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Prosopis, an Alien Among the Sacred Trees of South India

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Prosopis, an Alien Among the Sacred Trees of South India TROPICAL FORESTRY REPORTS 38 REPORTS FORESTRY TROPICAL UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI Viikki TropicalUNIVERSITY Resources OF HELSINKI Institute Viikki Tropical Resources Institute UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI Viikki TropicalVITRI Resources Institute VITRI VITRI Viikki Tropical Resources Institute TROPICALTROPICAL FORESTRY REPORTS REPORTS VITRI No. 32 Laxén, J. 2007. Is prosopis a curse or a blessing? – An ecological-economic TROPICAL FORESTRY REPORTS analysis of an invasive alien tree species in Sudan. Doctoral thesis. TROPICAL FORESTRY REPORTS No. 33No. 32Katila, P.Laxén, 2008. J. Devolution2007. Is prosopis of forest-related a curse or a blessing? rights: – An ecological-economic 34 Comparativeanalysis analyses of an invasive of six alien developing tree species countries. in Sudan. Doctoral Doctoral thesis. 38 No. 34No. 33Reyes, T.Katila, 2008. P. Agroforestry2008. Devolution systems of forest-related for sustainable rights: Comparativelivelihoods analysesand improved of six Prosopis, an land managementdeveloping countries. in the East Doctoral Usambara thesis. Mountains, Tanzania. No. 34Doctoral Reyes, thesis T. (limited 2008. Agroforestry distribution). systems for sustainable livelihoods and improved land management in the East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania. Doctoral thesis (limited distribution). No. 35 Zhou, P. 2008. Landscape-scale soil erosion modelling and ecological restoration for of South India Trees Alien among the Sacred a mountainous watershed in Sichuan, China. Doctoral thesis (limited distribution). No. 36 Hares, M. & Luukkanen, O. 2008. Research Collaboration on Responsible Natural Resource Management, The 1st UniPID Workshop. No. 37 Husgafvel, R. 2010. Global and EU governance for sustainable forest management with special reference to capacity building in Ethiopia and Southern Sudan. Doctoral thesis. No. 38 Walter, K. 2011. Prosopis, an alien among the sacred trees of South India. Doctoral thesis. ISBN 978-952-10-6891-1 (paperback) ISBN 978-952-10-6892-8 (PDF) ISSN 0786-8170 ISBNISBN 978-952-10-4556-1 978-952-10-6891-1Helsinki 2011(paperback) (paperback) Teija ReyesKurt Walter ISBNHelsinkiISBN 978-952-10-4557-8 978-952-10-6892-8 University Printing (PDF) (PDF) House ISSNISSN 0786-8170 0786-8170 AgroforestryProsopis, systems an Alien for sustainable among the livelihoods Sacred Trees and of improved South India HelsinkiHelsinki 2008 2011 land management in the East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania HakapainoUnigrafia Oy Oy Prosopis, an Alien among the Sacred Trees of South India Kurt Walter Academic Dissertation To be presented with the permission of the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry of the University of Helsinki for public discussion in Auditorium XII of the University Main Building, Unioninkatu 34, on Friday 25 March at 12 o‟clock noon. Helsinki 2011 Supervisors: Professor Olavi Luukkanen Viikki Tropical Resources Institute (VITRI) Department of Forest Sciences University of Helsinki Finland Professor Karen Armstrong Social and Cultural Anthropology Faculty of Social Sciences University of Helsinki Finland Reviewers: Dr. Demel Teketay Fanta Research Scholar in Plant Ecology Keeper, Peter Smith University of Botswana Herbarium (PSUB) University of Botswana Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre (HOORC) Botswana Dr. Stig Johansson Regional Director Metsähallitus, Natural Heritage Services, Southern Finland Vantaa Finland Opponent: Dr. Dina N. Tewari President, Utthan Centre for Sustainable Development & Poverty Alleviation Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India 2 ABSTRACT The problematic of invasive species in an alien environment has aroused the attention of scientists all over the world for quite some time. One of the exotic tree species that has provoked special attention in the tropical drylands is Prosopis juliflora. Originating in South America, prosopis (hereafter referred to as prosopis) has been introduced in the hot and semi-arid zones of the world particularly to provide fuelwood, to stabilize sand dunes and to combat desertification. The tree has become an essential source for fuelwood and a provider of several other products and services in areas where it has become established. However, despite the numerous benefits the tree provides to rural people, in several regions prosopis has become a noxious weed with a negative impact on the environment and to the economy of farmers and landowners. In India, prosopis was introduced in Andhra Pradesh in 1877. The tree was then proclaimed as the precious child of the plant world by scientists and local people alike. The purpose of this study was to investigate the overall impact of prosopis on local rural livelihoods in the drylands of South India. Of particular interest was the examination of the different usages of the tree, especially as fuelwood, and people‟s perceptions of it. Furthermore, the study examined the negative impacts of the uncontrolled invasion of prosopis on croplands, and its occupation of the banks of irrigation canals and other water sources. As another central theme, this study analysed the Hindu classification system for nature and for trees in particular. In India, several tree species are regarded as sacred. This study examined the position of the exotic prosopis among sacred trees, such as the bodhi, banyan and neem trees. The principle method for collecting the field data was by using individual and thematic group interviews. These interviews were semi-structured with open–ended questions. Moreover, unstructured interviews as well as general observations provided complementary information. The data were gathered during two fieldwork periods in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, in South India. The results confirmed that prosopis both provides benefits and causes hazards to different stakeholders. Farmers and agriculturalists suffer economic losses in areas where prosopis has invaded crop fields and competes with other plants for water and nutrients. On the other hand, for a significant number of poor rural people, prosopis has become an important source of livelihood benefits. This tree, which grows on government wastelands, is commonly a free resource for all and has thus become a major local source of fuelwood. It also provides several other goods and services and cash income that contributes to improve livelihoods in rural communities. Prosopis ranked lowest in the tree classificatioin system of the Hindus of South India. Although it is appreciated for many benefits it provides for poor people, it has remained an “outsider” compared with the indigenous tree species. On the other hand, the most sacred trees, such as the bodhi or the banyan, are completely excluded from extraction and it is seen as a sacrilege to even cut branches from any of these trees. An unexpected finding was that, in a few cases, prosopis had also been elevated to the status of a sacred tree. Goods and services from prosopis are not utilized in the most beneficial way. Silvicultural management practices are suggested that would provide additional income and employment opportunities. Interventions are recommended to control further invasion of the tree that might 3 cause serious negative effects in the future. For Hindus, the sacred always ranks highest, even above economic gain. The conservation of sacred groves and sacred trees is a tradition that has its roots in ancient history. These socio-religious practices need to be respected and continued. Successful management of tree and forest resources depends on the willingness of the local people to manage their natural resources, and this willingness exists – and has always existed – in South India. Keywords: South India, drylands, livelihood, fuelwood, invasive, resource, silviculture. Author‟s address: Kurt Walter Viikki Tropical Resources Institute (VITRI) Department of Forest Science P.O.Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: [email protected] 4 PREFACE This study was carried out at the Viikki Tropical Resources Institute (VITRI). Two departments of the University of Helsinki were involved, The Department of Forest Sciences to which VITRI belongs, and the Department of Social Research (Social and Cultural Anthropology). My first field trip to India was funded by the Finnish Society of Forest Science. The same foundation also supported me with a grant at a later stage of this study. Additional financial support was granted by the Niemi Foundation and the Ella and Georg Ehrnrooth Foundation. I am grateful for all their support. In particular I want to express my gratitude to my supervisors, Professor Olavi Luukkanen and Professor Karen Armstrong. Their interest and support throughout the entire research process were of utmost importance for the outcome of this study. They both supervised my Master thesis and they encouraged me to continue my research for this doctoral study. I would like to thank Dr. Eshetu Yirdaw who supported and encouraged me during all these years in the department. I am indebted to all the members of the VITRI staff who helped me in various ways. Several researchers from the Department of Forest Science have also supported and helped me during this period. I want to express my warmest thanks to all of them. There have been several people who helped me to carry out my fieldwork in India. I am grateful to Profesoor M.N.V. Prasad from the University of Hyderabad for his valuable support during my fieldwork in Andhra Pradesh. He initially showed interest in my research proposal and invited me to India where he provided me with all the
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