Finland ١٩٨٠ The tree had been introduced to Sudan again in and planted at Tendelti and central Sudan (١٩٨٨ forest programme (Karsisto (٢٠٠٠ and then to Northern State (Lati basin & Abuogal), (Babiker The main objective of its introduction was to combat desertification and to lessen sand movement also as animal feed, make use of its wood (charcoal, fuel, and furniture) in addition to utilize it as shade tree. It is very conspicuous that mesquite had been introduced to Sudan at different times and to different locations where there is great geographical and ecological diversity from these points' mesquite starts to spread through animal droppings, water courses and humans. The tree expanded to many degraded and pastoral lands and at the sides of main roads (Khartoum- Port Sudan highway) to khor Barka, river Gash, Atbara, and river Nile. is known as Prosopis ,١٩١٧ The species introduced in Sudan in Elghaba (Northern ,١٩٥٨ juliflora and can be seen at Sinkat, introduced during which period the tree did not show ,١٩٤٥ and Toker belt ,١٩٤٥ (state any kind of aggressiveness and considered as a safe tree, but when the new species (P. chilensis introduced it spreads dramatically and covered large .(١٩٩٦ areas (Baasher was ١٩٩٨ The area infested with mesquite at Gash delta in feddans, and at New Halfa the area infested was ٦٥٠٠٠ estimated to be the weed continued its ,٢٠٠٠ Since .(١٩٩٨ feddans (Elsidig ٦٠٠٠٠ about ١٣٧٦٥٥feddans in New Halfa scheme in spread in fast rate reaching about The infestation is concentrated at the southern parts of the .٢٠٠٤ May scheme adjacent to kassala district but the Northern parts are considered free of infestation The eradication programme started already utilizing heavy machines for the trees growing at canal sides and manual felling for shrubs infesting the fields. The programme is funded by the Federal government billion Sudanese Dinars, (Eltigani. personal ١٫٣ with a cost amounting to contact). The nature of mesquite stands was indicated by successive aerial beside a survey ,١٩٩٢ and ,١٩٧٨ ,١٩٦٢ photography conducted during .(using GPS (geographical positioning system ١٩٩٦ conducted during the ١٩٩٢-١٩٧٨ mesquite spread is at low rate, between ١٩٧٨-١٩٦٢ Between feddans, and for the ٩٢٧ spread of the tree is at an annual average rate of feddans per year ١١٥٠ it spread at an average rate of ,١٩٩٦-١٩٩٢ period .(٢٠٠٢ Mohamed) The government has decided to pass a law to eradicate mesquite tree The .(٩٧/١١ as reported by Abino okeny for ANS (Sudan updates ١٩٩٥ in tree is drought tolerant, fast growing and services as wind break and as ٨٤٠ fodder for animals, but its rapid spread when uncontrolled reportedly hectares per year around Kassala is a problem. The mesquite phobia is now the government prevented the Sudanese Antiquity ,١٩٩٦ so strong that in Board from planting the tree as a wind break to save historical monuments such as ancient pyramids. Mesquite shelter agricultural crops from wind and sand and increase soil nitrogen by nitrogen fixing nodules, but the drought, civil war and the problems related to agricultural production in Sudan, forced farmers to abandon their farms leaving only the drought resistant tree to spread in the agricultural lands. Mesquite is aggressively competitive and does not allow indigenous vegetation to survive around it. Several negligent farmers have lost their lands to mesquite in such places as Kassala, Toker, Gash delta and Girba in the east. Farmers complain to forestry department that mesquite is expensive to clear and destroys agricultural corps. They say the plant consumes so much under ground water that it lowers the water table. Also mesquite thorns are harmful to farm workers and damage farm machinery tyres. Animal herders also claim that the pods bring about some animal diseases and its thickets .(١٩٩٧ /١١ provide sanctuary for criminals (Sudan updates and Tendelti ,(١٩٦٦ Studies carried out at Khartoum (Wunder approved that when mesquite is used as wind break, it stops ,(Elfadil١٩٩٧) desertification, decreases evaporation and decreases wind velocity. It improves soil physical and chemical conditions by adding organic matter at Kordofan and Darfur ١٩٣٨ and nitrogen. However studies conducted in states, proved that mesquite failed to establish itself on sand dunes due to shortage of water. The same situation is noticed at Besheri oasis where the tree was planted on sand dunes to protect the oasis, but during a visit in there is no tree on sand and it spread and infest the low oasis land with ,١٩٩٧ .(٢٠٠٠ ,dense thickets lowering the underground water table (Babiker This coincided with what happened in South Africa and south of Arizona .(١٩٩١ State in USA (Zimmermann Mesquite got out of hand due to mismanagement by farmers and the farmers, who lost their lands at eastern Sudan, are originally nomads with little interest in agriculture (Badai, K, and Nimer SECS director). Consultants at the national forestry corporation advice farmers to weed out seedlings before they send out deep roots and to confine animals fed mesquite pods to prevent the spread of mesquite through animal droppings. To wipe out mesquite the government will need vast financial .(١٩٩٧/١١ resources which is difficult to raise (Sudan updates Due to the nature of mesquite tree and its fast spreading, the forestry mm annual ٢٠٠ authorities ban its planting in areas that receive more than precipitation and plant it only at desert and semi-desert areas with great care .(٢٠٠٠.not to be spread to irrigated agricultural lands. (Abdelmagid The above revealed that there is conflict of interest between different concerned parties about eradicating the tree, but all agree to find ways and options to manage it. -:Control of mesquite -٢ In the Sudan the mesquite tree lost its way and become an unpleasant guest. The pressure caused by repeated introduction of the tree, its genetic diversity and probably the drought conditions, collectively become a reason for spreading of mesquite. The plant created many problems that necessitate its eradication or at least control it.

-:Mesquite management Scenario ١-٢ Mesquite is a national pest, widely distributed and it has colonies at ١-١-٢ different parts of the country and the animals, water courses and main roads play an important role in its spreading. Mesquite is a perennial tree, exotic, it has great capability to compete ٢-١-٢ with other plants. It has huge underground seed bank and has dormant buds at the underground stem. The plant manufactures its food at the apical parts and stores in the ٣-١-٢ roots. The nutrients move from the source to biologically active parts (source sink relationship). The tree will be at its weakest status when the nutrients stored at the roots become depleted and hence it becomes easy to control. Control of trees as weeds do not differ from the control of herbaceous ٤-١-٢ weeds but there should be some changes to suit the intense growth of trees. ,Adoption of the integrated control strategy takes into consideration ٥-١-٢ the effectiveness of treatments, nature of the area, economic importance of the tree and the role of the targeted area in spreading of mesquite (Babiker .(٢٠٠٠ :Methods of control -٢-٢ -:preventive measures ١-٢-٢ Before introduction of exotic plants into a new territory, there should be thorough study to its nature, ecology, biology benefits and expected problems. The mesquite plant was deliberately introduced to the country but it seems that there is no consideration taken in mind except its ability of sand dune combating. The first plausible approach is to prevent mesquite from invading new areas and can be handled by taking the following measures:- Assessment of the areas infested with mesquite and develops the ١-١-٢-٢ country's mesquite distribution map. .Public awareness about the nature and problems of mesquite -٢-١-٢-٢ Eradication of mesquite from water sources (river banks, irrigation ٣-١-٢-٢ canals, water collection pits) and at the sides of main roads where mesquite starts to regenerate naturally and become seeds source. Construction of screens on irrigation canals at selected points to ٤-١-٢-٢ capture the floating mesquite pods. The mesquite pods should be pulverized and supplemented with ٥-١-٢-٢ other feeding rations before feeding to animals. hours to excrete all droppings before ٢٤ Keeping animals at least for ٦-١-٢-٢ allowing them to pass to mesquite free areas. Good management to fallow range lands to prevent overgrazing and ٧-١-٢-٢ illegal forest tree cutting and replanting of species subjected to grazing stress. Some studies show that the trees (Acacia tortilis, A. amplicesp, and A. stenophylla) can grow and withstand the same conditions of mesquite .(٢٠٠٠ Babiker ,١٩٩٨ Elsidig) :Mesquite eradication and replacement ٢-٢-٢ In many parts of the world there are some managerial approaches adopted for eradication and controlling mesquite plant spread. These approaches include:- -:Mechanical control ١-٢-٢-٢ Mechanical control techniques includes mechanized and manual ٢٥cm-٧) uprooting and destruction of the bud zone in the underground stem deep) the most famous technique used are root ploughing (mechanical & manual uprooting). It has proved to be the best method of control. It was ,killing in south Texas USA (Wright ٪١٠٠ reported that root ploughing gave .(١٩٧٥ et, al Mechanical methods devised for mesquite control include the tree dozing, cable chaining, roller chopping, tree grubbing, land imprinting, in addition to root ploughing. For mechanical measures to be effective, the dormant buds occurring along the underground stem should be damaged or removed to prevent sprouting. If only the above ground portion of the plant is removed, the tree will quickly resprout. Tree grubbing with blades ٣٠cm below the soil-١٥ attached to crawler tractors which serve roots surface and root plough which uproot trees are effective control measures, Areas root .(١٩٧٥ mortality (Marten & Clark %٩٠ often achieve over ploughed or mechanically grubbed are often seeded with native grasses. Without seeding, serious soil disturbance caused by these control methods often reduces perennial grass cover for several years. On areas with moderate shrub density, an alternative to root ploughing, cabling, or grubbing which disturb the soil, is land imprinting followed by seeding. The ١٥cm-١٠ ,land imprinter is a heavy roller, set with pyramid shaped teeth long, attached in an irregular pattern and pulled behind a caterpillar tractor. As the roller passes over the ground it leaves the area like a huge waffle. The tractor and roller crush and shred the vegetation and deposit the mulch into Root ploughing using a tractor .(١٩٨٥ ,the funnel like depressions (Gilbert might be effective in the lands occupied by young seedlings (less than one The technique gave very promising results .(١٩٩٨ meter height) (Elsidig when it was practiced in Zeidab irrigation scheme in the northern Sudan. Similarly root ploughing using heavy machines was practiced in the irrigation canal of Zeidab. Although the technique is done perfectly, but dense regeneration of mesquite seeds develop a continuous strip of mesquite along the canal. In manual uprooting, the trees are felled at stump height of ٣٠cm followed by digging and uprooting the underground bud zone of about ٥٠cm. This technique has been-٣٠ the stem to a depth that varies from practiced successfully but in a very limited area of some irrigated schemes When the tree.(٢٠٠٢ ,such as Zeidab, Halfa scheme and Kassala (Mohamed was cut at the soil level and not followed by uprooting, this leads to activation of dormant buds at the underground stem resulting in a multi- stemmed bush which has no economic value and difficult to eradicate and thus the remaining stump should be crushed and (١٩٩٠ Jacoby et al) stated that removal of the bark kills,(٢٠٠٠) burned after one week. Babiker most of the dicotyledonous plants, in case of mesquite this procedure may kill old trees, but the small shrubs may withstand it, in addition that it is impractical in the case of dense stands or when mesquite grows as multi- stemmed bush. The time required for killing depends upon the quantity of stored food and the rate of its exhaustion. Anyhow this procedure should be practiced when the tree is at its weakest stage. -:Burning ٢-٢-٢-٢ Firing can assist in killing the tree on condition that it should be .٪٥٠ years in all cases its efficiency is not more than ١٠-٥ repeated every years are only ٢٫٥ years old but trees ١٫٥ Burning will destroy trees up to years or more can withstand firing ٣٫٥ harmed without killing and the trees Fire is the least effective method of controlling mesquite .(٢٠٠٠ ,Babiker) compared to the other methods. Summer and winter of mesquite burning It was mentioned that .(١٩٥٧ Blydebstein) ٪٥-١ cause a mortality of only damage caused by fire decreases with the increase of stem size (Elbashir .(١٩٨٨ :Chemical control ٣-٢-٢-٢ considered that herbicides are more efficient in ,٢٠٠٠ ,Babiker controlling mesquite than other methods. Most herbicides used in mesquite control are systemic and can be applied by spraying the foliage so as to be absorbed by leaves and translocated to underground bud zone or to be mixed with water and applied at the plant base to be absorbed by the roots, also trunk injection to the sap stream, applied to the trunk after bark removal, or brushing on the stem base or stump surface. stated that aerial spraying of herbicides was ,٢٠٠٠ ,Abedelmagid T.٢٫٤٫٥ s, using,٧٠ .s ,٦٠ ,s,١٩٥٠ used at different parts of USA during ,١٩٨٢ ,١٩٨١ Jacoby et al ,١٩٨٨ Bovey et al .%٨٥-٥٠ giving mortality rate of reported that aerial application of herbicides generally result in the ,١٩٩٠ T banned for use.٢٫٤٫٥. greatest herbaceous production following treatment s was one of the most commonly used,١٩٨٠ on range lands in the early herbicides in velvet mesquite (Prosopis chilensis var velutina) control in the s. The most effective herbicide for killing mesquite available,٧٠ s,٦٠ ,١٩٥٠s .T.٢٫٤٫٥ for use today is clopyralid, however it is much more expensive than Velvet mesquite is probably susceptible to aerial application of clopyralid, ١٩٨٨ mortality of honey mesquite. Bovey ٪٨٥-٥٠ which often results in can be achieved by ٪٩٠ suggested that even greater mesquite mortality, over and Herbel et al ١٩٨٥ mixing clopyralid with Picloram or Triclopyr. Gilbert stated that moderate control had also been achieved with aerial ١٩٨٥ report that at Kassala ,٢٠٠٠ application of Tebuthiurion pellets. Abdelmagid area Round- up was used but it has no effect on old trees and the seedlings -٨٥ kg/ha result in ٣٫٧٥ T at.٢٫٤٫٥ D and.٢٫٤ were slightly affected. Use of stated that application of ,٢٠٠٢ ,Mohamed .(١٩٨٢ kill (Beri et al ٪٩٠ kg/ha), with hand brush on girdled stump trees kill ٤) ammonium sulphate – D and Round.٢٫٤ of the stumps. He also report that in Toker delta ٪٩٠-٨٠ up were used by some experts without further details.. The use of diesel oil and kerosene as a technique to control mesquite was also reported, however its effectiveness is limited to low percent kill. They are applied in various ways including spray against and around the base of the tree and letting the oil to run into the bark beneath the soil, cm above the ground and basin dug ١٥ similarly poured on the trunk up to round the base to retain oil ensure complete circling of the tree and soaking .(٢٠٠٢ of the soil. Poured on the stump was also practiced (Mohamed

-:Mesquite natural enemies -٣ The survey carried out in South Africa after hundred years from mesquite introduction revealed that there are no natural enemies for Prosopis at that country. In the trees native range (Central and South ,١٩٧٧ pests infesting mesquite (Ward et al ٦٥٧ America), there is about Among the natural enemies of the tree some are .(١٩٩١ Zimmermann already utilized as biocontrol agents. Three seed feeding bruchids from southwestern United States are Algarobius prosopis Algarobius bottimeri, In addition to the coreid .(١٩٩٩ and Neltumius arizonensis (Impson, et al bug (Mozena obtusa) which feed on immature reproductive and vegetative foliage, a sap sucking Psyllid (Prosopidopsylla flava) which causes dieback and leaf- tying defoliator gelechid moth Evippe sp. (Biocontrol news March .(news ١٩٩٩ reported the amical weevil (Bruchus ١٩٧٧ Kingsolver et al amicus), this weevil is dependent on mesquite fruit and the female lay eggs on the pods as the larvae hatch; they burrow into the fruit and feed on the seeds.

that, mesquite is a major ٢٠٠٢ It was stated in PPC, CAB international host of Anacridium rubrispinum (red spined tree locust), Oxyrhachis serratus, and Oxyrhachis tarandus. Among the Coleoptera, Amblycerus sp, Apate monachus, Bruchidius uberatus, Caryedon serratus, Cabsterna scabrator, Oncideres putator, Rhipibruchus prosopis were reported. Among the Hemiptera, lcerya formicarum and Oxyrhachis tarandus, where reported. Among the Isoptera, Anacanthotermes macrocephalus and among Nematoda, Meloidogyne sp

.(١٩٨١ were reported, (felker.et al . Johnson, Siemens (undaed) reported that Acanthoscelides longescutus (Erichson), Scutobruchus ceratioborus (Phillipi), and three species of Algarobius (Bridwell), do not glue eggs to seeds or pods as many bruchids do, but the female insert the glue less eggs into cracks or cervices in the pods. Seven species of Rhipibruchus feed on seeds of Prosopis but glue their eggs at the outside of the pod valves.

carried out tests on the efficiency of phosphine ١٩٩٩ Mazzuferi fumigation against bruchids infesting the seeds of Prosopis chilensis stating that the Prosopis pods were heavily infested with three species of the genus Scutobruchus namely S. ceratioborus, S. terani and S. vinalicola. Deloach &

reported the mesquite cut worm Melipotis indomata ١٩٩٤ Cuda (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) as a potential biocontrol agent for mesquite.

reported that mesquite is a major host of the mite ,٢٠٠٠ ,In Sudan, Babiker (Tetranychus urticae) which threatens cotton fields and many other vegetable crops.

reported Biachyphantus sp. and Noctuid sp. as specialist ,١٩٧٧ Simpson and Melipotis bisinuata, Oiketcus geyeri, Semiothesa sp. as generalist on Prosopis chilensis in Argentina. Also he reported Rhipibruchus picturatus, R. prosopis, and Scutobruchus ceratioborus, in addition to parasitic or hemi parasitic flowering plants (Phoradendron hieronymi, P. Liga, P. pruinosum, Prosopanche americana, Psittacanthus cuneifolius and Tapinanthus sp. Possibly even Ximenia americana).

,gave information about parasitic flowering plants ,١٩٩٥ ,Farah Phoradendron sp. and Tapinathus sp. belong to the same class (Loranthaceae) which is the largest class among parasitic flowering plants, and it can be distinguished by presence of viscin covering their seeds. This material (viscin) is much liked by many bird species that play important role in seed dispersal. Phoradendron is poisonous to cattle and it induces abortion in pregnant herds. Prosopanche sp. (Hydenoraceae) is a morphologically strange plant that can be confused with many Basidiomycete fungi especially before flowering. Its fruits are eaten in Argentina. The wood of Ximenia sp. (Olacaceae), used for construction of bridges, housing, and telephone pole in India, Malaysia, and neighboring countries. Prosopis is a major host of Macrophomina phaseolina (ashy stem blight), Rhizobium radiobactor (crown gall), Rhizobium rhizogenes

.(٢٠٠٢ bacterial gall) (PPC, CAB international) Fungi reported on Prosopis Juliflora and related species include Cercospora prosopidis, Didymosphaeria cryptosphaerioides, Fomes eveharitii, F. rimosus, Gloeosporium legminum, Leveilulla taurica, Napicladium prosopodium, Phoma sp., Phyllosticta julifLora, Phymatotichum omnivorium, Physalosporea mutila, Polyporus adustus, P. pinsitus, P. texanus, Ravanela arizonica,, R.. holwayi, Schizophyllum commune, Scleropycnium aureum, Septoria prosopidis, and Sphaeropsis .(١٩٨١ prosopidis.(Felker, et al

-:Mesquite biocontrol efforts .٤

Biological control is an attempt to introduce the plants natural enemies to its new habitat, with the assumption that these natural enemies will remove the plant’s competitive advantage until its vigor is reduced to level comparable to that of the natural vegetation. In the control of invasive plants, the biocontrol or candidates used most frequently are , mites and pathogens (disease causing organisms such as fungi). Biocontrol agents target specific plant organs, such as vegetative parts of the plant (its leaves, stems, or roots) or reproductive parts (such as flowers, fruits, or seeds). The choice of biocontrol agents depends on the aim of the control project. If the aim is to get rid of the invasive plant species, scientist select the types of biocontrol agent causing the most damage that are available. In such projects they may use agents that affect the vegetative parts of the plant as well as agents that reduce seed production. However if the target plant is useful in certain situation but become a pest when uncontrolled, conflicts of interests arises regarding biological control. These conflicts are usually resolved by avoiding biocontrol agents that have the ability of causing damage to the useful part of the plant and instead use only seed reducing agents. These reduce the reproductive potential of the plant, curb its dispersal and reduce the follow- up work needed after clearing while still allowing the continued utilization of the plant. For instance, trees are normally grown for their wood but seeds are seldom utilized. If seeds are needed to replant a plantation, a seed orchard can be especially protected against the biocontrol agent in the same way as other crops are protected against insect pests. If, on the other hand, the pods are the most valuable part of the tree as in the case of mesquite (Prosopis spp.), no biocontrol agents can be selected that will prevent pod production. The seed feeding beetles that are introduced against mesquite in South Africa prevents only the germination of seeds without significantly reducing the nutritional value of the pods. They do not prevent seed or pod production. Biocontrol agents are normally introduced from the country of origin of the plant. Probably without exceptions, biocontrol agents do not completely exterminate populations of the host plants, at best they can be expected to reduce the weed density to an acceptable level or reduce the vigor and/or reproductive potential of individual plants. The fact that a few host plants always survive in spite of the attack by a biocontrol agent actually ensures that the agent does not die out as a result of lack of food. The small population of biocontrol agents that persist will disperse onto any regrowth or newly emerged seedlings of the weed, for this reason biocontrol can be regarded as a sustainable control method. Biocontrol works relatively slowly. On average at least five years should be allowed for a biocontrol agent to establish itself successfully before causing significant damage to its host plant. Unfortunately, not all growth of invasive plant species can be curbed purely by biological control. It could happen that an effective biocontrol agent exists but can not be released because it is not sufficiently host specific. Alternatively, the invasive plant might be a man-made hybrid between two or more species and is no longer an acceptable host to the natural enemies of either of the parent plants. It could also happen that the natural enemies of some plants are not adapted to all the climatic region in which the plant is a problem or the habitat already contains predators or parasitoids that attack the biocontrol agent. In such cases biocontrol will has to be supplemented by chemical or other control measures. Advantages of biological control:- - Environmentally friendly because it causes no pollution and effects only the target (invasive plant). - Self perpetuating or self sustaining and therefore permanent. - Cost effective. - Does not disturb the soil or create large empty areas where other invaders could establish because it does not kill all the target plants at once, instead it allows the natural vegetation to recover in the shelter of dying weeds (Working for water programme website http://www.dwarf.pwv.gov.za/wfw/control/Bio). It was noticed that the alien weeds spread more rapidly than in their In Sudan this was noticed in water .(١٩٩٦ original area (Blossey & Kamil hyacinth. This happened due to the lack of its natural enemies (Bashir When the natural enemies of water hyacinth the weevil Neochetina .(١٩٧٨ eichhorniae and N. bruchi were introduced to Sudan, the intensity of weed decreased greatly. In Sudan survey was not carried out to explore the absence or presence of the natural enemies of mesquite. In South Africa, the survey carried out after hundred years from introduction of mesquite reveal that there are no natural enemies available by the time. As an example of biological control of weeds in Sudan, is the successful programme carried out against water hyacinth (Eichhornia from Congo river ٥٦/١٩٥٥ crasspies), which was introduced to the Sudan in ٣٢٠٠km to the White Nile and tributaries since then the weed extended for square km. This weed was ٣٠٠٠ along the river and covered about controlled by utilization of two weevils Neochetina eichhorniae (Warner) and Neochetina bruchi (Hustagche) in addition to the moth Sameodes These .١٩٧٦ albigutalis. All were imported from Florida State (USA) in insects had been released at different locations along the White Nile after different plant species growing at ٣٧ carrying out host specificity tests on ١٩٨٣ the banks of the river and found specific only to water hyacinth. Since ٢٥٠٠٠٠ up till now the weed is fairly under control with the total cost of .(١٩٧٨ sterling pounds only (Bashir reported attempts to control the parasitic weed Striga (٢٠٠٢) Babiker hermonthica using a bioherbicide Fusarium nygamic without any further details. In South Africa, scientists planned to control mesquite utilizing biocontrol agents bearing in mind that seeds are the main method of mesquite spreading and to maintain benefits obtained from the tree like combating desertification, fuel and animal feed. Before the official release of a biocontrol agent in South Africa, extensive studies were carried out in a quarantine facility to ensure that the agent, will not damage other non target plants. A biocontrol agent is only released once it proved sufficiently host specific for release in the country. Tested and approved biocontrol agents therefore do not pose a threat to crops or indigenous vegetation or to those of neighboring countries. No cases occurred in weeds biocontrol that agents changed their host plant affinities after their release in a new country to include plants other than those known to be acceptable hosts. (Working for water programme, website). To date three seed feeding bruchid species imported from the southwestern United States, have been released in South Africa for the control of Prosopis spp. (mainly P. velutina, P. glandulosa var glandulosa, P. glandulosa var torreyana and P. chilensis). Algarobius and Neltumis ,١٩٩٠ Algarobius bottimeri in ,١٩٨٧ prosopis was released in A. prosopis and N. arizonensis have established and are .١٩٩٣ arizonensis in wide spread, whereas A.bottimeri has apparently failed to establish. A.prosopis and N. arizonensis have the potential to destroy large numbers of Prosopis seeds but their progress is hampered by foraging livestock which devour the pods before they are utilized by the bruchids The biology of the bruchids was described and the role of native parasitoids and the competitive interaction between the three species in limiting the impact of these agents is discussed. The increasing extend of problems caused by mesquite in South Africa and greater awareness of losses of scarce underground water due to Prosopis, may dictate future tactics for biocontrol of this weed. The use of other agents other than seed feeders will probably become acceptable in the near future as the landowners increasingly come to realize that problems caused by the plants far outweigh the benefits that are derived form it .(١٩٩٩ Impson, et al) Graham (undated) from Queensland, Australia, reported that mesquite bruchids (A. Bottimeri and A. Prosopis) were tested for host specificity as biological control in Australia following their release in South Africa. Multiple choice tests were conducted on A. bottimeri and A. prosopis. Both oviposited heavily on pods of most non- mesquite test plants as well as on mesquite pods. Both bruchids develop to adults in low numbers in seeds of Acacia aneurea, Petalsotylis labicheoides, Neptunia gracilis, and Arachis hypogaea with much longer development times than in mesquite pods. Algarobuis prosopis also developed on Caesalpina decapetala. No development occurred in the other test plant pods. When tested in a large cage in which pods of A. aneura, P. labicheoides, N. gracilis, C. decapetala meters from mesquite pods females of ١٫٥ and A. hypogaea were placed both bruchids oviposited only on mesquite pods. These experimental results indicate that A. bottimeri and A. prosopis females oviposit on non-host pods in very close proximity to mesquite pods but not on host pods separated from mesquite pods. Such close proximity in the field could only occur if there was physical overlap between mesquite plant and non-target plants. Mesquite infestations do not occur in areas where native C. decapetala grows or introduced, A. hypogaea is grown. But do not occur in areas where A. aneura, P. labicheoides and N. gracilis are endemic. It is possible such overlaps occur or will occur in the future. Indehiscent mesquite pods retain their seeds long after pods drop. Pods of A. aneura and P. labicheoides shed their seeds after maturity; Neptunia gracilis retains its seeds in pods on the plant for some time before it releases seeds. A small proportion of A. aneura and N. gracilis pods may retain some seeds after falling to the ground. Where occasional physical overlap occurs, actual intermingling of A. aneura, N. gracilis, or P. labicheoides pods retaining seeds with mesquite pods would be a rare event and oviposition on non-target pods even rarer. A. bottimeri and A. prosopis females oviposit in cracks in mesquite pods in preference to smooth surface of mesquite pods lacking cracks. The chance of mistaken oviposition habits of the bruchids combined with the different fates of the pods and seeds of mesquite, A. aneura, P. labicheoides and N. gracilis, minimize the possibility of accidental non-target oviposition in the field. A. bottimeri and A. prosopis pose no threat to A. aneura, N. gracilis or P. labicheoides and are specific to Prosopis and safe to release in Australia. Approval for their release was sought and granted; hence both species have been released. Hoffmann, (undated).From Cape Town University (S.A), described the bruchids A. prosopis and Neltumuis arizonensis stating that these bruchids ٥mm in length). Algarobius is a fawn color with are small beetles (up to elytra that are darker than the rest of the body. Neltumius has a mottled black and white patchwork pattern over its entire body. The beetles are distinctive because the abdomen extends beyond the elytra. Their presence is easily noticeable by the occurrence of neat round holes in the mature seedpods of Prosopis both on the trees and on the ground. Grubs of both species develop in mature seeds within mesquite seedpods. Eggs of Neltumius are glued singly on the surface of the pods and shells may remain in place for several months after the eggs have hatched. Algarobius eggs are laid in cracks and blemishes on the seed pods. Each grub enters and entirely destroys a single seed during its development. Pupation occurs within the hallowed out seed and adults emerge through distinctive holes on the surface of the pods. Only the seeds of the mesquite within the pods are damaged by the beetles. The of ٪٩٥ seedpods and vegetative parts of the plants are not affected. Although the seeds produced by mesquite can be destroyed by these seed beetles, they have very little impact on the dynamics of mesquite invasions because seed pods are eaten by livestock and game animals before the beetles can utilize and destroy many of the seeds. As a result seed destruction by the beetles seldom reaches very high levels. Most seeds are ingested and passed through the gut of animals undamaged. Once dispersed in the field seeds are no longer suitable as a source for the beetles. reported that the CSIRO ,(١٩٩٩ CABI Biocontrol news (March Entomology in Australia began research into the biological control of This work involved reviewing the mesquite problems in .١٩٩٤ mesquite in Australia (the extent of the problem, the history and success of control programmes and a review of the taxonomic and ecological aspects) and prioritizing and processing potential biocontrol agents. Previous biocontrol programmes directed against mesquite had already resulted in the release of seed bruchids in South Africa and later in Australia, but recent studies have shown that the impact of these agents is likely to be limited by vertebrate herbivores. Prosopis are primarily dispersed through the gut of vertebrate herbivores which consume most of the pods before the bruchids have the opportunity to damage the seeds. The CSIRO programme selected insect species for host specificity studies, which targeted vegetative foliage and reproductives prior their consumption by vertebrate herbivores and which appear to be impacting on mesquite in their native range. Three potential agents were studied: a coreid bug (Mozena obtusa), which feeds on immature reproductives and vegetative foliage. A sap sucking Psyllid Prosopidopsylla flava) which causes die-back, a leaf tying gelechid moth (Evippe sp.) which is a defoliator. Only the latter two species were specific to mesquite and permission was obtained to release them in Australia. Both are from Argentina where the Australian mesquite taxa do not occur, but perform equally well on these, at least in the laboratory. An Australian wide sites ٢٤ release programme is now under way with multiple releases made at and field ١٩٩٨ in four states. The leaf tier has been released since March populations have already being recorded at some sites. The psyllid has been Both new agents attack vegetative foliage .١٩٩٨ released since November and have the potential to make a significant impact on mesquite populations. They have the potential to retard the expansion and thickening of the mesquite populations by increasing the mortality rate of seedlings and juveniles, slowing development from germination to maturity and decrease pod production of mature plants. Where eradication is the goals, it is hoped that these new agents will complement existing control options such as chemical and mechanical treatments. reported that specificity tests for Prosopidopsylla flava (٢٠٠٠) Klinken showed that five Prosopis taxa (leguminosae) tested appeared to be indistinguishable as hosts. Adult feeding required for survival and for the initiation and continuation of egg production was specific to Prosopis of the non- Prosopis plant species tested ٥٧ species. Oviposition occurred on within the leguminosae and Rosaceae, and was highest on plant species that belong to the same sub –family. Eggs were inserted into plant tissue but hatched independently of host species. Complete development was restricted to Prosopis, although some early nymhpal development was observed on species within the same sub-family as Prosopis (Mimosoideae). -also stated that host specificity of a leaf (٢٠٠٠) Klinken et al tying moth (Gelechiidae: Evippe sp.), had been assessed for the biological control of mesquite in Australia. Females oviposit on plants mostly into cracks and fissures. First instar larvae are leaf miners and subsequent instars are leaf tiers. Oviposition was not host specific in cage trials, although ten times more eggs were laid on Prosopis than on non- target plants. The fundamental host range for initiation of larval feeding was restricted to Prosopis and leuceana leucocephala, which both belong to the same tribe and fundamental host range for complete larval development was restricted to Prosopis. It is predicted that if released in Australia, Evippe sp. will only attack Prosopis spp. Although low levels of indiscriminative oviposition might occur on other taxa and might result in initiation of feeding on L. leucocephala. Forno et al (undated) reported that in a multi-divisional project involving CSIRO Entomology, and CSIRO tropical agriculture, in collaboration with Queens land department of natural resources (QDNR), is developing long term management strategies for woody weeds such as prickly acacia and mesquite by integrating control strategies that include biological control. They add that the division is studying five insect species from USA and Argentina that are potential biological control agents for mesquite. These are the bug Mozena obtusa, the cerambicid Onciders rhodosticta in addition to already mentioned leaf tying moth (Evippe sp.) and the psyllid Prosopidopsylla flava. stated that application for ,٢٠٠١ ,Graham, and Rieks importation are prepared, based on information gathered by staff at field stations and provided by over sea biocontrol organizations. Approval for field release of agents is sought for insects that proved to be host specific. Mass rearing is followed by field release at selected sites. Released insects are monitored for their effects on mesquite. From pod samples collected in from Comongin Quilpie, Algarobius prosopis emergence holes were ٢٠٠١ of the seeds. This was consistent with results of the previous ٪١٣٫٧ found in With the levels of attack recorded at Quipie and previously at .(٢٠٠٠) year sites at Huphenden and Kynuna, it appeared that A. prosopis would not reduce seed production sufficiently to affect future mesquite seedling recruitment. Evippe sp. dispersed well through out the main infestation in Comongin, although it was less evident in Wanko. Leaf- tying damage was of foliage damage. Many ٪٥٠ variable but the overall effect was about individual plants were more heavily damaged than this. This level of attack would probably not significantly affect the growth and development of mesquite. At two Prosopidopsylla flava release sites in Comongin, leaf and meters from the ٥٠ tip curl damage was found sparsely distributed for up to release site although no P. flava individuals were found among the distorted tips and leaves. The damage was typical of that caused by P. flava. P. flava is tenuously established at Comongin and continuous monitoring of Evippe sp. and P. flava at selected sites in northern Australia is going on. studied the biology of Mozena obtusa (١٩٩٧) Cuda & Deloach (Hemiptera: Coreidae), a candidate for the biological control of mesquite. He also reported that the native leaf footed bug Mozena obtusa damage the flower and leaf buds of honey mesquite, a native tree that is a serious weed in southwestern range lands. The insect life cycle, reproduction and rate of parasitism were measured in the field. It's feeding partially suppresses the reproductive potential of mesquite in the U.S. even though the eggs and nymphs are heavily parasitized .In other countries where honey mesquite had been introduced and became a serious weed such as in Australia and South Africa, the native parasites are not present. In these countries, the insect could attain higher populations and may be useful as a biological control agent. studied a three trophic interaction between Mozena (١٩٩٦) Cuda et al mesquite and a microbe. When they attempted to rear these insects (Mozena obtusa) on young mesquite plants, they observed that none of the young insects survived to become adults. When they tried to rear them on older mesquite plant, many normal adults developed. Except for age the only difference between the young and old plants was that the older mesquite plants have nitrogen- fixing nodules on their roots. These nodules take nitrogen from the air and convert it into one or more compounds, which move up into the leaves. In the case of young mesquite seedlings, the roots take up nitrate, which is transported to the leaves in that form. Apparently young Mozena individuals can not develop normally unless their diet includes one or more of the compounds which occur only in mesquite plants which are nodulated. This finding may also apply to relationships between other insects and their host plants. They add that this is the first report indicating that source of nitrogen utilized by a plant can influence the survival of insects which eat the plant. These results are important because honey mesquite is an invasive woody plant, which infests many millions of acres in the southwestern United State, and Mozena obtusa is one of several insects which may be useful in defoliating mesquite and thus decreasing its vigour and help to control it. -١٩٨٧ reported that within the period (٢٠٠٤) Gandolfo, D. et al .three species of bruchid beetles Algarobius prosopis (Le conte) A ,١٩٩٣ bottimeri (Kingsolver) and Neltumius arizonensis (Schaeffer) were introduced from USA to South Africa. Although two of these beetles established, they have not provided satisfactory level of control. When pods fall, they can be attacked and consequently seeds destroyed by the bruchids, but in South Africa pods do not last much on the soil as they are eaten by cattle and wild herbivores. The passage through the digestive tract does not harm seeds, but when dropped with the feaces they are no longer available for the bruchids. In order to over come this problem, the PPRI (plant protection research institute), has focused the attention on insects attacking green pods. researchers from PPRI visited the USDA – ARS ,(٢٠٠٢) In August SABCL, to draw up an agreement for cooperation on mesquite research. The main objective of the project is to search for insects attacking reproductive organs (flower buds, flowers and fruits) of Prosopis spp. with special attention paid to immature pods. At the moment, three extensive exploratory trips have been made by SABCL researchers along central and northwestern Argentina. Several insects have been found feeding on flowers and green pods of mesquite. A tiny weevil of the genus Apion (Coleoptera, Apionidae), was collected at several locations in central and northern Argentina on five Prosopis spp. Adults feed and oviposit on green pods; eggs are laid in the mesocarp near the seeds. The first instar penetrates the seed where development takes place. Pupation takes place inside the emptied seed and adults emerge from the ripening pods. Adult emergence can occur when pods are still on the tree or have fallen. It is interesting to point out that, although seeds are destroyed by the larvae, pods can still develop apparently without loosing much of their value as fodder. Therefore if specific enough, this Apoin sp could be a good candidate to reduce the invasiveness and spread of mesquite in South Africa while preserving all its beneficial attributes. Two different moths were also found damaging immature pods. Both species have a similar life cycle. The adults lay eggs on the surface of the green pods, the larvae enter the pod to feed on the mesocarp, and finally they leave the pod to pupate. At least two different gall midges and one microlepidoptera were found on flowers. One of the gall midges forms ovary galls and it was common to find it affecting all the flowers in the inflorescence. The other develops inside flower buds. At several locations the combined action of these three insects caused an impressive amount of damage, severely restricting pod development. Apion collecting and rearing methods are being developed and host specificity tests started. Results are encouraging. Good sites for collecting Apion were found and so far, the host specificity tests have shown total rejection for feeding and oviposition in all tested species outside the genus Prosopis (mostly Acacia spp.).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

-:Field survey-١ a field survey was carried ,٢٠٠٤ During August, September and October out to a number of different locations where mesquite created problems so as to detect the occurrence of Algarobius prosopis and its relative impact on Prosopis pods. These areas include Kassala, Khartoum state, New halfa, Northern state and Toker delta In Sudan mesquite starts flowering from October to April and produces during (٢٠٠١ mature pods for the period from December to June (Eltayeb et al the survey period (August), it was expected to fine pods exposed to bruchids for enough time but unfortunately the herbivore animals do not leave pods to last long on soil. Thus there was no mature pods at some places (New halfa), but at the other locations the pods were found hanging on trees or at the ground under trees. Samples collected from these areas were kept separately in laboratory for about three weeks to allow the newly pored larvae to reach an adult stage. The emerged adults were examined and compared with the species under study. Other pods from each ٢٠ .bruchids found infesting mesquite pods were also assessed sample were picked randomly to measure the combined effects of these bruchids as a number of adult exit holes. -:Identification of the species-٢ Samples of this species was send to head storage pests unit at Agricultural research corporation (Shambat) and also to insect section, ARC, at Wamedeni for identification but there was no information available there about this species. The specimen was send to Natural History Museum- Insect identification service in England. The sample have been prepared by dipping a filter paper in a killing material (ethyl acetate) and placed at the bottom of glass jar and covered by a dry piece of filter paper, the adult insects were captured in a transparent plastic bag secured at the neck of rearing jar and transferred to the ٣٠ killing jar, this jar was immediately covered by a tied cover and left for about minutes by which time all insects were killed by vapors rising from the killing material. The dead insects were converted to empty Petri dish underlined by filter dead adult insects, finally it was ٢٥ paper in two layers, every layer with about fixed in position by cotton, labeled, covered and secured with adhering tape. -:Stock culture-٣ Mesquite pods infested with seed feeding bruchid (Algarobius prosopis) were collected from mesquite trees growing south of Port Sudan town (Red Sea State). There are many good collection sites at these areas. Infestation starts after the green pods turns yellow and fall to the ground. Occasionally the adult bruchids were found alighting on yellow pods still hanging on trees. Eggs and very small larval entry holes are hard to detect in the field but it can be seen in laboratory under binocular microscope. The collected samples were kept in rectangular plastic rearing jars ١٥ ,cm long ٢٥ covered with a cloth fixed with a rubber band, with dimension .cm deep cm wide and٣٠ The adults are strong fliers and run quickly, thus rarely detected in the field, and therefore the collected samples contain pods likely to be infested with immature stages. Population starts to build up by emerging of adults through neat round holes on the pods as a sign of its departure that is clearly visible to the naked eye. The cages were continuously replenished with fresh, clean and mature pods. These cages maintain a continuous supply for specimens required for execution of various tests.

-:Host specificity tests-٤ This species already existed in this country. It may be introduced with seeds of mesquite when these seeds were imported from abroad or it may spread into Sudan from neighboring countries. Host specificity tests were carried out after preparing a set of potential leguminous plants that are grown near or within the mesquite invasion areas. In addition they are, more or less, the most valuable ones and considered likely to be possible hosts. The experiments were designed to include group tests (choice tests) pair tests (preference tests) and starvation tests (no-choice tests). The selected set of plant species includes four woody leguminous trees, Acacia nilotica (sunt), Acacia senegalensis (Hashab), Acacia nubica (laut). The seeds of these plants brought from Elgedarif area in addition to Prosopis chilensis (target weed) collected from mesquite trees growing south of Portsudan town. Also the list included four potential leguminous crops, Vicia faba, Phaseoulus vulgaris, Vigna unguiculata and Arachis hypogaea.The seeds of these were purchased from Portsudan local market. Before commencing any test the seeds of these plants were thoroughly examined to reveal any previous field infestation. Any infested seeds or pods were discarded and only the clean, healthy seeds were kept in tightly closed plastic bags to be used when required. -:Group tests -١-٤ seeds from each potential leguminous plant that ٢٠ ,In group tests include Acacia nilotica, A. nubica, A. senegalensis, Prosopis chilensis, Arachis hypogaea, Vicia faba, Phaseoulus vulgaris, & Vigna unguiculata, seeds were carefully selected and placed in a glass jar (diameter ١٦٠ totaling ١٨cm height). Five pairs of adult bruchids were picked randomly from ,٨cm mass rearing culture and introduced in the glass jars and covered with a piece of cloth fixed with rubber band. The test was replicated three times for a days. After this period, each plant seeds were separated and ١٢ period of sorted out. The seeds of each plant were kept in a separate glass jar. Observations continued for more than ten weeks so as to count and record any emerging adults. Hence the number of emerged adults will represent the number of damaged seeds. Later during the study period another group test was conducted including a sub list of Prosopis, Arachis hypogaea and Cassia senna pods only. Senna pods was added to the tests because it grows wildly adjacent to mesquite trees at many parts of Red Sea State, in addition that this species was found infested with a seed bruchid that belongs to the genus Caryedon. Senna and Prosopis seeds were in pods while the groundnuts seeds were unshelled. The number of seeds/ plant, the number of adult insects, incubation period and the test duration was the same as with the previous group test. -:Pair tests -٢-٤ In pair tests, plant seeds were tested in a manner of pairs. The test plants include Prosopis chilensis, Arachis hypogaea and Cassia senna (Senna pods) the rest of the list had been excluded because at the previous test (group test) they were not affected and all their seeds remain intact as will be illustrated later. Tests were conducted in three combinations the first include Prosopis versus groundnut the second include Prosopis versus Senna pods and the third ٣٠) seeds ٦٠ one include Senna pods versus groundnut. In each of these tests seeds for each plant species) were examined and carefully selected and placed pairs of adult bruchids picked randomly from mass ٥ in glass jars along with rearing jars and replicated thrice. The test period lasted until the death of all insects. The dead adults were removed and seeds sorted and incubated in a weeks. The daily emerged adults were picked and ١١ separate glass jars for recorded and this usually coincides with the number of damaged seeds. -:Starvation tests-٣-٤ Starvation tests or no-choice tests, in which the insects were confined with a single plant seeds so as to reach a state of deprivation and it estimates the maximum or innate capability of an insect to utilize a given host. In these tests all the plant species in the test list were examined and these include Prosopis chilensis, Acacia nilotica, Acacia senegalensis, Acacia nubica, Arachis hypogea, Vicia faba, Phaseoulus vulgaris, Vigna unguiculata and Cassia senna. Sixty clean seeds of each plant species were selected and kept in a glass pairs of adult insects were picked randomly and introduced in each ٥ jar and days the dead bruchids were ١٢ jar. This was done in three replicates. After days. During these ٨٠ removed and the seeds were kept in position for about tests egg laying, larval entry was observed and the emerged adults were picked, counted and recorded. In these tests, the seeds of Prosopis, A.senegalensis, A. nilotca and Cassia senna seeds were tested in pods while the rest of plant seeds were naked. -:Life cycle-٥ In the life cycle tests, the developmental periods of different stages (egg, larval instars, pupa, preoviposition and longevity of both sexes) were observed. . The test for the first generation was carried out at Port Sudan under laboratory conditions at the Plant Quarantine laboratory, during July- August RH ). The tests for the second ٪٤٥ ٣٥٫٥C and.mean ambient temp ) ٢٠٠٤ generation were carried out at crop protection lab. Faculty of Agric. U of K mean ambient) ٢٠٠٤.Shambat and PPD lab. Khartoum North during Aug./Sep .(RH ٪٤٥ ٣٢C and.temp A large number of adult bruchids from the mass rearing culture was liberated on a number of mature, clean, freshly collected Prosopis pods in a glass .hours ٢٤ jar and covered with piece of cloth tied with rubber rings and left for The bruchids were then removed and the pods were kept in their glass jars. Later series of such jars each with culture of known age were kept to provide necessary stages of the bruchid needed for the various investigations. The duration of the different developmental stages was examined under laboratory conditions to record the laid eggs and time of hatching. Daily dissection of a number of seeds taken from the culture exposed to the adults was performed. The larval instars were determined by counting the number of head capsules and also the number of mandibles and the intervals between successive molts was recorded. When the insect reached the late instar larvae, it opened an operculum at the seed coat and pupates. At this stage a number of Prosopis seeds were dissected and kept in an empty Petri-dish and the development of the pupa was daily observed until the adult stage. The newly emerged adults were collected in a separate Petri-dish supplied with broken Prosopis pods to examine the preoviposion period and longevity of both sexes.

RESULTS

-:Field survey-١ Field survey revealed that Algarobius prosopis was found in most visited mesquite invasion parts. At Kassala area, the samples were collected from pods still hanging on trees also some of these pods have shortly fallen to the ground. The previous season crop was not found, and the numbers of trees bearing off-season pods were rare. The degree of attacked seeds was only .and the actual age of pods was unknown ,٪٤٫٧٩ Samples taken from Albutana Bridge South west to Kassala town were weeks of ٣ collected from pods still hanging on trees. They showed after incubation of the samples, that there was no infestation of seeds of Prosopis Two samples were collected from Khartoum state one from Khartoum north The other .٪٩٫٦٦ Kafouri area) where the percentage of damage was only) The species identified seem to be.٪٢٤٫٠٣ sample from Soba, the damage was Algarobius prosopis, but the colour of the abdomen and margins of elytra was a bit darker. In addition to this species, the samples were also infested by the well known bruchid Caryedon serratus. The species have been also found in samples collected from the Northern State (Kelanarti village) south east to El golid town and the degree of again the age of the pods was unknown, but they seems ,٪٧٫٣١ infestation was to be fallen to ground recently. In Toker Delta, the area which is facing serious mesquite problems, some trees were just flowering and there were no pods hanging on trees. The samples were collected from open store owned by Oxfam and also from old sacks ٣٠٠٠ pods collected from under trees. The Oxfam store contains about tons, the degree of damage on the sample ٣٠ of mesquite pods weighing months. Table ٧ for a storage period extended ٪٩٠ examined was more than .(١)

The areas visited and degrees of infestation by the mesquite feeding .١ Table bruchid Algarobius prosopis on mesquite pods Area No of Total No Damaged % damage Age of pods of seeds seeds pods tested *Recent ٤٫٧٩ ٢١ ٤٣٨ ٢٠ Kassala crop Hanging ٠٠ ٠٠ ٤١٩ ٢٠ Elbutana Kassala on trees Recent ** ٩٫٦٦ ٢٩ ٣٠٠ ٢٠ Kafouri Khartoum crop Unknown ** ٢٤٫٠٣ ٧٥ ٣١٢ ٢٠ Soba Khartoum Recent ٧٫٣١ ٣١ ٤٢٤ ٢٠ Kelenarti Northern crop ٨-٧ ** ٩٠٫١٩ ٣٧٧ ٤١٨ ٢٠ Toker Red Sea months

*Recent crop means some pods were still hanging on trees while others just fallen to ground. ** Infested also with Caryedon serratus

-:Natural enemies detected on mesquite during the study-٢ During this study two well known store pests were found associated with this bruchid. One was the ground nut borer Caryedon serratus, and the other, the cigarette beetle Lasioderma sericorne. These insects were found infesting mature mesquite pods, also they were found among the pods collected as stock for this study. Caryedon serratus glue eggs to the pods of mesquite and after hatching the larva bore directly into the seed to which the egg was glued and feed inside. When the species was about to pupate, the late instar larva leave the seed and pupate in a silky cocoon often attached to the pod surface or fall to the ground. Only the adult cigarette beetle was observed in rearing cages at early stages of this study. One Homopterous insect belong to the Family Cicadidae (Cicadas), had been observed on mesquite trees at the Red Sea State. One of the most conspicuous characteristic of Cicadas is the song produced by the males. reported that each species of Cicadas has characteristic song (١٩٦٣) Donald and one familiar with these songs can identify the species from the song alone. The song is produced by a pair of organs located on the ventral side of the basal abdominal segment. He added that there is two common types in this years and the ٥ to ٢ family the dog day cicadas with life cycle extending from years. Cicadas deposit ١٧-١٣ periodical cicadas with life cycle extending for their eggs in twigs of various trees and shrubs. The twigs are usually so severely injured by this egg laying that the terminal part of the twig dies. The principal damage done by Cicadas is caused by the egg laying of the adults. When the adults are numerous they do considerable damage to young trees and nursery stock.

-:Identification of the species-٣ The species investigated in this study was identified by the natural history museum, insect information centre (UK), as Algarobius prosopis (LeConte) (Coleoptera: Family Bruchidae.). The origin of this species is Arizona and Mexico. It has been introduced into Oman and South Africa as a s and,١٩٨٠ biological control agent for Prosopis. Since the introduction in the s this species appear to be spreading and now recorded from Kuwait and,١٩٩٠ (١ Israel. (Appendix -:host specificity tests-٤ -:Group test -١-٤ In group test, no adult bruchids emerged from the seeds of Acacia nilotica, Acacia senegalensis, A. nubica, Phaseoulus vulgaris, Vicia faba, damage, with a ٪٣٫٣٣ Vigna unguiculata. In Arachis hypogaea there was only days. For ٥٧ The first adult appears after .٠٫٣٣٣٤ SE-/+٠٫٦٦ mean of seeds were found completely ٢٫٠٢٧٦٤ SE -/+ ١٤٫٦٦ Prosopis pods a mean of hallowed and this coincide with number of adults emerged. This figure of the seeds under test. The adults started to emerge from ٪٧٥ represents .(٢) days Table ٣٣ mesquite pods after The eggs were laid among seeds preferring cracks and crevices to smooth surfaces but the hatched larvae which are motile moved among the seeds and select a site for penetration.

Number of sound seeds (SS) and damaged seeds (DS) of different .Table٢ plant species exposed to adults Algarobius prosopis in group test

Mean SE R٣ R٢ Replicates R١ plant spp. SS DS SS DS SS DS ٢٫٠٢٨ ١٤٫٦٦ ١٨ ٢ ١١ ٩ ١٥ ٥ Prosopis ٠٠ ٠٠ ٠ ٢٠ ٠ ٢٠ ٠ ٢٠ Acacia nubica ٠٠ ٠٠ ٠ ٢٠ ٠ ٢٠ ٠ ٢٠ A. nilotica ٠٠ ٠٠ ٠ ٢٠ ٠ ٢٠ ٠ ٢٠ A. senegalensis ٠٫٣٣٣٤ ٠٫٦٦ ٠ ٢٠ ١ ١٩ ١ ١٩ Arachis hypogaea ٠٠ ٠٠ ٠ ٢٠ ٠ ٢٠ ٠ ٢٠ Vicia faba ٠٠ ٠٠ ٠ ٢٠ ٠ ٢٠ ٠ ٢٠ P. vulgaris ٠٠ ٠٠ ٠ ٢٠ ٠ ٢٠ ٠ ٢٠ V. unguiculata

SS- sound seeds DS- damaged seeds SE – Standard error

.Percentage damage on seeds of different plant species exposed to A :١ Figure prosopis in group tests. 90

80

70

60

50

40 Damage%

30

20

10

0

a is a pis e b o a lata s g .fa u lgaris o lens V ic u a u Pr A.nubica eg A.nilotica n ng P.v A.hypo e .u s V A. . -:Sub-list group test -٢-٤ seeds of each plant ٢٠) seeds ٦٠ The sub-list group test includes species), these plants were Prosopis chilensis, Arachis hypogaea and Cassia senna. All plant species were affected by the bruchids.Damage exerted to i.e ٠٫٣٣٣ SE -/+ ٠٣٣ groundnut and senna pods was identical, a mean of SE -/+ ١٠٫٦٦ of the total number of exposed seeds. While the mean of %١٫٦٥ have been damaged table ,(٪٥٣٫٣٣) of the exposed seeds of mesquite ٠٫٨٨١٩٦ .(٣)

Number of sound (SS) and damaged seeds (DS) of different plant .(٣) Table ٢٠ species exposed to adult bruchids in a sub-list group tests out of a total of seeds per plant. Mean SE R٣ R٢ Replicates R١ Plant spp. SS DS SS DS SS DS ٠٫٨٨١٩٦ ١٠٫٦٦ ٩ ١١ ١١ ٩ ١٢ ٨ Prosopis ٠٫٣٣٣٣ ٣٣.O ٠ ٢٠ ٠ ٢٠ ١ ١٩ A.hypogaea ٠٫٣٣٣٣ ٠٫٣٣ ٠ ٢٠ ٠ ٢٠ ١ ١٩ C.senna SS-Sound DS- Damaged seeds SE- Standard error

Percentage damage expressed as number of emerging adults from .٢ Figure exposed seeds of different test plant species in sub-group tests.

٧٠

٦٠

٥٠

Damage % ٤٠

٣٠

٢٠

١٠

٠ Prosopis A.hypogaea C.senna

-:Pair tests -٣-٤ In pair tests, the three plant species, the target weed (Prosopis chilensis), and the two non-target species Arachis hypogaea and Cassia senna expected to be possible hosts were tested in different combinations in pairs. -:Prosopis versus Arachis hypogaea -١-٣-٤ seeds of each plant have been tested and it was found that a mean of ٣٠ while groundnut %٨٦٫٦ .of mesquite have been damaged i.e ١٫٧٣٢ SE -/+ ٢٦ .(٠٫٠٠٤٤ > p ١٥٫٠١١١١ =seeds remained intact (t -:Prosopis versus Cassia senna -٢-٣-٤ (٪٨٢٫٢٢) ١٫٤٥٣ SE -/+ ٢٤٫٦٦ For Prosopis it was found that a mean of ٪١٫١١ senna seeds that is ٠٫٣٣٣ SE -/+٠٫٣٣ were damaged. only a mean of .(٠٫٠٠٣٥ >p ١٦٫٧٤٧٣ =were damaged (t -:A. hypogaea versus Cassia senna -٣-٣-٤ The mean number of groundnut kernels damaged was found to For Senna seeds the mean number .(٪٦٫٦٦ mounting) ٠٫٥٧٧٣ SE -/+ ٢ be the (٠٫١٨٣٥=p ٢=t) ٪٢٫٢٢ with percentage of ٠٫٣٣٣ SE -/+ ٠٫٦٦ was .(٤) difference is not significant. Table

The number of damaged (DS) and sound seeds (SS) of plant species.(٤) Table exposed to A.prosopis in pair tests

Mean SE R٢ R٢ Replicates R١ Plant spp. SS DS SS DS SS DS Prosopis+ A.hypogaea ١٫٧٣٢ ٢٦ ٢٣ ٧ ٢٩ ١ ٢٦ ٤ Prosopis ٠٠ ٠٠ ٠ ٣٠ ٠ ٣٠ ٠ ٣٠ A.hypogaea Prosopis +C.senna ١٫٤٥٣ ٢٤٫٦٦ ٢٥ ٥ ٢٢ ٨ ٢٧ ٣ Prosopis ٠٫٣٣٣٣ ٣٣.o ١ ٢٩ ٠ ٣٠ ٠ ٣٠ C.senna C.senna + A hypogaea ٠٫٣٣٣٣ ٠٫٦٦ ١ ٢٩ ٠ ٣٠ ١ ٢٩ C.senna ٠٫٥٧٧٣ ٢ ١ ٢٩ ٢ ٢٨ ٣ ٢٧ A.hypogaea

SS- Sound seeds DS- Damaged seeds SE-Standard error

Percent damage on seeds of plants in pair plant tests (A- Prosopis .٣ Figure V A.hypogaea B- Prosopis V C. senna and C- A.hypogaea V C.senna).

١٠٠

٩٠

٨٠

٧٠ Damage% ٦٠

٥٠

٤٠

٣٠

٢٠

١٠

٠ Prosopis A.hypogaea Prosopis C.senna C.senna A.hypogaea

A B C

-:Starvation tests -٣-٤ All the plant species included in group tests had been tested for a no- choice starvation tests. These were Prosopis chilensis, Acacia nilotica A. senegalensis A. nubica, Prosopis chilensis Arachis hypogaea, Vicia faba, Phaseoulus vulgaris, Vigna unguiculata, and Cassia senna. Results showed that Prosopis seeds were highly damaged with a mean of of the total number of exposed seeds, senna ٪٦٦٫٦٦ reaching ١ SE -/+ ٤٠ .damage (%٧٫٢٢) ٠٫٨٨١٩ SE -/+ ٤٫٣٣ seeds stands second with a mean of No adult .(%٢٫٧٦) ٠٫٣٣٣٤ SE -/+ ١٫٦٦ For groundnut kernels, the mean was bruchids emerged from jars containing the other six plant species. It was observed during these trials that there was heavy egg laying among all tested plant species. Fourteen eggs were recorded on a single kidney bean and eleven eggs on a seed of faba bean. The motile neonate larvae tried to penetrate most seeds. In some cases it failed to do so, and this may be due to the hard seed coat acts as a physical barrier. In other occasions, it penetrated the seeds for a short distance and failed to go further, as in the case of A. senegalensis seeds where about three first instar larva were found dead just after penetration. It note worth that adults emerged from Prosopis pods after five weeks, but in the case of groundnuts the adults emergence took eight weeks, while the (٥) weeks. Table ١٠ developmental period on Senna pods was

Number of damaged (DS) and sound seeds (SS) of different plant .٥ Table species exposed to A.prosopis in starvation tests. Mean SE R٣ R٢ Replicates R١ Plant spp. SS DS SS DS SS DS ١ ٤٠ ٣٩ ٢١ ٣٩ ٢١ ٤٢ ١٨ Prosopis ٠٫٨٨١٩ ٤٫٣٣ ٤ ٥٦ ٦ ٥٤ ٣ ٥٧ Cassia senna ٠٫٣٣٣٤ ١٫٦٦ ٢ ٥٨ ١ ٥٩ ٢ ٥٨ Arachis hypogaea ٠٠ ٠٠ ٠ ٦٠ ٠ ٦٠ ٠ ٦٠ A.nilotica ٠٠ ٠٠ ٠ ٦٠ ٠ ٦٠ ٠ ٦٠ A. nubica ٠٠ ٠٠ ٠ ٦٠ ٠ ٦٠ ٠ ٦٠ A.senegalensis ٠٠ ٠٠ ٠ ٦٠ ٠ ٦٠ ٠ ٦٠ Vicia faba ٠٠ ٠٠ ٠ ٦٠ ٠ ٦٠ ٠ ٦٠ P. vulgaris ٠٠ ٠٠ ٠ ٦٠ ٠ ٦٠ ٠ ٦٠ V. unguiculata SS – Sound seeds DS – Damaged seeds SE – Standard error .Percentage damage of seeds of different plant species exposed to A .٤ Figure prosopis in starvation tests.

80

70

60

50

40 damage% 30

20

10

0

a s a b aea ic g ub n nilotica V.fa C.senna . Prosopis A. A P.vulgaris A.hypo .unguiculata V A.senegalensi

-:Life cycle-٥ -:Egg -١-٥ Females do not glue eggs individually to Prosopis seeds, but scatter them on pods preferring cracks and crevices on the pods. It was observed several times that the female extends its ovipositor searching for cracks and inserting it deeply into pods tissues to deposit the eggs. The female deposit eggs on other objects when suitable sites are lacking. With the presence of broken pods, eggs are then rarely laid in an exposed position but wholly in the broken portion of the pod .The laid eggs may be found in clusters or may be singly laid and may be often found in the broken part of the pod or in any vantage point affording shelter. The eggs are elliptical white yellowish in days during ٥ mm. Incubation lasted about ٠٫٧ colour and measures about which the larva is visible by its prominent brown head capsule through the egg chorion. The colour of the egg resembles that of gummy mesocarp tissue of Prosopis pods. -:Larva -٢-٥ The first instar larvae are creamy in colour and motile with well developed thoracic legs. They bear long thin hairs covering most of the body. Larvae are extremely active and regularly make a peregrination over and among pods before settling down to bore. This minute larvae may often be seen standing vertically on end, swaying in the manner of a caterpillar. Its ٠٫٧mm, equals that of the egg from which it has escaped by a length is about circular opening in the end. From the moment the young larva enter the seed, it is not easy to follow its development. The infested seed may first be recognized by the original entry hole of the newly hatched larva, which is extremely small but may always be detected somewhere on the seed coat. The following instars tunnel horizontally filling the tunnel behind them with granular yellowish frass. The larva feeds and develops within the selected seed until it reaches the adult stage consuming the entire content of the seed. larval instars detected by the cast skins (brown head capsules or ٤ There are dark brown mandibles), left behind while boring. The later instars are distinctly grub shaped. The stadia (the interval of time between successive days ٣٫٤ and ,٣ ,٣٫٥ ,٣٫٤ molts) for different larval instars were found to be for the first, second, third & forth instars respectively. By the end of its weeks the larva cuts an exit operculum in the side ٢ growth which lasts about of the seed and then pupates.

Full grown larva of Algarobius prosopis inside mesquite .١ Plate seed.

Brown head capsule of Algarobius prosopis larva visible .٢ Plate through an egg chorion.

Neonate larva of Algarobius prosopis bearing long thin .٣ Plate hairs.

Second, third and fourth larval instars of the seed feeding .٤ Plate bruchid Algarobius prosopis.

-:Pupa -٣-٥ The insect after the last larval molt goes into pupation. This lasts for days. During this period the head and thoracic part were quite visible ٤ about through an operculum previously opened by late larvae. - :Adult-٤-٥ There is a variation in the size of adult Algarobius. The male ranges between ٤mm mm. For the female, ranges from ٣٫٩ ٤٫٤mm with average mm to ٣٫٤ mm. The ٤٫٤ for large ones with an average of ٥٫١ for small individuals to adult bruchids color range from yellow to red and orange. The elytra of the females are brown, but those of the males are light brown. The whole body is covered with yellow grey setae. The antennae are serrated. The hind femur bears one large tooth and two smaller teeth. The pygdium was extended behind the elytra, in the female it is oblique and fully visible from above and it ended with two small longitudinal grooves colored brown or dark brown. In the males the pygdium is vertical and partially visible from above and it was ١٠-٦ notched at its ventral side. The longevity of the male ranges between days. The shortest longevity of females was found ٧٫٤ days with an average of .days ٩٫٦ days with an average of ١١ days and the longer was ٧ to be hours after adult ٣٦ The preoviposition period was found to be less than emergence.

Pupa (left), adult (right) of Algarobius prosopis inside .٥ Plate mesqiute seed. Adult emerging through an exit operculum.

Adult Algarobius prosopis male right, female left .٦ Plate

Duration of the different developmental stages of mesquite seed .٦ Table feeding bruchid Algarobius prosopis under laboratory conditions (days). Duration in days

٤th larva Pupa Egg to first ٣rd ٢nd ١st larva Generation Egg larva larva Adult emergence ٢٢٫٨ ٤٫٢ ٣٫٤ ٣٫٦ ٣٫٦ ٣٫٢ ٤٫٨ ١st ٢١٫٢ ٣٫٤ ٣٫٤ ٢٫٤ ٣٫٤ ٣٫٦ ٥ ٢nd

Neat round holes on mesquite pods as a sign of .٧ Plate adult Algarobius prosopis departure.

Proportion of various developmental stages in two .٥ Figure generations of Algarobius prosopis reared on mesquite pods under laboratory conditions.

First generation

120

100 Egg 1st instar 80 2nd instar

3rd instar 60 4th instar Stage% 40 Pupa Adult 20 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Days

Second generation

120

100 Egg 1st instar 80 2nd instar 3rd instar 60 4th instar Stage % Stage 40 Pupa Adult 20

0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Days DISCUSSION -:Field survey-١ The result of field survey revealed the spread of Algarobius prosopis in most parts of the country. The pathway or means of introduction was unknown, it may be introduced inside the seeds of mesquite when it was imported from abroad or may have reached the Sudan from neighboring countries. The degree of damage exerted by the bruchid on mesquite pods was ,in Kassala, Northern ٪٩٠٫١٩ and ,٢٤٫٠٣ ,٩٫٦٦ ,٧٫٣١ ,٤٫٧٩ found to be Khartoum (Kafouri), (Soba), and Toker respectively. This damage seems to be low except for Toker because the samples were collected from pods hanging on trees and small proportion from these falling on the ground under trees. No old pods were found because herbivores do not leave them to last long on the ground. At Toker, the pods were collected from an open store owned by Oxfam, the age of the pods was said to be seven months, and the degree of plastic bags ٣٠٠٠ The quantity of stored produce was .٪٩٠ damage reached tons. It was found that one kilogram of pods contain about ٣٠ weighing about seeds. If all other factors governing germination and growth of the tree ٧٨٠٠ ,seeds ٢١٠٦٠٠٠٠٠ were maintained, then the bruchids contribute in damaging .million trees from invading new areas ٢١٠ i.e., they prevented At New Halfa there were no mature pods found due to utilization of the pods by foraging animals. However a visit to a vegetable farm revealed that, the numbers of mesquite seedlings far out weigh the number of seedlings of the sown vegetable. This revealed that there is a huge under ground seed bank that creates continuous problems to farm owners. report that Algarobius prosopis, A.bottimeri and ١٩٩٠ Impson et al Neltumius arizonensis have been imported to South Africa from USA to be utilized as biocontrol agent against mesquite. A, prosopis and N.arizonensis have established and are wide spread, whereas A. bottimeri has apparently failed to establish. A. prosopis and N. arizonensis have the potential to destroy large numbers of Prosopis seeds but the progress of these bruchids have been hampered by herbivore animals which devour pods before they are utilized by the beetles. -:Host specificity-٢ Host specificity tests are universally used in weed biological control to predict non-target effects of potential agents. These tests provide the primary information for making decisions on whether to release an agent or not. The tests should be sufficiently rigorous to avoid mistakes leading to serious consequences. Host specificity tests carried out under this work were designed and arranged in a descending manner starting with group tests, pair tests and starvation tests. -:Group tests ١-٢ Five pairs of adult insects were picked randomly and liberated on seeds of eight potential leguminous plant species. This test is designed to provide information as to how an insect may select hosts in a situation where the target weed is present or abundant or also if an agent is released in a heterogeneous environment under field conditions containing both target and non- target plant species and what will be the consequence of this release? stated that our preliminary Null hypothesis in host (٢٠٠٠) Heard specificity testing must be that all plant species are equally good hosts for each agent. Statistical analysis revealed significant difference between Prosopis pods and other tested seeds The groundnut kernels have been affected but in a very low number and considerably longer developmental period of the bruchid was reported. This comes in consistent with Grham, (undated) findings who reported that in multiple choice tests in which test plant pods and mesquite pods were placed close together, both A. bottimeri and A. prosopis, oviposited heavily on pods of most non-mesquite test plants as well as on mesquite pods. Both bruchids develop through to adults in low numbers in seeds of Acacia aneura, Petalostylis labicheoides, Neptunia gracilis and Arachis hypogaea with much longer development time. From these affected plant species only groundnut was included in our tests and both results seems to be identical. Again at the sub-set group tests which include Prosopis, groundnut and Senna pods, there is significant difference between Prosopis and the other two species. Within the list of tested plant species which include seeds of Prosopis chilensis, Acacia nilotica, A. nubica, A. senegalensis, Arachis hypogaea, Vicia faba, Phaseoulus vulgaris, Vigna unguiculata and Cassia senna.The host range of this Bruchid included mesquite, ground nut and seeds of Senna plant. Eggs were laid freely among the seeds but the motile first instar larva was an aspect of insect's life history that determined specificity. Most pest bruchids, including Callosobruchus species are characterized by the females and the (١٩٩٢ ,sticking eggs individually onto dried legume seeds (Credland hatching larvae are constrained to complete their development in the seed to which the egg was attached. Thus the females of these bruchid species affect both their survival and their progeny's fitness by host selection. Algarobius prosopis is anomalous because although some eggs are stuck onto seeds and others freely released among the seeds, but the majority of the eggs were laid in cracks and crevices of the pods. Females do not select individual seed on which to lay, and even though eggs that become attached to seeds appear to be placed fortuitously. The first instar larvae move among pods until a seed is selected for penetration. This seed will be the host for the remaining stages of development, thus females determine the zone but not the particular seed, in which each of their progeny develop. For most bruchids the selection pressure on oviposition behavior is intense because each larva is restricted to the individual seed on which the egg from which it hatched was laid and an inappropriate oviposition site is likely to This .(١٩٩٦ Parr et al ١٩٩٣ ,result in larval death (Messina& Dickinson inappropriate oviposition was noticed in the bruchid Caryedon serratus which were isolated from mesquite pods and kept in an empty Petri dish, the females oviposited in this dish, upon hatching the larva bored beneath the egg into the plastic body where they found their fate by death. Female Algarobius are not under this pressure because the first instar larvae are motile and capable of moving freely among seeds for some hours or even a day before penetrating a seed in which they will then develop. Components of host selection may therefore be found in the behavior of first instar larvae rather than the ovipositing female. Nevertheless because the larvae move only locally, females still need to retain some components of the host selection behavior. -:Pair tests ٢-٢ In these tests, plant species seems to be damaged by the bruchids were tested in pairs, the idea was that if the insects are faced in the field with a free choice between any two of them what will be the outcome in these release environments? -:Prosopis versus A.hypogaea ١-٢-٢ of Prosopis ٪٨٦٫٦ When groundnut and Prosopis were tested seeds were damaged while those of ground nuts remained intact, this means that these bruchids highly prefer Prosopis to groundnuts -:Prosopis versus Cassia senna -٢-٢-٢ while ,٪٨٢٫٢٢ In these tests Prosopis seeds damaged reached No doubt mesquite seeds were .٪١٫١١ damage on Cassia seeds was only highly preferred than Senna seeds. All adults emerged from mesquite pods .weeks ١٠ within six weeks while those on Senna seeds emerged after -: A. hypogaea versus C.senna -٣-٢-٢ Statistical analysis revealed that there was no significant difference between these two plants. Although damage done on groundnut kernels compared to that of Senna pods was higher. -:Starvation tests ٣-٢ Starvation tests were no-choice tests in which the adult bruchids were exposed to a single plant species, and the insects were confined with the seeds until death so that they are sufficiently deprived. The adult bruchids were not observed feeding. The females faced with the situation where they have a full compliment of eggs and motivation to oviposit has risen to a peak, ١٤ then they laid eggs on all test plant species. It was observed that there were ١١eggs on a broad bean seed. The eggs on a single seed of kidney bean and eggs hatched and the first instar larvae moved freely among seeds. They attempted penetration on all tested plant seeds. Due to the physical barrier of hard seed coat, they failed to enter the seeds. For instance they succeeded in entering the seeds of A. senegalensis where the neonate larvae penetrated of the seeds and there was about three larval entry holes on a %٤٠ about single seed but all these larvae died after penetration and just after they commenced feeding. This may be due to chemical found in the constituent of Hashab seeds that is toxic to the larva or at least the seed composition does not meet the nutritional and metabolic requirements of the species. Starvation tests almost describe the fundamental host range for an agent which is the absolute limits to an insects host range. It is the most inclusive host range test because it includes all the plant species that an insect is capable of accepting and utilizing. Therefore the fundamental host range for this agent includes only Prosopis as a potential host and Arachis hypogea & Cassia senna as poor or lower ranked hosts. Groundnut is grown at different parts in this country and it is important cash and food crop. Most of the produce is consumed locally as cooking oil and its cake is utilized as an excellent animal feed. A small part was exported ٧٤٧ was ٢٠٠٤ July – ٢٠٠٣ -to foreign markets (the total export during July tons). Within the mesquite ٣٤٤ tons) and the total exports of G/N cakes was invasion area, this plant is grown at New Halfa Agricultural Scheme, at days ١٠ harvest the plants are pulled and exposed to sun for drying for about and then threshed mechanically and moved to stores. This bruchid had not years it ٢٠ been recorded as groundnut pest in this country and during the last has never been detected on groundnut exports. The percentage of damage on Cassia senna seeds were considerably low and the developmental period was much longer. This means the size of ٥ population will be too small and number of generations per year will be only generations of bruchids reared on ١٤-٩ generations, while there is about Prosopis pods with much larger population size. Senna pods are used in this country only in folk medicine and some factories began to utilize it in manufacturing Anti- constipation tablets. The bulk of the produce is now ١٨٣٠ was ٢٠٠٤ June -٢٠٠٣ exported; the total amount exported during June M/T. Senna plants grow in this country wildly at different states including Red Sea, Kassala, Kordofan Darfur and Nile State. Regarding the importance of this plant as a cash crop and that its main growing areas overlaps with that invaded by mesquite, coupled with results of these tests, this plant may be affected by the attack of this bruchid. However the samples brought for these tests and samples collected from Red Sea state and Kassala state, in addition to samples drawn from different consignments intended for export, revealed the infestation of Senna seeds with only one bruchid belong to the genus Caryedon. Algarobius prosopis now exists in this country and was detected on mesquite pods collected at most parts of its invasion areas. Alternatively, it had never been recorded on groundnut kernels or Senna pods in this country. This means there was variation between fundamental host range and realized host range (there is a difference between the results obtained in cage trials and stated that, tests can ١٩٩٨ ,what actually occurs in the field). Marohasy generate false positives and false negatives. False positives refer to the attack of a host in the test when there would be no attack on that plant in nature. False negative results indicate no attack in the test when there is potential for reported that host ,١٩٩٩ ,and Olckers ,١٩٩٠ ,attack in the field. Shepherd range observed in experiments is frequently broader than what occurs in the added that host range can even differ across an insect ١٩٩٧ field. Hodkinson geographical range. One way to deal with this problem is to differentiate added in ,(١٩٩٢ between fundamental and realized host range (Nichols et al explaining this context that fundamental host range represents the genetically determined limits to the host range of a particular insect species and the realized host range is how the fundamental host range is actually expressed concluded that in biological control we ,٢٠٠٠ ,under field conditions. Klinken are concerned with predicting how the fundamental; host range will be realized if the agent were to be released (field host range). At all specificity tests carried out under this work, the aspect of the insect life history focused upon was the neonate larva and to what extend it was succeeded in attacking and continue growing though different developmental stages and reached the adult stage. The results obtained represent the innate capability or the genetically determined limits of the host range for this species. In these tests which are group tests, pair tests and starvation tests, which could be referred as choice, preference and no-choice tests respectively, the adult bruchids were confined in glass jars and brought in contact with seeds of different test plant species and the females were deprived for oviposition and lay eggs indiscriminately on all test plant species. In nature there are a number of prerequisite steps before an insect make a contact with found that the ,١٩٨٩ Wapshere ,١٩٨٤ the host plant. Miller and Strickler location and acceptance of a host for oviposition is determined by an often ١٩٩٤ complex catenary sequences of behaviors. Bernays and Chapman reported that insects use a number of sensory cues in host selection including visual, olfactory, gustotary.and tactile stimuli as well as humidity and light added that different species express high specificity at ٢٠٠٠ ,intensity. Heard different stages in the host selection process. Nothing was known about how Algarobius prosopis select its host but if the early steps are important in host selection, such as prerequisite alighting cues (visual and olfactory), then the cage results will be an overestimation of field host range and generate false positives, because we assume that although Prosopis, groundnut and Senna plants belong to the same family (Leguminoseae), but they differ in their traits (vigor). Prosopis is a large perennial tree or shrub while groundnut and senna. are small annual herbs. Also their pods size, colour and probably aroma differ because pods of mesquite are long slender bright yellow coloured while those of Senna upon maturity are short and dark brown and groundnut shells are short white yellow coloured. Because of variation in these cues, the adults may not recognize groundnut and Senna as hosts for oviposition and thus false positive results were generated in laboratory tests. This was confirmed by Graham (undated) from Queensland, Australia, where he reported that mesquite bruchids (Algarobius prosopis, Algarobius bottimeri) were tested for host specificity as biological control agents of mesquite, in multiple choice tests. In these tests plant pods and mesquite pods were placed close together, both bruchids oviposited heavily on most non-mesquite test plants as well as on mesquite pods. When tested in large cages in which pods of various test plants ,meters from mesquite pods ١٫٥ including Arachis hypogaea were placed females of both bruchids oviposited only on mesquite pods. These experimental results indicated that A. bottimeri and A. prosopis females oviposit on non- host pods in very close proximity to mesquite pods but not on host pods separated from mesquite pods. During these tests, it was observed that the females highly prefer oviposition in cracks and crevices .It was noticed several times that the female extends its ovipositor into cracks and broken parts of Prosopis pods and laid many eggs inside the pods tissues. On other tested seeds, the female searches for cracks at the seed testa and laid eggs there. But when it was deprived and become in state of no-choice reaching a full egg load, the female laid eggs ٤٠ indiscriminately on any object even in an empty Petri dish where about eggs were counted in one of these dishes. Indehiscent mesquite pods retain seeds for a long period because it was protected in a bony endocarp. Senna pods open upon maturity and most of the seeds were released. Groundnut shells hold kernels for considerable period but the bulk of the produce is days from harvest and the kernels which are covered ١٠ threshed after about with thin seed coat are moved to stores. In this occasion Prosopis pods stands as a most suitable oviposition site and this may explain the co- occurrence of this species with mesquite at most parts of the country all the year around findings as they report that ١٩٩٦ ,This come in consistent with Wan & Harris. even if a potential host is available, it may never be used because it is not included in the fundamental host range of a prior step in the insect life history. For example a plant species on which larvae feed in the laboratory may never be used in the field because females do not recognize it as host for oviposition. Both authors in another report found that attraction by adults to larval feaces and to adults of the same species was an important cue that limited field host range to one plant species. This may explain why this species was confined only to Prosopis showed that the results of open field tests (١٩٩٩ Some studies (Briese vary depending on the experimental designs in which the density of test plants is too low relative to target plant have given false negatives probably because the insects never reached a sufficiently deprived state to accept lower ranked host. Thus if we regard mesquite invasion areas as a test design, taking in account the dispersion of this insect into most parts of these areas, we fine Senna plants grow in low densities at different parts of the country and it is found along khors and water collection pits in scattered densities while groundnut shells which is grown mainly at New Halfa do not last much on field ground after harvesting and this may also explain the absence of infestation to these non target hosts in the field. In starvation tests only a small proportion of groundnut kernels and Senna seeds were damaged and only small proportion of neonate larvae were Papaj ;١٩٨١ ,able to develop to adults and this may be explained by Wiklund where they said that the intra- specific ١٩٩٣ Singer et al ;١٩٨٣ ,and Rausher genetic variation among herbivores can result in dramatic differences among individuals in their acceptance and use of different hosts. Groundnuts and senna plants that grown far apart from mesquite invasion areas, depending on results of these tests, will not be able to sustain a viable population because from five pairs reared on them produced only a individuals for ground nuts for ١٫٦٦ individuals for Senna and ٤٫٣٣ mean of weeks (Senna) and about eight weeks ١٠ developmental period extends for RH. These results coupled with the ٪٦٤ ٢٢٫٤C and.G/N) at mean temp) factors discussed previously, that include complications regarded with host selection behavior, suitability as oviposition site, relative availability of target and non target hosts, seasonal asynchrony and probably geographical limitations, in addition to the fact that, although the agent exist in those areas but it has no economical, social, ecological or political impacts. Thus this agent should be still considered as a considerable biocontrol agent as Day, reported that if non-target attack is sufficiently minor the ;١٩٩٩ ,Hill ;١٩٩٩ agent could be still considered for use in biological control. -:Life cycle-٣ -:Eggs ١-٣ .days in both generations ٥ The embryonic period was found to last The infertile eggs were yellowish, shrunken and depressed at the centre. The fertile ones are elliptical white yellowish with smooth surface. Sometimes found vertically fixed or just laid horizontally on mesquite pods but it was usually found in clusters at broken parts of the pods or inside the pods through cracks and crevices. They are not glued on the pods and this was confirmed by Graham (undated), where he stated that, Algarobius prosopis and Algarobius bottimeri females oviposit in cracks in mesquite pods in preference to smooth surface of mesquite pods lacking cracks. It was observed during these tests that a female laid an egg, turned back and suck the content of her egg and finally swallowed the whole egg. This may indicate that there is some kind of cannibalism. -:The larva ٢-٣ ٣٫٤ ,٣ ,٣٫٥ ,٣٫٤ days and ١٤ The total larval period was found to be ٤th instars respectively. There was an overlapping ٣rd and ,٢nd ,١st days for the hours. This ٢٤ between different instars although all eggs were laid within may be attributed to the fact that all neonate larvae do not enter seeds at the same time or due to genetic variation among individuals. Also it may be attributed to delay in development due to competition of number of larvae entering the same seed, as it was observed that in a single mesquite pod attempts to make ٨ larval entry holes and ٣٩ seeds, there were ٢٢ containing dead neonate larvae in a ١٩ bores. Also it was observed that there were about developing larvae is ٣ or ٢ cavity of a single seed. Finding a seed bearing quite common. No matter, how many larvae in a single seed, only one have the chance to continue development to subsequent stages where the others die out. -:The pupa ٣-٣ days and it is almost the same in ٤ The pupal period was found to be both generations. The pupa was yellow whitish coloured and when this stage was about to be reached while the seeds were encapsulated inside pods; the late instar larvae make an operculum on the seed coat. If this operculum is made and the seeds were dissected out before pupation, the larvae rebuild this exit hole with frass binded with substances secreted by the larvae. Also in separate tests when the bruchids were reared on dissected seeds, there was no operculum made by the larvae and the seeds remain intact until an exit hole is made by the emerging adult. This may be explained by the innate behavior of the insect to protect her self against natural enemies while it is developing. :Adult ٤-٣ ٧٫٤ days in average while the male live for ٩٫٦ The adult females live for days. As in many other insects the females live longer than males. hours from the adult ٣٦ Preoviposition period was found to be less than emergence. Adults are strong flier, and were strongly attracted to light, also they respond positively to the least disturbances. To follow development of this species was not an easy task as the seeds are hard, small in size and the cast skins, head capsules and mandibles were mixed with frass and displaced out of the seed coat through the larval entry hole into seed cavity.

CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS

Mesquite is a leguminous tree that was introduced deliberately into the Sudan for the aim of combating desertification and as fuel and animal feed. Prosopis chilensis which is the dominant species in this country is a serious one that causes many economical as well as ecological problems that necessitates its control. Biological control should be a part in any project programmed for the control of mesquite in this country. Biocontrol efforts had been already started at different parts of the world that faced with similar situations. Algarobius prosopis which is mesquite seed feeding bruchid had been imported from Southwestern United States into South Africa and latter into Australia as a biocontrol agent against Prosopis sp. The beetles were established and the evaluation of its effects in retarding the spread of mesquite is underway but it seems that progress of the beetles were hampered by herbivore animals that utilize the pods before the beetles make access to them. This species had been found infesting mesquite pods at Red Sea state, revealed that ٢٠٠٤ and the survey carried out during August and October Algarobius prosopis is prevalent in most mesquite invasion areas. Samples of pods drawn randomly from each area revealed that the percentage of ٢٠ for ٪٩٠٫١٩ and ٪٧٫٣١ ,٪٢٤٫٠٣ ,٪٩٫٦ .٪٠٠ ,%٤٫٧ damage was found to be Kassala, Albutana, Khartoum (Kafouri), Khartoum (Soba), Northern state (Kelanarti) and Toker respectively. The age of the pods was unknown but it .months old ٨-٧ seems to be new crop except for Toker where the stored pods No old pods were found due to its utilization by herbivore animals. We assume that, as noticed in South Africa and Australia, the free grazing of these animals will stand against the progress of these beetles in checking the spread of mesquite. Host specificity tests carried out on nine leguminous plant species that include Acaia nilotica, Acaia nubica, Acacia senegalensis, Prosopis chilensis, Arachis hypogaea, Vicia faba, Phaseolus vulgaris, Vigna unguiculata, & Cassia senna. The tests showed that mesquite is a major host for this bruchid and A. hypogaea and Senna seeds stand as a poor or lower ranked host with much longer developmental period. No development occurred on other test plant species. In the life cycle tests, it was found that, the eggs of this bruchid days, the four larval instars took about two weeks, pupation ٥ hatched within days but for ٧٫٤ days. Longevity of the male was found to be ٤ lasts within ٣٦ days. Preoviposition period was found less than ٩٫٦ the female it was hours after adult's emergence. For the control of mesquite we suggest the following points:- The main method for controlling mesquite adopted in this country now is-١ the mechanical control which needs vast financial resources. Mesquite trees are least amenable to chemical control and costly and no-٢ effective herbicides are available now in the Sudan to control this weed. In addition to problems related with chemical application including pollution and health hazards are serious. Possibility of introduction of biocontrol agents other than mature seed -٣ feeding bruchids especially Apion sp. which feed on green pods and other agents that target reproductive organs so as to overcome the problem of herbivore animals. ,Adoption of integrated mesquite control strategy including, chemical-٤ mechanical and biological control. Activation of decrees that previously issued by the authorities and take all-٥ measures that leads to prevent mesquite from invading new areas. Biological control of mesquite tree is underway at many parts of the world-٦ and the experience gained in the field of biological control of weeds (water hyacinth) in the Sudan makes the ingredient of its success in this country quite adequate. .The contribution of different concerned departments and institutions e.g-٧ Ministry of science and technology (Agricultural research corporation). Plant protection administration, National Forestry Corporation and universities, should be emphasized and officially supported so as to overcome the problems of this noxious pest and promotion of the research side on the biological control project. Algarobius prosopis was adapted to the conditions of the Sudan and no-٨ natural enemies had been detected on it. These facts coupled with the abundance of the target weed during the most parts of the year will lead to build-up of large populations of the bruchid. Thus we predict that the species will continue its spreading into new areas resulting in considerable effects on mesquite tree dynamics if the problems of herbivore animals are solved.

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