Dramatis Personae

Alexander, Harold Rupert Leofric George, first (1891–1969)

Army officer. Harrow and Sandhurst. 1911 commissioned into the Irish Guards. Highly decorated during the First World War. 1914, Lieutenant (serving in France); 1918, acting Brigadier- in command of the retreat from Arras. 1937, Major-General. 1939 in France, under Sir John Dill. February 1942, sent to Burma, withdrew from Rangoon into and established good links with the Americans and with the Chinese. August 1942, appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Middle East. January 1943, attended the Casablanca Conference. Directed the final victory in Tunis and was then sent to Italy where his skill as a military strategist became visible. Made Supreme Allied Commander of the Mediterranean Theatre 1944–45. Appointed Field-Marshal in December 1944 (although it was backdated to June 1944 when the allies entered Rome).

Amery, Leopold Charles Maurice Stennett (1873–1955)

Politician and journalist. Harrow and Oxford. Fellowship in History at All-Souls whilst a journalist for . Ardent believer in the . Conser- vative MP for South Birmingham 1911–45. Served as an Intelligence Officer in Flanders during the First World War. 1919 Under-Secretary to the Colonial Office. 1922, First Lord of the Admiralty: presided over the plans and initial stages of the construction of the naval base at . Appointed Secretary to the Colonies 1924–29 (at the same time Churchill was holding the Treasury’s purse). Secretary of State for India during Churchill’s wartime Coalition government.

Asquith, Herbert Henry (1852–1928)

Lawyer and QC from 1890. Liberal MP for East Fife in 1886. Appointed as in Gladstone’s fourth Liberal government in 1892. Served under Rosebery (who was appointed Prime Minister after Gladstone resigned) in 1894, and then Harcourt and later Campbell-Bannerman. Joined, and later became Vice-President, of the Liberal Imperial League and helped draft the Liberal League’s 1902 manifesto. Chancellor of the Exchequer 1905–08. Asquith became Prime Minister after Campbell-Bannerman’s resigned due to ill health. He pro- moted Churchill to the Board of Trade. Term as Prime Minister ended in 1916 when Lloyd George succeeded him.

Attlee, Clement Richard, first (1883–1967)

Labour Politician. Educated Haileybury College and Oxford. Called to the bar in 1906. Served in Gallipoli and the Mesopotamia during the First World War.

154 Dramatis Personae 155

1917, made rank of Major. 1922, Labour MP for Limehouse and became Ramsay MacDonald’s Parliamentary Private Secretary. Under-Secretary for War in 1924. Key member of the Simon Commission 1927–30. Deputised as the leader of the Labour Party 1933–4; outright leader in October 1935. Leader of the Labour group in Churchill’s wartime coalition. Prime Minister of the Labour government with an overwhelming majority in July 1945. Resigned after his general election defeat in October 1951.

Auchinleck, Claude John Eyre (1884–1981)

Army Officer. Wellington and Sandhurst. 1904 commissioned into the 62nd Punjabis in India. 1914–15, Turkey; 1916–18, Mesopotamia. 1917, awarded DSO. 1919, Staff College at Quetta. 1927, Imperial Defence College. 1930–33 returned to Quetta as an instructor. 1933, commander of the Peshawar Brigade, subse- quently promoted to Major-General. 1936, Deputy Chief of the General Staff. 1938–9, integral member of the Chatfield Committee, tirelessly endorsed the Indianisation of the Indian Army. After a brief spell in Norway (1940) he was replaced (by Montgomery), made Commander-in-Chief in India in 1941 and in turn he replaced Wavell. Sent to the Middle East by Churchill (with whom he had a tense relationship) from 1941–3, and then back to India (when Wavell was made Viceroy) from 1943–7. Known affectionately by those he commanded as ‘The Auk’ his archive papers (presented to Manchester University in 1967) illustrate how highly he thought of the Indian troops under his command and how secure he was in his knowledge that the Indian Army was a superb fight- ing force. Worked closely with the Americans and Chinese in the Burma theatre, was praised as an exemplary soldier, and after realising the dire situation of the Indian Army in a post-Partition and post-Independent India (and amid rapidly deteriorating relations with Mountbatten) he retired in September 1947.

Baldwin, Stanley, (1867–1947)

Politician. Conservative MP for Bewdley and Prime Minister of a Conservative government from 22 May 1923 to 22 January 1924. The Conservatives achieved a majority in the general election of October 1924 and Baldwin became Prime Minister for a second time from 4 November 1924 to 4 June 1929, when he resigned to avoid disaffected Conservative voters from creating a revival in Liberal Party support. Baldwin’s final term as Prime Minister was as head of the National Government from 7 June 1935 to 28 May 1937, when his ill health forced him to resign. Created Earl Baldwin of Bewdley and founded the Imperial Relations Trust.

Balfour, Arthur James, first (1848–1930)

Conservative politician. Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge. Nephew of Lord Robert Cecil. Elected as Conservative MP for Hertford in 1874. Achieved promi- nence as Chief Secretary for Ireland 1887–91 (with his decision to prosecute Parnell and his Irish Nationalists). 1891, Leader of the House of Commons. 156 Dramatis Personae

1892, opposition leader. Became Prime Minister in 1902 (when he succeeded Lord Salisbury) and resigned due to his electoral defeat in December 1905. Member of the Committee of Imperial Defence during the First World War, and First Lord of the Admiralty from 1915–16 (backed the Dardanelles strategy). 1916–19, . Mostly known for the of 1917 which supported the need for a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Retired from the Commons in 1922.

Baring, Thomas George, Lord Northbrook (1826–1904)

Inherited the title of Lord Northbrook in 1866. Served in the Admiralty, the India Office, the War Office and then the Home Office before being offered the position of Viceroy of India by Gladstone (following the previous Viceroy’s assassination – Lord Minto) in 1872. Viewed the British administration in India differently to Salisbury, but succeeded in arguing that the advice of those on the spot should at least be heard. Disagreed with Salisbury over Indian cotton duties issue but both men agreed on the threat that Indian Muslims posed to the Raj (Minto’s assassin had been a Muslim).

Bevin, Ernest (1881–1951)

Labour politician and trade unionist. An unprivileged background (when com- pared to his peers) and worked from an early age. Official of the Dockers Union by 1911, and worked his way up to General Secretary of the Transport and Gen- eral Workers’ Union by 1922. Elected to the general council of the Trade Unions Congress in 1925; ensured that once the General Strike ended, fair terms for TUC members were brought about. Minister of Labour during the Second World War within Churchill’s coalition government. Under Attlee’s Labour government Bevin was appointed as Foreign Secretary (a sharp contrast to the tailored and well heeled ) and was arguably a successful Foreign Secretary (Berlin blockade, America in Korea). Overwhelming impression received from his archive papers (Churchill Archive Centre, Churchill College, Cambridge) is that he was a forthright, fair, respected and generous man.

Brooke, Alan Francis, Lord Alanbrooke (1883–1963)

Army officer. Woolwich, 1917, Canadian corps. 1918–19, 1st Army. 1923–7, instructor at Staff College, Camberley. 1927, Imperial Defence College. 1934–5, Commander of the 8th Infantry brigade. 1938–39, Commander of AA Corps. 1939–40, commanded II Corps in France. 1941–6, commander of Imperial Gen- eral Staff. Diarist who was not afraid to balk against Churchill in public as well as in his diaries.

Campbell-Bannerman, Henry (1836–1908)

Liberal MP for Stirling Burghs in 1868,; financial secretary to the War Office in 1871; Irish Chief Secretary in 1884; then Secretary of State for War in Gladstone’s Dramatis Personae 157 third government in 1886. Returned to War Office in 1892 (for Gladstone’s fourth government) and, when Rosebery succeeded Gladstone as Prime Minister in 1894, Campbell-Bannerman retained his Cabinet position. Following Harcourt’s relatively unsuccessful leadership of the Liberal Party, Campbell-Bannerman was voted Leader of the Commons in 1899. After the Boer War, the Liberals split into two factions (Campbell-Bannerman against Rosebery). Due to Rosebery’s increas- ing isolation, and Balfour’s resignation, Campbell-Bannerman selected a Liberal Cabinet at the King’s command and was then elected Prime Minister in January 1906. Ill health forced him to resign in April 1908.

Chiang Kai-Shek (1887–1975)

Influential member of the Chinese Nationalist Party (the Kuomintang), and a conservative anti-Communist. Chairman of the Nationalist League of China 1928–31. Established himself as the Chairman of the National Military Coun- cil 1932–46. Despite accusations of cowardice, stockpiling of essential goods and profiteering from both his own party and the Allies, he worked closely with the Allied forces during the Second World War in the hope of ridding China of Japanese aggression (Manchuria had been invaded and occupied by Japanese force in 1931). Relations were never cordial between the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party (CPC) but until the Japanese surrendered the tension between the two sides worked towards this common aim. After the Japanese surrender, relations deteriorated further and following the CPC’s defeat of the Nationalists, Chiang Kai-Shek was forced to relocate to Taiwan where he declared himself the President of the Republic of China from 1950 until he died in 1975.

Churchill, Lord Randolph Spencer (1849–95)

Conservative MP for Woodstock from 1874–85. American wife (Jennie Jerome). Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in 1877. Strong advocate of the legislative union between Ireland and Britain. Believed that Ireland should be granted a local form of self-government, yet a firm opponent to the proposed offer of Irish Home Rule. Leading member of the so-called Fourth Party upon return from Ireland. Pragmatic and realistic, known for his oratorical skill and manipulation of the press. Established a strong position for himself within the Conservative Party by the mid 1880s. 1885, Lord Randolph was made Secretary of State for India. Keen to promote the security of India, and welcomed attempts at inter- national diplomacy with Russia. Persuaded parliament to grant extra financial resources to bolster India’s security, and secured the annexation of Upper Burma. Salisbury’s Conservative replacement government was soon narrowly defeated (by Gladstone) and Lord Randolph stood for election at the safe Conservative seat at South Paddington (1885–94). Gladstone and his Liberals needed Irish Nation- alist support and so the policy of Irish Home Rule was once again in the fore. Lord Randolph had to accept that Home Rule was inevitable. Made Chancellor of the Exchequer by Salisbury in 1886 (after the defeat of Gladstone and the Liberals at another general election) and then Leader of the House of Commons in 1887 (holding both positions simultaneously for a short while). At the Exchequer he called for a reduction in defence expenditure and, when it was not forthcoming, 158 Dramatis Personae he resigned from his ministerial post. Poor health, his anti-Home Rule stance, and growing unpopularity also contributed to his resignation being so readily accepted.

Cripps, Stafford (1889–1952)

Winchester and University College, . Ambulance driver in France during First World War. Flirted with Marxist theory and was expelled from the Labour Party due to his anti- stance in 1939. Appointed British Ambassador to Moscow in 1940. Following his return to London, he embarked on the mis- sion to India in March 1942. Later made Minister of Aircraft Production. 1945, rejoined the Labour Party. President of the Board of Trade in Attlee’s Labour gov- ernment 1945–7. Brief spell as Minister of Economic Affairs in 1947. Chancellor of the Exchequer, 1947–50. Churchill was overhead to have said when Cripps once walked past him ‘There but for the grace of God, goes God!’

Elgin, Lord Victor Alexander Bruce, Ninth and Thirteen (1849–1917)

Chairman of the Scottish Liberal Association in 1881 and a firm supporter of Gladstone’s policies (especially on Home Rule for Ireland). Viceroy of India from 1894–95. His successful chairing of three public enquiries saw him promoted to Secretary of State for Colonial Affairs from December 1905 to April 1908. Elgin appreciated the desires for self-government coming from the Indian Nationalists, but he did not believe that India was read for any such responsibility. Asquith became Prime Minister in April 1908, and Elgin was replaced.

Fisher, John Arbuthnot (1841–1920)

Joined the in 1854. Swiftly promoted: Lieutenant in 1862 and then Gunnery-Lieutenant in 1863. Ordered to China where his success was rewarded with his promotion to flag captain of the armoured ship Hercules in 1878. Took part in the annexation of in 1882, the Panjdeh Scare of 1884, and made a Lord of the Admiralty in 1892. Promoted to a full Admiral in 1901, and was com- mitted to naval reform in that he scrapped obsolete and instituted the dreadnought programme of ship building. Under Campbell-Bannerman’s Liberal government he was promoted to Admiral of the Fleet in December 1905. Retired in 1910 (after a scandal involving his acrimonious working relationship with Beresford who was Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean fleet) but a corre- spondence with Churchill ensured that Fisher (despite reservations from within the Admiralty) returned as First Lord in October 1914. Resigned from his post May 1915.

Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1869–1948)

Trained as a barrister in London, returned to India, worked in South Africa (encountered Smuts) whilst defending the resident Indian work force. Attracted millions of followers for his ‘devotion to truth’ movement (satyagraha) and its Dramatis Personae 159 non-violent nature. Became a dominant figure in Indian nationalist politics by 1920. Hated by Churchill because of what he symbolised (an independent India). Imprisoned for six years in 1922. Attended Round Table conference in London in 1931. Witnessed the horrors of Partition, and physically helped to restore order and peace to India. Assassinated 1948.

Lloyd George, David (1863–1945)

Welsh radical who (after becoming a solicitor in 1884 and narrowly defeating his Conservative opponent in a by-election for the marginal set of Caernarfon Boroughs in 1890) became a spokesman for Liberal values. Held a series of vari- ous ministerial posts (President of the Board of Trade from January 1906 to April 1908; Chancellor of the Exchequer from April 1908 to May 1915; Minister of Munitions from May 1915 to July 1916) before becoming Prime Minister of a coalition government from 6 December 1916 to 14 December 1918. Following the general election of December 1918, the coalition government was returned with Lloyd George as Prime Minister until 19 October 1922. In spite of the fas- cination with his notorious private life, historians have reassessed his political career and overwhelmingly found it to be one where his record for social reform during peacetime equalled his achievements as wartime Prime Minister.

MacDonald, Ramsay (1866–1937)

After several failed attempts to be elected as a Labour candidate he realised the necessity for a joint Labour and Liberal majority in parliament if the Conser- vatives were to be defeated. After Baldwin’s electoral defeat in December 1923, MacDonald became Britain’s first Labour Prime Minister although he had to rely on Liberal support to overrule the Conservatives. His first term as Prime Minister was short lived, as in the general election of October 1924 the Conservatives, under Baldwin, were returned to parliament with an overwhelming majority. MacDonald became Prime Minister for a second time after the general election of June 1929 but he only achieved a small majority of the votes and was once again forced to rely upon the Liberals to defeat the Conservatives. Riding the storm produced by the Great Depression of 1929 they collapsed under the strain, and MacDonald formed a coalition government in August 1931 and made massive cuts in public expenditure. His final term as Prime Minister ended in June 1935 when he was forced to step down due to ill health. Replaced by Baldwin who became Prime Minister of a National Government.

Mountbatten, Louis Francis Albert Victor Nicholas, first Earl Mountbatten of Burma (1900–79)

Home schooled and then Royal Naval College. Joined Navy in 1916. Naval officer (known as ‘Dickie’ affectionately; sometimes less-affectionately as ‘Mount- bottom’) who was accident-prone and quite hapless. Given command of HMS Daring in 1934. Given command of HMS Kelly in 1941 (sunk by German dive bombers – half the crew lost). Chief of Combined Operations in 1942 (more to impress American allies than anything reflection upon his true value). 160 Dramatis Personae

Oversaw the (disastrous) of August 1942. Appointed Supreme Allied Commander in 1943 (a post he held until 1946). He received the Japanese surren- der at Singapore in September 1945. Appointed Viceroy of India in March 1947, hastened British withdrawal from India. Remained in India as Interim Governor, 1947–8. Went back to the Navy in 1953 and appointed First Sea Lord in 1954. Appointed Chief of the Defence Staff in 1959, retired in 1965. Assassinated by the Irish Republican Army in 1979.

Nicolson, Harold George (1886–1968)

Diplomat and prodigious diarist. Wellington College and Balliol College, Oxford. Chief architect (alongside Leo Amery and Mark Sykes) of the Balfour Declara- tion. Accompanied Smuts to Budapest in 1919. Various international postings but became disillusioned with diplomacy and finally elected as a National Labour candidate in 1935 for Leicester West. Joined Labour Party in 1947. Known for his tumultuous personal life and posthumously for his insightful yet sometimes scathing diaries.

Salisbury, Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, third Marquess of Salisbury (1830–1903)

Conservative MP for Stamford who, like Churchill, supplemented his income through . Anti-radical who, in 1865 (when he became Viscount Cranborne after his brother died), became a fervent opponent of the Franchise Bill. Secretary of State for India in 1866 (by the new Prime Minister Lord Derby). Resigned over the proposed Franchise Bill. Third Marquess of Salisbury and was, once again, appointed (this time by Disraeli) as Secretary of State for India in 1874 during which time he was preoccupied with ‘the southward pressure of Russia on Persia and Afghanistan’. Appointed as Foreign Secretary in 1878,. As Con- servative Party Leader from 1880 to 1884, Salisbury had to reach a compromise with so as not to further alienate Conservative support. Salisbury became Prime Minister of a ‘caretaker’ government which lasted for seven months. His second spell as Prime Minister lasted from 1886 to 1892 when the ‘most significant challenge’ to himself came in the form of the ambitious Lord Randolph Churchill. Finally, Salisbury was Prime Minister again from 1895 to 1902, a period which encompassed the Boer war and the raising of concern over imperial rule and safety. Heavily influenced Churchill on the notion that imperial security ‘begins at home’.

Slim, William Joseph (1891–1970)

Army officer. Grammar school education and Sandhurst. Joined Royal Warwickshires in 1914. Wounded at Gallipoli, and again in France and Mesopotamia. Joined Indian Army. Instructor Staff College, Camberley 1934–7. Commanded the I Burma corps, XV Indian Corps, Fourteenth Army and Allied Forces South East Asia. Not one of Churchill’s favourites. A soldier’s soldier. Dramatis Personae 161

Highly respected. Confronted Churchill regarding the ‘forgotten armies’ being forgotten all over again in the memoirs.

Smuts, Jan Christiaan (1870–1950)

South African politician, army officer, lawyer and twice Prime Minister of South Africa. Christ’s College, Cambridge. Back to South Africa, appointed Minister of Interior and member of Kruger’s government. Fought against the British in the Boer War and also a lead negotiator in the Vereeniging Peace Treaty (1902). Defence minister as outbreak of First World War, rejoined army. Joined Imperial in London in 1917. Proponent and advocate for a strong air force. Prime Minister of South Africa 1919–24; Deputy Prime Minister from 1933 to 1939, and Prime Minister again from 1939 to 1948. Close and loyal friend to Churchill.

Wingate, Orde Charles (1903–44)

Army officer. Educated at Charterhouse School and then the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich. Commissioned into Royal in 1923. defence force in 1928. Intelligence post in Palestine in 1936. Awarded DSO in 1938,. Mental instability noticed by others. One of Churchill’s favourites and was paraded in front of the Americans as such. Use and effectiveness of his Long Range Penetration Units subject of much discussion, praise and criticism. Killed in air crash 1944.

Wood, Edward Frederick Lindley, first (1851–1959)

Eton, Christ Church, Oxford, followed by an All Souls fellowship. Conservative MP for Ripon, Yorkshire in 1910. Captain in the Queen’s Own Yorkshire Dragoons and sent to the front line in France by 1916. Accepted the post Deputy Director of the Labour Supply department at the Ministry of National Service from 1917 to 1918. Appointed Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies in April 1921 and worked under Churchill who was the then Secretary of State. Positions on the Board of Education and at the Ministry of Agriculture eclipsed when he became Viceroy of India (Lord Irwin), from 1926 to 1931 (presided over the Round Table Conference of 1931 to which Churchill took umbrage so vehemently – especially vitriolic on the matter of Gandhi’s invitation). Upon his return to Britain, and after a brief return to the Board of Education, Halifax then became Secretary of State for War, then , and Leader of the . Halifax replaced Anthony Eden as Foreign Secretary in 1938 and was a leading proponent of appeasement. He was Churchill’s only serious rival for the position of Prime Minister in and, perhaps because of this, was made, in January 1941, Ambassador to the United States (arguably to keep him at some distance from Churchill) although America’s entry into the war put an end to that plan’. A Note on Sources

The amount of research which either centres upon or includes Churchill is phenomenal. The Herculean tomes of Churchill’s official biography and their accompanying companion volumes are only the beginning.1 As previously men- tioned, both Rasor and Zoller have listed an inordinate amount of research on Churchill, all of which varies in scope, rigour, and academic value. As many of these sources as possible have been consulted in the course of writing this book, and have been included in the Select Bibliography below.2 The principal archival source for this book has been the Papers of Sir which are housed at Churchill Archive Centre, Churchill College, Cambridge (CCAC). The Churchill Archive contains two categories of papers relating to Churchill’s life: the Papers (CHAR) date from before 27 July 1945 (when his first term as Prime Minister ended), and the Churchill Papers (CHUR) which date from after 27 July 1945. These two collections are split into classes and this book has focused, in particular, upon Churchill’s literary papers (CHUR 4 and CHAR 8), as well as his post-1945 public and private cor- respondence (CHUR 2). Other classes of papers consulted include his speeches both pre-1945 (CHAR 9) and post-1945 (CHUR 5), and his personal papers both pre-1945 (CHAR 1) and post-1945 (CHUR 1). Other collections significant to this research are also held at the Churchill Archive Centre and include the papers of: Leo Amery (AMEL), Ernest Bevin (BEVN), Lord Randolph Churchill (RCHL), William Deakin (DEAK), Charles Eade (EADE), Maurice Hankey (HNKY), Dennis Kelly (DEKE), Henry Pownall (HRPO), Michael Roberts (MRBS), Stephen Roskill (ROSK), and William Slim (SLIM). While Churchill Archive Centre has been the central focus for this piece of research, other archives have yielded important holdings. The Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives, King’s College, London, houses the papers of Hastings Ismay (ISMAY) which have given further insight into not only what it was like to work with Churchill during the war but also what it was like to work for him, after the war, as a member of his ‘syndicate’. Henry Pownall’s origi- nal dozen manuscript diaries (POWNALL) and John Dill’s papers (DILL) are also held at the LHCMA; and even though they have not been directly referenced within this work, they have provided context to the relationships which sur- rounded Churchill during some of the most fraught wartime periods. Of equal importance are the papers of (AUC), held at John Rylands University Library of Manchester, as they give a detailed and nuanced portrayal of the Indian Army. Exeter University archive holds rare examples of Japanese anti-British, anti- Raj, but above all, anti-Churchill propaganda which filtered through India during the war.3 Exeter also holds papers which provide an insight into how India was viewed by a British Anglican clergyman who lived in India from 1913 to 1934

162 A Note on Sources 163

(Henry Fulford Williams); and a retired Captain in the , employed as a Coast Inspector in the Chinese Maritime Customs Department, who observed the fighting between Japanese and Chinese forces in Shanghai August 1937 (Henry E. Hillman). The papers of A.L. Rowse, also at Exeter, give a clearer understand- ing of the workings of a renowned historian who was also a contemporary of Churchill’s. Notes

Introduction

1. Churchill received 12,931 votes (a majority of 222) when he was elected as Oldham’s second MP. The first MP was Mr Emmott (a local mill owner), who stood as a Radical and received 12,947 votes. 2. As MPs were unpaid, it was necessary for Churchill to create a financial nest egg. His lecture tour began in Britain, in the October. The British leg of the tour netted £3,781 for Churchill (Randolph S. Churchill (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume I: Part 2, 1896–1900 (London: Heinemann, 1967), pp. 1218–19), and he departed for America on 1 December 1900. See Churchill to Bourke Cockran, 25 November 1900 in Churchill (ed.), Companion Volume I: 2, p. 1219. 3. The lecture took place at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, New York on 14 Decemberember 1900. See Churchill (ed.), Companion Volume I: 2, pp. 1221–3; Todd Ronnei, ‘Churchill in Minnesota’, Minnesota History, 57/7 (2001), p. 349, citing Robert H. Pilpel, Churchill in America 1895–1961: An Affectionate Portrait (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1976; London: New English Library 1977), p. 39; and Christopher Schwarz, ‘When the Twain Met: Winston Churchill and Samuel Clemens’, Finest Hour, 149 (2010–11), pp. 40–44. 4. In recent years, Churchill’s work as historian has attracted attention (most notably) from Peter Clarke, Mr. Churchill’s Profession: The Statesman as Author and the Book that Defined the ‘’ (London: Bloomsbury, 2012) and John Ramsden, Man of the Century: Winston Churchill and His Legend since 1945 (London: HarperCollins, 2002). Any research, however, that examines Churchill’s memoir of the Second World War owes a debt to David Reynolds’s Wolfson prize-winning work, In Command of History: Winston Churchill Fighting and Writing the Second World War (London: Allen Lane, 2004). 5. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volumes I–VI (London: Cassell, 1948–54). 6. Churchill, Mansion House speech, London, 10 November 1942, in Robert Rhodes James (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches: Volume VI, 1935–1942 (New York: Chelsea House, 1974), p. 6695. 7. In a nationwide poll conducted in 2002 by the BBC, Churchill was voted the ‘greatest Briton ever’. 1,622,248 votes were cast and the final vote revealed Churchill polled 456,498 votes, beating Isambard Kingdom Brunel by more than 57,000 votes. Churchill also beat Charles Darwin, William Shakespeare, Isaac Newton, Elizabeth I, Horatio Nelson and . See http://news.bbc.co.uk/print/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/ 2002/11_november/25. The Campaign for Real Ale in 2011 held a vote for the prestigious title of the ‘Person I would most like to have a pint with at the

164 Notes 165

Great British Beer Festival’. Although Churchill did not win, he held his own amongst Oliver Reed, James May, Brian Blessed and the winner Stephen Fry. See http://www.camra.org.uk/article.php?group_id=742. More recently MSN readers voted for ‘History’s best insults’. Vying for a place in the top five were luminaries such as Liam and Noel Gallagher, Bette Midler, Groucho Marx and Frank Sinatra. Churchill however appeared twice in the top five: at position 5 and then, of course, with the oft-quoted ‘but I will be sober in the morning’ put-down which was aimed with pinpoint accuracy at the MP Bessie Braddock, at Number 1. See: http://him.uk.msn.com/in-the-know/ historys-best-insuts-revealed?page=6#image=1. 8. By the time Churchill was appointed Colonial Secretary in February 1921, he had held office at the Board of Trade, as Home Secretary, as First Lord of the Admiralty, as Minister of Munitions, and as Secretary of State for War and Air. 9. Eugene L. Rasor, Winston S. Churchill, 1874–1965: A Comprehensive Historiog- raphy and Annotated Bibliography (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000). 10. Curt J. Zoller, Annotated Bibliography of Works About Sir Winston Churchill (New York: Sharpe, 2004), pp. 3–132. The works listed by Zoller go up to and include 2002. 11. Zoller, Annotated Bibliography, pp. 133–247; pp. 249–324; and pp. 345–7. Zoller notes that the list of dissertations and theses are mostly from North American universities and colleges. See footnote 30 below for the British contingent. 12. This figure was established by conducting a search of the Royal Historical Society’s database on 15 July 2009: http://www.rhs.ac.uk/bibl. 13. Fred Glueckstein, ‘ “Cats look down on you ...”: Churchill’s feline menagerie’, Finest Hour, 139 (2008), pp. 50–53; Raymond Callahan, ‘Winston Churchill, Two Armies, and Military Transformation’, World War II Quarterly, 5/4 (2008), pp. 36–42. 14. A.J.P. Taylor et al., Churchill: Four Faces and the Man (London: Allen Lane, 1969) in which Taylor considered Churchill ‘The Statesman’, pp. 11–51; Robert Rhodes James discussed Churchill ‘The Politician’, pp. 55–115; J.H. Plumb examined Churchill ‘The Historian’, pp. 119–51; Basil Liddell Hart debated Churchill ‘The Military Strategist’, pp. 155–202; and Anthony Storr psychoanalysed Churchill ‘The Man’, pp. 205–46. 15. George Watson, The Literary Thesis: A Guide To Research (London: Longman, 1970), pp. 13 & 14. 16. This research concentrates upon the Indian Army, and the relevant publi- cations will be referenced in Chapter 6. The best studies regarding other colonial soldiers (most notably African soldiers) are: Hal Brands, ‘Wartime recruiting practices, martial identity and post-World War II demobilization in colonial Kenya’, Journal of African History, 46/1 (2005), pp. 103–25; Frank Furedi, ‘The demobilised African soldier and the blow to white prestige’, in David Killingray and David Omissi (eds), Guardians of Empire: The Armed Forces of the Colonial Powers, c. 1700–1964 (Manchester: Manchester Univer- sity Press, 1999), pp. 179–97; Ashley Jackson, The British Empire and the Second World War (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2006); and David Killingray with Martin Plaut, Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War (Woodbridge: James Currey, 2010). 166 Notes

17. Douglas Ford, Britain’s Secret War Against Japan, 1937–1945 (London: Routledge, 2006), p. 2. 18. Even after he had been drafted, Henry Novy (1919–87), one of Mass- Observations (MO) paid participants, continued to write reports for MO. Novy was also one of the first trustees appointed to the MO archive in the 1970s. Cited in Sandra Koa Wing (ed.), Mass-Observation: Britain in the Second World War (London: Folio, 2007), Henry Novy, 15 February 1942, p. 126. 19. Douglas Ford, Britain’s Secret War Against Japan, 1937–1945 (London: Routledge, 2006), p. 2. For the Official Histories of British Intelligence see Francis H. Hinsley with E.E. Thomas, C.F.G. Ransom and R.C. Knight, British Intelligence in the Second World War: Volumes I–II, Its Influence on Strategy and Operations (London: HMSO, 1979–81); Hinsley with Thomas, Ransom and C.A.G. Simkins, British Intelligence in the Second World War: Volume III, parts 1 and 2, Its Influence on Strategy and Operations (London: HMSO, 1984–88); Hinsley and Simkins, British Intelligence in the Second World War: Volume IV, Security and Counter-Intelligence (London: HMSO, 1990); and Michael Howard, British Intelligence in the Second World War: Volume V, Strategic Deception (London: HMSO, 1990). 20. The one obvious exception to this rule was produced by the Military His- tories Section: Major-General S. Woodburn Kirby, The War Against Japan: Volumes I–V (London: HMSO, 1957–69). 21. John H. Plumb, ‘The Historian’, in Taylor (et al.), Churchill: Four Faces, p. 148. 22. Plumb, ‘The Historian’, p. 148–9. 23. Zara Steiner and Keith Neilson, Britain and the Origins of the First World War (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003); Christopher Bell, ‘The “” and the deterrence of Japan: Winston Churchill, the Admiralty and the dispatch of Force Z’, English Historical Review, 116/467 (2001), pp. 604–34; Robert O’Neill, ‘Churchill, Japan and British security in the Pacific, 1904– 1942’, in Roger Blake and Wm. Roger Louis (eds), Churchill: A Major New Assessment of his Life in Peace and War (Oxford: OUP, 1993), pp. 275–90. 24. Jerome M. O’Connor, ‘Churchill and Roosevelt’s secret mission to Singapore’, Finest Hour, 133 (2006–7), pp. 20–23; Karl Hack and Kevin Blackburn, Did Singapore have to fall? Churchill and the Impregnable Fortress (London: Routledge, 2003); Raymond Callahan, ‘Churchill and Singapore’, in Brian Farrell (ed.), Sixty Years On: the fall of Singapore revisited (Singapore: Easter University Press, 2002); Bell, ‘The “Singapore strategy” and the deter- rence of Japan’; Ian Cowman, ‘Main Fleet to Singapore? Churchill, the Admiralty and Force Z’, Journal of Strategic Studies, 17/2 (1994), pp. 79–93; Ian Hamill, ‘Winston Churchill and the Singapore Naval Base, 1924–1929’, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 11/2 (1980), pp. 277–86. 25. Auriol Weigold, Churchill, Roosevelt and India: Propaganda During World War II (London: Routledge, 2008); Arthur Herman, Gandhi and Churchill: The Epic Rivalry that Destroyed an Empire and Forged our Age (New York: Bantam, 2008); Larry Arnn, ‘India in recent historiography: Perhaps Churchill believed in real liberation’, Finest Hour, 118 (2003), pp. 22–3; Philip Ziegler, ‘The Transfer of Power in India’, in R. Crosby Kemper (ed.), Winston Churchill: Resolu- tion, Defiance, Magnanimity, Good Will (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1996); Sarvepalli Gopal, ‘Churchill and India’, in Blake and Louis (eds), Churchill, pp. 457–72; Carl Bridge, ‘Churchill and Indian Political Freedom’, Notes 167

Indo-British Review, 13/2 (1987), pp. 26–30; M.S. Venkataramani and B.K. Shrivastava, Roosevelt-Gandhi-Churchill: America and the Last Phase of India’s Freedom Struggle (New Delhi: Radiant Publishers, 1983); and finally Robin James Moore, Churchill, Cripps and India, 1939–1945 (Oxford: OUP, 1979). 26. Ian St John, ‘Writing to the defence of Empire: Winston Churchill’s press campaign against constitutional reform in India, 1929–35’, in Chandrika Kaul (ed.), Media and the British Empire (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006); Ronald Hyam, ‘Churchill and the British Empire’, in Blake and Louis (eds), Churchill, pp. 167–86; John Barnes and David Nicholson (eds), The Empire at Bay: The Leo Amery Diaries, 1929–1945 (London: Hutchinson, 1988); and Jackson, The British Empire and the Second World War. 27. The following are mainly British university theses (as opposed to the mainly America University theses listed by Zoller in endnote 10 above): A.J. Whitfield, ‘British Imperial consensus and the return to Hong Kong, 1941–45’, PhD thesis, University of Birmingham, 1998; A.D. Stewart, ‘Man- aging the : the Dominions Office and the Second World War’, PhD thesis, King’s College, London, 2002; R. Hirasawa, ‘Liberals and empire in Victorian Britain: a study in ideas’, PhD thesis, University of Exeter, 2005; K. Evans, ‘The development of the overseas trade of the British Empire with particular reference to the period 1870–1939’, MA thesis, University of Manchester, 1955–56; J. Reece, ‘Henry Page Croft, 1881–1947: the Empire and the Conservative Party’, MPhil thesis, University of Nottingham, 1991; A.J. Cumming, ‘The Navy as the ultimate guarantor of freedom in 1940?’, PhD thesis, University of Plymouth, 2006; N.W. Sloane, ‘The Paradox of Unity: Winston Churchill, Mackenzie King and Anglo-Canadian relations, 1940–1945’, PhD thesis, University of East Anglia, 2007; and K.C. Akora, ‘India League and India conciliation groups as factors in Indo-British rela- tions, 1930–1949’, PhD thesis, London School of Economics, London, 1989. The following theses have all been published as books which were based on their respective research areas: I. Hamill, ‘The strategic Illusion: the Singapore Strategy and the defence of Australia and New Zealand, 1919– 1942’, PhD thesis, University of Leeds, 1974–75; J. Neidpath, ‘The Singapore naval base and the defence of Britain’s eastern empire, 1919–1941’, DPhil thesis, Oxford University, Oxford, 1975; F. Woods, ‘One more fight: The writings of Winston Churchill’, PhD thesis, University of Keele, 1992; and I. Cowman, ‘Anglo-American naval relations in the Pacific 1937–1941’, PhD thesis, King’s College, London, 1989. 28. Maurice Ashley, Churchill as Historian (London: Secker & Warburg, 1968), p. 20. 29. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume I, The Gathering Storm (London: Cassell, 1948), p. vii. 30. E.H. Carr, What Is History? (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1961; repr., 2001), pp. 16 & 17. 31. Churchill resigned from his position in the shadow business cabinet on 28 January 1931 over the possibility of granting self-government to India (one of the central tenets contained within the proposed India Act). Churchill’s tension over this proposal had been mounting since had declared that the Conservatives would back the Irwin Decla- ration of October 1929. 168 Notes

32. So convincing was Churchill’s image as the ardent imperialist that in 1952, when Churchill addressed the American houses of Congress, a Congress- man’s wife remarked that she had ‘felt that the British Empire was walking into the room’, Ashley Jackson, Churchill (London: Quercus, 2011), p. 351, citing Alistair Cooke, Manchester Guardian. 33. CCAC, CHAR 20/99B/172: Churchill’s speech, farewell dinner in honour of Wavell taking up his post as Viceroy of India, London, 6 October 1943. 34. Penderel Moon (ed.), Wavell: The Viceroy’s Journal (Karachi: OUP, 1974), Wavell quoting Mountbatten, 30 September 1943, p. 21. 35. Historians David Edgerton and Dan Todman both agreed that certain assumptions about Britain and the Second World War (in particular the ‘Blitz spirit’ and the notion of a ‘People’s War’) still held sway over both academe and national consciousness, and commented upon how instrumen- tal Churchill’s Second World War had been with regards to these, as well as other assumptions. Plenary session of the ‘Fresh Perspectives on Britain in World War Two’ conference, Imperial College, London, 9 November 2011. 36. Raymond Callahan, ‘Review: In Command of History: Churchill Fighting and Writing the Second World War’, Journal of Modern History, 70/2 (2006), p. 552.

1 From Memoir to History

1. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume I, The Gathering Storm (London: Cassell, 1948), p. 527. 2. Colin Thornton-Kemsley to Churchill, 17 September 1939 in Martin Gilbert (ed.), The Churchill War Papers: Volume I: At the Admiralty, September 1939– May 1940 (New York: Norton, 1993), p. 51–2. 3. Churchill to Thornton-Kemsley, 13 September 1939, in Gilbert (ed.), Churchill War Papers: I, p. 91. 4. See David Reynolds, In Command of History: Churchill Fighting and Writing the Second World War (London: Allen Lane, 2004), pp. 5–22. 5. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volumes I–VI (London: Cassell, 1948–54). 6. Sir William Deakin in conversation with Martin Gilbert, 15 March 1975 in Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, 1945–1965: Volume 8, Never Despair (London: Heinemann, 1988), p. 315; Churchill’s speech on the death of , Hansard, HC (series 5) vol. 365, col. 1617 (12 ). 7. Churchill’s speech on the death of Neville Chamberlain, Hansard,HC(series 5) vol. 365, col. 1617 (12 November 1940). 8. (ed.), Speaking for Themselves: The Personal Letters of Winston and (London: Black Swan, 1999), Clementine to Churchill, 23 November 1943, p. 486. 9. John Charmley, “Once a Whig’: Review of Churchill by ’, , 13 October 2001. 10. See David Reynolds, ‘Churchill’s Writing of History: Appeasement, Auto- biography and “The Gathering Storm” ’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Sixth Series, 11 (2001), p. 221; and In Command of History, pp. 13–22. Notes 169

11. Winston S. Churchill, : A Roving Commission (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1930), p. 170. 12. Churchill to his mother Lady Jennie Churchill, 19 May 1891, in Randolph S. Churchill (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume I, Part 1: 1874– 1896 (London: Heinemann, 1967), p. 234. 13. Churchill, My Early Life, p. 168. Churchill’s meagre income was a combina- tion of the pay he received as a subaltern in the Queen’s 4th Hussars (he was stationed in Bangalore, India from 1896–9) and contributions from his mother. 14. Robert Blake, ‘Winston Churchill as Historian’, in Wm. Roger Louis (ed.), Adventures with Britannia: Personalities, Politics and Culture in Britain (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1996), p. 44. See also Martin Gilbert, Churchill: The Power of Words (London: Bantam, 2012), pp. vii–ix. 15. Churchill’s historical knowledge sometimes proved quite remarkable. For example he ‘startled’ MPs on 12 October 1943 when he ‘invoked the old- est active treaty in the world’ (the Anglo-Portuguese treaty of 1373) and used it to illustrate the point he was making: that alliances, no matter how little thought of, were always useful—especially in wartime. See Fred Glueckstein, ‘The Leader as Historian’, Finest Hour, 158 (2013), pp. 28–30. 16. Maurice Ashley, Churchill as Historian (London: Secker & Warburg, 1968), p. 18. 17. Winston S. Churchill, Lord Randolph Churchill: Volumes I–II (London: Macmillan, 1906). 18. Edward Porritt, ‘Review: Lord Randolph Churchill by Winston Spencer Churchill’, The American Historical Review, 11/3 (1906), p. 675. 19. John Lukacs, Churchill: Visionary. Statesman. Historian. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002), p. 109. 20. Winston S. Churchill, The World Crisis: Volumes I–V (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1923–31). 21. Robin Prior, Churchill’s World Crisis as History (Beckenham: Croom Helm, 1983), p. 283. 22. Winston S. Churchill, The World Crisis: Volume IV, The Aftermath (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1929; Folio edition, 2007), p. xi. 23. Churchill, Gathering Storm,p.vii. 24. As cited by Reynolds, In Command of History,p.5. 25. In the preface to his third volume of The World Crisis, Churchill wrote that the ‘material had been assembled, the work studied and planned, and the greater part actually finished’ when he had been invited back to govern- ment as Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1924. The ‘weight’ of his official duties, so Churchill continued, ‘forced’ him to put his ‘literary projects indefinitely aside’ until mid 1926. Winston S. Churchill, The World Crisis: Volume III, 1916–1918 (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1927; Folio edition, 2007), p. xi. 26. Churchill, Gathering Storm, p. 527. 27. CCAC, CHAR 20/3/94: ‘Mr. Churchill as a Writer’, script of broadcast to India by Leo Amery, 6 December 1940; Winston S. Churchill, Marlborough: His Life and Times, Volumes I-IV (London: Harrap, 1933–8). 28. Winston S. Churchill, Marlborough: His Life and Times, Volume I (London: Harrap, 1933; Folio Society edition, 1991), p. 5. 170 Notes

29. Ashley, Churchill as Historian, p. 138. 30. Morton J. Frisch, ‘The Intention of Churchill’s “Marlborough” ’, Polity, 12/4 (1980), p. 562. 31. Ashley Jackson, Churchill (London: Quercus, 2011), p. 232; CCAC, DEKE 5: ‘Churchill as Historian’, Lecture given by Denis Kelly to the Middle Temple History Society, London, 13 January 1982, p. 14. 32. Violet Barbour, ‘Review: Marlborough: His Life and Times’, The American Historical Review, 44/4 (1939), p. 886. 33. Barbour, ‘Review: Marlborough: His Life and Times’, p. 887. 34. Only recently Reynolds’s In Command of History has once again been lauded as required reading alongside Churchill’s Second World War.SeeDavid Edgerton, Britain’s War Machine: Weapons, Resources and Experts in the Second World War (London: Allen Lane, 2011), fn. 1, p. 303. Raymond Callahan wrote that Reynolds’s In Command of History is ‘one of the most important books yet produced about Churchill’. See Raymond Callahan, ‘In Command of History: Churchill Fighting and Writing the Second World War’, Journal of Modern History, 70/2 (2006), p.551. 35. David Reynolds, ‘Churchill’s Writing of History’. 36. Churchill, Gathering Storm, p. vii. 37. John Charmley, Churchill: The End of Glory: A political biography (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1993), p. 647. 38. Labour won 393 seats, the Conservatives and their supporters 210, and the Liberals 12 seats. Labour made 203 gains and had a majority of 159 seats over all other parties. Kenneth O. Morgan, Labour in Power, 1945–1951 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), p. 41. 39. See John Ramsden, Man of the Century: Winston Churchill and His Legend Since 1945 (2nd edition, London: HarperCollins, 2003), pp. 154–62; and Reynolds, In Command of History, pp. 41–8. 40. See Reynolds, In Command of History, pp. 49–50. 41. See Reynolds, In Command of History, pp. 13–35; 49–63. 42. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume VI: Triumph and Tragedy (London: Cassell, 1954), p. 583. See also LHCMA, ISMAY 5//2: ‘Meditat- ing the result of the election the Boss delivered himself of this superb saying – “it may well be a concealed blessing, though I’m bound to admit it is very well concealed” ’, to Ismay, 7 August 1945. 43. Kathleen Hill to Emery Reves, 2 August 1945, in Martin Gilbert (ed.), Winston Churchill and Emery Reves: Correspondence, 1937–1964 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997), pp. 250–51. 44. Hansard, HC (series 5) vol. 362, col. 51 (18 June 1940). 45. The more commonly quoted remark, how Churchill announced that his- tory would be kind to him, especially as he intended to write it, is still powerful, but not as portentous as some have claimed. After all, he had already been approached (as early as September 1939 when he returned to the Admiralty) by several publishers for first refusal on any memoirs he chose to write at the end of the war. See Reynolds, In Command of History, pp. 5–7. 46. Ashley, Churchill as Historian, p. 13; Reynolds, ‘Churchill’s Writing of History’, p. 221. Notes 171

47. See Paul Fussell, Abroad: British Literary Travelling between the Wars (Oxford: OUP, 1980; 2nd edition, 1982). 48. Fussell, Abroad, pp. 31–6. 49. Hansard, HC (series 5) vol. 360, col. 150 (13 May 1940). 50. Fussell, Abroad, p. 20. 51. Keith Alldritt, Churchill The Writer: His Life as a Man of Letters (London: Hutchinson, 1992); Ashley, Churchill as Historian;Lukacs,Churchill;Prior, Churchill’s World Crisis; Manfred Weidhorn, Sword and Pen: A Survey of the Writings of Sir Winston Churchill (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1974); and Frederick Woods, Artillery of Words: The Writings of Sir Winston Churchill (London: Leo Cooper, 1992). 52. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 69. There are several examples of Churchill’s dictated reminiscences before starting any of which he could easily have uttered to one of his secretaries, ‘My dear, I shall require you to stay extremely late. I am feeling very fertile tonight’. Lord Boyd of Merton to David Dilks, cited by Richard M. Langworth (ed.), Churchill’s Wit: The Definitive Collection (London: Ebury, 2009), p. 85. 53. LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/159: Pownall to Ismay, 15 June 1949. 54. Whilst published in the mid to late 1950s, Churchill’s A History of the English Speaking Peoples, Volumes I–IV (London: Cassell, 1956–8) was researched and mainly written during the 1930s when Churchill was in his political wilderness. 55. On introducing Kelly to his papers, Churchill said ‘Your task, my boy, is to make cosmos out of chaos’: see Allen Packwood (ed.), Cosmos out of Chaos: Introducing the Churchill Archives Centre (Cambridge: Churchill College, 2009), p. 4. 56. CCAC, CHUR 4/25A/7: Kelly to Sir Guy Garrod, 24 November 1950. 57. LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/50/1: Pownall to Ismay, 10 May 1948. A sentiment Pownall repeated two months later when he wrote that ‘It is naughty of Master to lose his copy. I don’t know who provided it for him in the first instance. I didn’t!’: LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/66/1: Pownall to Ismay, 7 July 1948. 58. Churchill would also solicit opinions from others whom he had relied on during the war, such as Field-Marshal Viscount Montgomery of Alamein. Churchill asked Monty for his opinion on whether he agreed that ‘a landing in Normandy in 1943 would have been a very terrible hazard’ when he sent him chapter 15 of volume six to read. Monty replied that, in his opinion, the would have failed and that Churchill’s account of the plan and sequence of the war was ‘remarkable and accurate’ and had been written by a ‘master brain’. CCAC, CHUR 4/20A/209: Churchill to Montgomery, 27 October 1948; CCAC, CHUR 4/20A/207–08: Montgomery to Churchill, undated but between 28 and 31 October 1948. 59. Malcolm Muggeridge, ‘Churchill the Biographer and Historian’, in Charles Eade (ed.), Churchill: By His Contemporaries (London: Hutchinson, 1953; repr. Reprint Society, 1955), p. 237. 60. See Reynolds, In Command of History, pp. 186–8, regarding Goodwin’s employment by Churchill. 61. LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/19: Churchill to Ismay, 22 November 1946. 62. LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/20: Ismay to Churchill, 25 November 1946. 63. LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/23: Ismay to Goodwin, 29 November 1946. 172 Notes

64. LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/24: Goodwin to Ismay, 2 December 1946. 65. At times Churchill would recruit experts in a relevant field to write draft chapters which would remain largely unchanged. For example, see LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/19: Churchill to Ismay, 22 November 1946. A further exam- ple would be Pownall recruiting Sir Guy Garrod (at Churchill’s behest) to help write the chapter on ‘The Mounting Air Offensive’. See CCAC, CHUR 4/25A/14–15: Pownall to Churchill, 10 August 1950. 66. LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/55: Churchill to Ismay, Pownall, Allen and Deakin, 19 May 1948. 67. Robert Blake, Winston Churchill (Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 1998; repr., 2002), p. 95. 68. CCAC, CHUR 4/469/3: Moir to Montague-Brown, 25 November 1963. 69. CCAC, CHUR 4/469/4–6: Unsigned copy of a literary contract detailing Churchill as the ‘author’ and assigning the copyright to the new preface to Kelly’s abridged edition of the war memoirs to Churchill himself. 70. LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/108: Ismay to Pownall, 27 October 1948; LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/112: Ismay to Pownall, 10 November 1948; and LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/122/1: Pownall to Ismay, 1 December 1948. 71. LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/26A: Ismay to Churchill, 4 December 1946. 72. LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/26A: Ismay to Churchill, 4 December 1946. 73. Edward Bridges became the Cabinet Secretary (civil side) in August 1938. However the phenomenal wartime workload led to the position of Deputy Secretary to the Cabinet being created, to which Norman Brook was appointed in March 1942. In February 1945, Bridges became permanent Secretary to the Treasury and Head of the Civil Service whilst remaining as Cabinet Secretary and Brook continued as Deputy. Bridges was moved permanently to the Treasury by Attlee’s Labour government and Brook finally became Cabinet Secretary (in his own right) in January 1947. While both men therefore dealt with Churchill as Prime Minister and Churchill as memoirist, Brook did the lion’s share of the work. 74. David Reynolds, ‘Official History: how Churchill and the Cabinet wrote the Second World War’, Historical Research, 78/201 (2005), pp. 400–422. An example of Brook’s assistance on an international scale was how he advised Attlee, in 1949, ‘to make at once the approach to the Australian Government’ so that once Churchill had undertaken several minor changes to his text, the ‘risk of the Australian’s raising objection’ would be min- imised. One small alteration was to modify the sentence which included the word ‘fear’ as this ‘suggests that they [the Australian wartime Cab- inet] were in a state of blue funk’. CCAC, CHUR 4/251A/66: Brook to Churchill, 28 October 1949. (See also CCAC, CHUR 4/18B/285–329 for correspondence between Brook and Churchill regarding permissions). 75. Bridges started the process for Churchill and his syndicate, but it was Brook who ‘vetted all six volumes of the war memoirs’, Reynolds, In Command of History,p.86. 76. Brook insisted that Churchill did not acknowledge in print the extensive personal role he had taken in his dealings with Churchill’s memoirs. 77. Reynolds, In Command of History,p.58–9. 78. Reynolds, ‘Churchill’s Writing of History’, pp. 225–45. See also: LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/255/1: in which Mr A. Johnston (Deputy Secretary to the Notes 173

Cabinet) apologised for the difficulty which Miss M.E. Green (Ismay’s Private Secretary) faced in gaining documents for Ismay and the syndi- cate. Johnston to Ismay, 11 August 1950. See LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/255/2: Johnston’s note authorising Miss Green and the syndicate to be ‘authorised at all times to consult (though not to take away) the Cabinet records of the 1939–45 war’, 1 August 1950. Another source put at Churchill’s disposal was the Library of the House of Commons. Perhaps to encourage accuracy, but the offer made by one librarian to Churchill ensured that the Library ‘and its staff are at your entire disposal’. CCAC, CHUR 2/165/36: H.A. Saunders to Churchill, 1 July 1948. 79. Herbert Morrison, ‘Churchill’s Crazy Broadcast’, Daily Herald, 5 June 1945. For a wider interpretation of the effect of Churchill’s broadcast see Richard Toye, ‘Winston Churchill’s “Crazy Broadcast”: Party, Nation, and the 1945 Gestapo Speech’, Journal of British Studies, 49/3 (2010), pp. 655–80. See also Richard Toye, The Roar of the Lion: The Untold Story of Churchill’s World War II Speeches (Oxford: OUP, 2013), in which Churchill’s ‘Gestapo’ broadcast is declared to be an error as far as its domestic reception went, yet had little impact internationally (apart from a negative impact in Australia), p. 229. 80. See David Low, ‘Two Churchills’, Evening Standard, 31 July 1945. This cartoon depicted Churchill as the ‘Leader of Humanity’ and the rather disgruntled post-war leader of the Opposition. 81. John Thompson suggested that an author’s platform be defined as ‘the position from which an author speaks, a combination of their credentials, visibility and promotability, especially through the media’. In the mid to late 1940s, however, Churchill had no need to manufacture such a plat- form. John Thompson, Merchants of Culture: The Publishing Business in the Twenty-First Century (Cambridge: Polity, 2010), p. 203. 82. See Toye, The Roar of the Lion, which successfully challenges the notion that Churchill rallied the nation through his wartime speeches. Toye presents convincing evidence that clearly reveals this was not so, and illustrates how the style of Churchill’s speeches was ultimately not a substitute for substance. 83. CCAC, CHAR 8/614/141: ‘The Union of the English-Speaking Peoples’, typescript, written for the News of the World, published on 15 May 1938. 84. CCAC, CHUR 4/353A/8: Allen to Churchill, 14 May 1951. 85. Colin Gordon (ed.), Michel Foucault: Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972–77 (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1980); and Anna Green and Kathleen Troup, The Houses of History: A Critical Reader in Twentieth- Century History and Theory (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999), pp. 301–06. 86. CCAC, CHUR 4/253A/128: Kelly to Churchill annotated note, 30 May 1950. 87. CCAC, CHUR 4/253A/128: Kelly to Churchill annotated note, 30 May 1950. 88. CCAC, CHUR 4/332/41: Pownall to Kelly, 12 November 1951. This note illustrates one (of many) examples of members of the syndicate protecting Churchill’s contemporary concerns. On the subject of Churchill’s minutes to each of the Chiefs-Of-Staff (dated 20 March 1944), Pownall reported that ‘if published [the minutes] would lead to trouble’. He and Ismay therefore discussed this matter and decided that the best course of action was to delete the paragraph entirely. 174 Notes

89. LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/271/2: Pownall to Mountbatten, 16 February 1951. 90. Kelly was stationed in the Indian Mountain Artillery in India and Burma, 1941–45, and Pownall, appointed Commander in Chief of the Far East November 1941, became Mountbatten’s Chief of Staff in 1943. 91. John Tosh, ‘History for Citizens: Towards a Critical Public History’, Keynote address, HistFest, Lancaster University, 10 June 2011. 92. John Tosh, Why History Matters (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), p. viii. 93. Alun Munslow, Deconstructing History (London: Routledge, 1997), p. 33. 94. Paul Fussell, The Great War and Modern Memory (Oxford: OUP, 1975; 25th anniversary edition, 2000), p. 310. 95. David Green, Blenheim (Oxford: Alden Press, 1950; reprinted 1970), p. 36. 96. Churchill, My Early Life, p. 126. 97. A question that Paul Bookbinder asked of post-war Germany and Japan, see Paul Bookbinder, ‘ “Wie es eigentlich gewesen” or Manufactured Historical Memory’, The Journal of The Historical Society, 10/4 (2010), pp. 475–506. 98. Charmley, Churchill: End of Glory, p. 647. 99. Amos Funkenstein, ‘Collective Memory and Historical Consciousness’, History and Memory, 1/1 (1989), pp. 5–26. 100. Angus Calder, The Myth of (London: Jonathan Cape, 1991); The People’s War: Britain, 1939–1945 (London: Cape, 1969); Juliet Gardiner, The Blitz: The British under Attack (London: HarperCollins, 2010); Malcolm Smith, Britain and 1940: History, Myth and Popular Memory (London: Routledge, 2000); and Philip Ziegler, London at War, 1939–1945 (London: Pimlico, 2002). 101. Funkenstein, ‘Collective Memory and Historical Consciousness’, p. 22. 102. Jeremy D. Popkin, ‘Holocaust Memories, Historians’ Memoirs: First-Person Narrative and the memory of ’, History and Memory, 15/1 (2003), pp. 49–84. 103. Randolph S. Churchill (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: Post-War Speeches, The Sinews of Peace (London: Cassell, 1948), ‘The Sinews of Peace’, Westminster College, Fulton, Missouri, 5 March 1946, p. 94. 104. Churchill (ed.), The Sinews of Peace, 5 March 1946, p. 98.

2 Churchill’s British Empire

1. Winston S. Churchill, ‘Shall we give up India? Fair Play for Lancashire!’, Answers, 21 July 1934, p. 3. 2. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume IV, The Hinge of Fate (London: Cassell, 1951), p. ix. 3. Nicholas Owen, ‘The of 1942: A reinterpretation’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 30/1 (2002), p. 62. 4. Robert Rhodes James (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches: Vol- ume VI, 1935–1942 (New York: Chelsea House, 1974), Churchill, Mansion House speech, London, 10 November 1942, p. 6695. 5. James (ed.), Complete Speeches, VI, Churchill, Mansion House speech, London, 10 November 1942, p. 6695. Notes 175

6. John Colville, The Fringes of Power: Downing Street Diaries: Volume II, October 1941–April 1955 (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1985; Sceptre edition, 1987), 24 February 1945, p. 204. Churchill’s analogy sometimes changed to a British donkey squeezed between an American elephant (or an American Buffalo) and a Russian bear. 7. CCAC, CHAR 8/616/119: ‘The Survival of the British Race’, typescript, written for the News of the World, published on 25 September 1938. 8. CCAC, CHAR 6/614/149: ‘The Union of the English-Speaking Peoples’, typescript, written for the News of the World, published on 15 May 1938. 9. Hyam, ‘Churchill and the British Empire’, in Robert Blake and Wm. Roger Louis (eds), Churchill: A Major New Assessment of his Life in Peace and War (Oxford: OUP, 1993), p. 167. 10. The most notable of the most recently-published works on the British Empire, its rise and decline, are: John Darwin, The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World System, 1830–1970 (Cambridge: CUP, 2009); After Tamerlane: The Rise and Fall of Global Empires, 1400–2000 (London: Penguin, 2008); Niall Ferguson, Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World (London: Penguin, 2007); Richard Gott, Britain’s Empire: Resis- tance, Repression and Revolt (London: Verso, 2011); Jonathan Hart, Empires and Colonies (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2008); Ronald Hyam, Britain’s Declin- ing Empire: The Road to Decolonisation 1918–1968 (Cambridge: CUP, 2006); Britain’s Imperial Century, 1815–1914 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002); Ashley Jackson, The British Empire and the Second World War (London: Hambledon, 2006); Kwasi Kwarteng, Ghosts of Empire: Britain’s Legacies in the Modern World (London: Bloomsbury, 2011); Philippa Levine, The British Empire: Sunrise to Sunset (Harlow: Pearson Longman, 2007); Jeremy Paxman, Empire: What Ruling the World Did to the British (London: Viking, 2011); Bernard Porter, The Absent-Minded Imperialists: Empire, Society and Culture in Britain (Oxford: OUP, 2004); The Lion’s Share: A Short History of British Impe- rialism 1850–2004 (4th edition, Harlow: Pearson Longman, 2004); Kathryn Tidrick, Empire and the English Character: The Illusion of Authority (London: Taurus Parke, 2009); and Stanley Wolpert, Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India (Oxford: OUP, 2006). 11. The exceptions to this rule are Raymond Callahan, Churchill: Retreat from Empire (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1984); Peter Clarke, The Last Thousand Days of the British Empire: The Demise of a Superpower, 1944– 1947 (London: Penguin, 2008); Kirk Emmert, Winston S. Churchill on Empire (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 1989); Ronald Hyam, Elgin and Churchill at the Colonial Office, 1905–1908: The Watershed of the Empire- Commonwealth (London: Macmillan, 1968); Lawrence James, Churchill and Empire: Portrait of an Imperialist (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2013); and Richard Toye, Churchill’s Empire: The World That Made Him and the World He Made (London: Macmillan, 2010). 12. Toye, Churchill’s Empire,p.4. 13. Mark F. Proudman, ‘Words for Scholars: The Semantics of ‘Imperialism’, Journal of the Historical Society, 8/3 (2008), p. 395. 14. William Keith Hancock, Wealth of Colonies (Cambridge: CUP, 1950), p. 17. See the following for concise overviews at attempts at definition: P.J. Cain and A.G. Hopkins, ‘Gentlemanly Capitalism and British Expansion 176 Notes

Overseas II: New Imperialism, 1850–1945’, Economic History Review, 40/1 (1987); and British Imperialism, 1688–2000 (2nd edition, Harlow: Pearson Longman, 2002); D.K. Fieldhouse, ‘ “Imperialism”: An Historiographical Revision’, Economic History Review, 14/2 (1961); John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson, ‘The Imperialism of ’, Economic History Review,6/1 (1953); Rosalind O’Hanlon, ‘Gender in the British Empire’, in Judith Brown and Wm. Roger Louis (eds), The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume IV: The Twentieth Century (Oxford: OUP, 1999), pp. 379–97; John A. Hobson, Imperialism: A Study (New York: Cosimo, 2005 [1902]); Ronald Hyam, Empire and Sexuality: The British Experience (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990); Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capi- talism (New York: International Publishers, 2004 [1939]); Philippa Levine (ed.), Gender and Empire (Oxford: OUP, 2004); Annie McClintock, Impe- rial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (New York: Routledge, 1995); Edward W. Said, Culture and Imperialism (London: Vin- tage Books, 1994); Helmut D. Schmidt and Richard Koebner, Imperialism: The Story and Significance of a Political Word, 1840–1960 (Cambridge: CUP, 1964); and Angela Woollacott, Gender and Empire (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006). 15. Lord Moran, Winston Churchill: The Struggle for Survival, 1940–1965 (London: Constable, 1966), p. 228. 16. The term ‘Victorian’ has acquired various connotations and inflections. Most obviously, it refers to the period when (1819–1901) ruled Britain from 1837 until her death. The term can be used to imply that someone has an outlook, a mentality or viewpoint, which is restricted, old-fashioned and out of date. When used in this way it is generally used as a term of derision, of abuse. However if someone describes themselves as Victorian, the term denotes a person of strong morals and strict beliefs; it takes on a more positive connotation. In Churchill’s case he has often been described as essentially the subaltern of the Victorian era, most notably when his attitude towards India is being examined, and especially when his attitude towards race and empire are compared to any of his more enlight- ened contemporaries, such as Leo Amery. In the 1930s, when Churchill was in his (arguably self-imposed) political wilderness, he willingly described himself as ‘Victorian’ as it bolstered the imperial image which he was foster- ing. For the schoolboy verse, see Martin Gilbert, Churchill: A Life (London: Heinemann, 1991), p. 26. 17. Randolph S. Churchill (ed.), Into Battle: Speeches by the Right Hon. Winston S. Churchill P.C., M.P. (London: Cassell, 1941), Speech to the House of Commons, 13 May, 1940, p. 208. 18. Roland Quinault, ‘Lord Randolph Henry Spencer Churchill (1849–1895)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (OUP, September 2004; online edition May 2009). 19. Parl. Debs. (Series 3) vol. 292, col. 1540 (4 May 1885). 20. J. M. Brereton, ‘The Panjdeh Crisis, 1885: Russians and British in Central Asia’, History Today, 29/1 (1979), pp. 46–52. 21. Winston S. Churchill, My Early Life: A Roving Commission (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1930), pp. 1–48; Winston S. Churchill, Lord Randolph Churchill: Volumes I–II (London: Macmillan, 1906). Notes 177

22. See Robert F. Foster, Lord Randolph Churchill: A Political Life (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981); and Robert Rhodes James, Lord Randolph Churchill (London: Phoenix, 1994). 23. A sentiment reiterated by Lord Curzon (Viceroy of India, 1898–1905) when he stated in 1901 that ‘As long as we rule in India, we are the greatest power in the world. If we lose it we shall drop straight away to a third rate power’. Cited by Wm. Roger Louis, ‘Introduction’, in Judith M. Brown and Wm. Roger Louis (eds), The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume IV, The Twentieth Century (Oxford: OUP, 1999; edition, 2001), p. 5. 24. Churchill, Gathering Storm,p.27. 25. Martin Gilbert (ed.), Winston S. Churchill, Companion Volume V, Part II: Doc- uments, The Wilderness Years, 1929–1935 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1981), Churchill to Randolph Churchill, 8 January 1931, p. 243. As cited by John Charmley, Churchill: The End of Glory, A Political Biography (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1993), p. 257. 26. Hansard, HC (series 5) vol. 469, col. 2225 (17 November 1949). 27. Michael Bentley, Lord Salisbury’s World: Conservative Environments in Late Victorian Britain (Cambridge: CUP, 2001), especially ‘The Empire’, pp. 220–50. Bentley’s compelling biography of Salisbury highlights the sim- ilarity between Salisbury and the young Winston to such an extent that the reader has to constantly remind themselves that Salisbury and not Churchill is the subject. 28. The point must be made that Churchill was not alone in his concept of racial superiority nor, at the turn of the century, was his perception that India was the heart of the Empire a solitary view. These were widely held opinions at this time. It was, however, Churchill’s obsession with India that separated him from other present-minded imperialists. 29. Bentley, Lord Salisbury’s World, p. 222–3. 30. Churchill failed to be elected as MP for Oldham in 1899. He succeeded a year later (in the so-called Khaki election) after his much-publicised escape from a Boer camp and was finally elected as the Conservative Unionist MP for Oldham on 1 October 1900. 31. Robert Rhodes James (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, Vol- ume I: 1897–1908 (New York: Chelsea House, 1974), Churchill election address, Oldham, 26 June 1899, p. 34. 32. Churchill, My Early Life, p. 383. 33. Churchill’s account of the British Empire, and the Raj, was egocentric in that it focused on how he perceived the empire and its responsibilities. At times, and particularly in the inter-war period, he did take note of how the British Empire was perceived by other European imperial powers but only so that he could anticipate, and therefore prevent, any threat to his beloved empire. 34. Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill: Volume V: Prophet of Truth, 1922–1939 (London: Heinemann, 1976; Minerva edition, 1990) p. 390. 35. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 266. 36. Smuts was held in high regard by many. When Ernest Bevin heard Smuts had died, Bevin wrote: ‘It seems strange to feel that Smuts has passed. I always seem to see him in the Cabinet room or in my office. It was always very encouraging to listen to his profound contributions to world problems. 178 Notes

Experience counts a lot’. CCAC, BEVN II 6/12/93: Ernest Bevin to Leife Egeland, 24 October 1950. 37. See Shula Marks, ‘Smuts, Jan Christiaan (1870–1950)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (OUP, 2004; online edition, January 2011) for a brief yet comprehensive summation of Smuts’s considerable achievements. Also see Ronald Hyam and Ged Martin, ‘The myth of the “Magnani- mous Gesture”: the Liberal government, Smuts and conciliation, 1906’ in their Reappraisals in British Imperial History (London: Macmillan, 1975), pp. 167–86, which convincingly argues that Smuts, like Churchill, was not adverse to creating his own stature by exaggerating his influence and achievements. 38. Nigel Nicolson (ed.), The Diaries: 1907–1963 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2004), 4 June 1946, p. 337. 39. Marks, ‘Smuts, Jan Christiaan (1870–1950)’. 40. In his diary Harold Nicolson remarked that when Smuts was asked his opinion on post-war Britain, he said that there ‘is no touch of age about England ...because you allow new ideas to enter your blood-stream’. Smuts commented, however, that if the Conservative Party wanted to gain power again, it would have to ‘rid itself of its older men, perhaps even some of its older leaders, perhaps even of the greatest leader himself’. Nicolson (ed.), Nicolson Diaries, 4 June 1946, p. 337. 41. Wm. Roger Louis, In the Name of God Go! Leo Amery and the British Empire in the Age of Churchill (New York: Norton, 1992), p. 20. 42. Churchill’s commission as a subaltern in the Queen’s 4th Hussars lasted from 1896 to 1899. Although it was customary for British officers stationed in India to have five months leave per year, when Churchill’s sojourns as a , and his trips back to Britain, are totalled, he probably spent no more that 10–12 months in India itself. 43. Churchill, My Early Life, p. 215. 44. Winston S. Churchill, A History of the English-Speaking People: Volume IV, The Great Democracies (London: Cassell, 1958), p. 292. 45. The Primrose League was founded by Lord Randolph Churchill, John Gorst, Percy Mitford and Sir Henry Drummond Wolff (amongst others) in 1883. It promoted Conservative principles, as well as social activities, and one of its basic tenets was to encourage the development of its members whilst attempting to influence Conservative policy. 46. James (ed.), Complete Speeches, I26 July 1897, p. 28. See also Randolph S. Churchill (ed.), Companion Volume II, Part 1, 1901–1907. Churchill’s untitled article for the Daily Mail, 17 June 1901, p. 71–2. 47. Both Churchill and Elgin had met before (when Churchill was stationed in Bangalore and Elgin was Viceroy of India) and, as Churchill later recalled in 1930, Elgin had always ‘extended a large hospitality to young officers who had suitable introductions’. Churchill, My Early Life, p. 168. 48. Hyam, Elgin and Churchill, p. 116. 49. James (ed.), Complete Speeches, I, 31 July 1906, p. 662; and Parl. Debs. (series 4) vol. 162, col. 753 (31 July 1906). 50. Hyam and Martin, ‘The myth of the “Magnanimous Gesture” ’. 51. Hyam, ‘Churchill and Empire’, in Blake and Louis (eds), Churchill, p.167. Notes 179

52. See Paul Addison, ‘Churchill and Social Reform’, in Blake and Louis (eds), Churchill, pp. 57–78; and Richard Toye, Lloyd George and Churchill: Rivals for Greatness (London: Macmillan, 2007). 53. Bentley, Lord Salisbury’s World, p. 222. 54. Churchill had vociferously campaigned against Chinese indentured labour when he was Under-Secretary for the Colonies – one of many examples of his willingness and readiness to aid unrepresented classes. 55. Addison, ‘Churchill and Social Reform’, in Blake and Louis (eds), Churchill, p. 61. 56. Addison, ‘Churchill and Social Reform’, in Blake and Louis (eds), Churchill, p. 58. 57. Winston S. Churchill, ‘A Danger to the Empire: Condition of Our Army’, Daily Mail, 16–18 December 1904. 58. Randolph S. Churchill (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume II, Part 2, 1901–1907 (London: Heinemann, 1969), Fisher to Churchill, 28 February 1909, p. 956. 59. See: Arthur J. Marder, From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow: the Royal Navy in the Fisher era, 1904–1919 (London: OUP, 1961–70) 5 volumes; Barry M. Gough, ‘The Royal Navy and the British Empire’, in Robin N. Winks (ed.), The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume V, Historiography (Oxford: OUP, 1999; edition, 2001), pp. 327–41; and Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery (London: Fontana Press, 1991). 60. This is an area of Churchill’s career that is comparatively under-researched. Portrayals range from a sabre-rattling and punitive Home Secretary, to one who believed in justice for all (especially the weak and vulnerable, whether in Britain, India or the Transvaal). See Victor Bailey, ‘Churchill as Home Sec- retary: Reforming the Prison Service’, History Today, 35:3 (1985), pp. 10–13; Richard Devine, ‘Top Cop in a Top Hat: Churchill as Home Secretary, 1910– 1911’, in Finest Hour, 143 (2009), pp. 20–24; Robert Rhodes James, Churchill: A Study in Failure, 1900–1939 (London: Penguin, 1973); and Norman Rose, Churchill: An Unruly Life (London: Touchstone Books, 1998). 61. Mary Soames (ed.), Speaking for Themselves: The Personal Letters of Winston and Clementine Churchill (London: Black Swan, 1999), Churchill to Clementine, 26 June 1911, p. 49. 62. Addison, ‘Churchill and Social Reform’, in Blake and Louis (eds), Churchill, p. 63. 63. Addison, ‘Churchill and Social Reform’, in Blake and Louis (eds), Churchill, p. 65. 64. Having crossed the floor of the Commons from the Conservative to the Lib- eral benches on 31 May 1904, and having then crossed back and officially rejoined the Conservatives in 1925, Churchill allegedly said that ‘anyone can “rat”, but it takes a certain amount of ingenuity to “re-rat” ’. But as with quite a few of Churchill’s quotes, verification is elusive. If Richard M. Langworth OBE (President of the Churchill Centre in Washington, D.C. from 1988–99, editor of the Churchill Society’s journal Finest Hour), a man who has been described as having an encyclopaedic knowledge of Churchill’s published words, cannot verify that this is genuine Churchill, then it must be left unattributed. Richard M. Langworth (ed.), Churchill’s Wit: The Definitive Collection (London: Ebury, 2009), p. 75. 180 Notes

65. See Michael Dockrill, ‘British policy during the Agadir crisis of 1911’, in Francis Hinsley (ed.), British Foreign Policy under Sir Edward Grey (Cambridge: CUP, 1977). 66. Churchill (ed.), Churchill: II, 2, Asquith to Lord Crewe, 7 October 1911, p. 1295. 67. The phrase ‘weary Titan’ was coined by Matthew Arnold (1822–88), the poet, cultural commentator and school inspector, in his poem Heine’s Grave published in 1867. Arnold’s description of the British Empire, as weary under the immense Atlantean load of the too vast orb of her fate, was later reiterated, in 1902, by (1836–1914), the indus- trialist and politician, when he was Secretary of State for the Colonies, in his opening speech to the Colonial Conference: ‘The Colonial Conference, Mr Chamberlain’s Opening Speech’, The Times, 4 November 1902. For a detailed analysis of imperial weariness see Aaron L. Friedberg, The Weary Titan: Britain and the Experience of Relative Decline, 1895–1905 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988). Also see Darwin, TheEmpireProject,in which he stresses that Edwardian fears were rather more about imperial overstretch, as opposed to fears of an imminent imperial collapse. 68. James (ed.), Complete Speeches, I, Churchill election address, Oldham, 27 June 1899, p. 41. 69. It should be noted that the War Council recommended that the Dardanelles be a naval enterprise, and that they should ‘bombard and take the Gallipoli Peninsula, with Constantinople as its objective’ which Churchill (as First Sea Lord) accepted. See Marder From Dardanelles to Oran, p. 2. See Amanda Capern, ‘Winston Churchill, Mark Sykes and the Dardanelles Campaign of 1915’, Historical Research, 71 (1998); Tim Coates (ed.), Lord Kitchener and Winston Churchill: The Dardanelles Commission, Part I, 1914–1915 (London: HMSO, 1917; Stationery Office edition, 2000); and Defeat at Gallipoli: The Dardanelles Commission, Part II, 1915–1916 (London: HMSO, 1918; Stationery Office edition, 2000). 70. Randolph S. Churchill, Winston S. Churchill, Volume II: Young Statesman, 1901–1914 (London: Heinemann, 1967), p. 50. The Dardanelles campaign was arguably the lowest point in Churchill’s political career. Although the ensuing enquiry cleared him of wrongdoing, political mud sticks. The con- sequences for Churchill, when he became wartime prime minister, were his encounters with the understandably sour taste the disaster at Gallipoli left in Australian and New Zealand mouths. 71. Churchill had been obliged to seek re-election to the Commons when he joined the cabinet. He failed to retain his Manchester seat but returned later in 1908 as a member for Dundee. 72. CCAC, CHAR 25/2/8: Churchill to the Committee of Imperial Defence, 13 February 1921. 73. For details on the conditions experienced by the Indian troops see: Gordon Corrigan, Sepoys in the Trenches: The Indian Corps on the Western Front, 1914– 1915 (Stroud: Spellmount, 2006); and David E. Omissi, Indian Voices of the Great War; Soldiers’ Letters, 1914–18 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1999), pp. 23–131. 74. See Judith M. Brown, Modern India : The Origins of an Asian Democracy (Oxford, OUP, 1985), pp. 188–202; David Low (ed.), Congress and the Raj: Notes 181

Facets of the Indian Struggle, 1917–1947 (2nd edition, New Delhi; OUP, 2004), pp. 1–46; Budheswar Pati, India and the First World War 1914–1918 (New Delhi: Atlantic, 1996), pp. 136–241; and Sir Algernon Rumbold, Watershed in India, 1914–1922 (London: Athlone Press, 1979), pp. 1–126. 75. See Tim Coates (ed.), The Amritsar Massacre: General Dyer in the Punjab, 1919 (London: HMSO, 1920; Stationery Office edition, 2000); Nigel Collett, The Butcher of Amritsar: General Reginald Dyer (2nd edition, London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007); V.N. Datta and S. Settar (eds), Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (New Delhi: Pragati, 2000); Nick Lloyd, The Amritsar Massacre: The Untold Story of one Fateful Day (London: I.B. Tauris, 2011); and Derek Sayer, ‘British reaction to the Amritsar Massacre, 1919–1920’, Past and Present, 131 (1991). 76. CCAC, CHAR 8/215/17: Churchill, ‘Mr H. G. Wells and the British Empire’, November 1927. 77. TNA, CAB 23/9: Churchill, 12 February 1919. 78. See Kevin Jeffery, The and the Crisis of Empire, 1918–1922 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984), pp. 96–154. 79. Churchill was not the only Cabinet member, or MP, to acknowledge the Bolshevik threat to the British Empire, but his was the loudest and most constant of the anti-Bolshevik voices. Martin Gilbert (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume IV, Part 2, July 1919–March 1921 (London: Heinemann, 1977), Lord Derby to Churchill, 17 DecDecember. 1920, ‘I want to tell you how absolutely I agree with the line you are taking about the Bolsheviks’, p. 1270. 80. Rose, Churchill, p. 151. 81. Gilbert (ed.), Companion Volume IV: 2, Churchill to Lloyd George, 4 January 1921, p. 1289. 82. Soames (ed.), Speaking for Themselves, Churchill to Clementine, 6 February 1921, p. 225. 83. Hyam, ‘Churchill and Empire’ in Blake and Louis (eds), Churchill, p. 167; Rose, Churchill, p. 153. 84. One example of Churchill’s immersion in imperial matters was his role in the abolition of the mui tsai system, the ‘practice of taking small girls to work as domestic servants’, which was a centuries-old endemic practice in China. See Norman Miners, Hong Kong under Imperial Rule, 1912–1941 (Hong Kong: OUP, 1987), p. 153. 85. See Kristian Ulrichsen, ‘The British Occupation of Mesopotamia, 1914– 1922’, Journal of Strategic Studies, 30:2 (2007); Edwin Latter, ‘The Indian army in Mesopotamia, 1914–1918’, Journal of the Society for Army Histor- ical Research, 72 (1994); Mason, A Matter of Honour; and Lord Hardinge, My Indian Years, 1910–1916: The Reminiscences of Lord Hardinge of Penhurst (London: Murray, 1948). 86. See Christopher Catherwood, Churchill’s Folly: How Winston Churchill cre- ated modern Iraq (New York: Carroll and Graf, 2004); Aaron S. Klieman, Foundation of British Policy in the Arab World: The Cairo Conference of 1921 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1970); Ritchie Ovendale, ‘Churchill and the Middle East 1945–55’, in R.A.C. Parker (ed.), Winston Churchill: Studies in Statesmanship (London: Brassey’s, 1995); and Peter Sluglett, Britain in Iraq: Contriving King and Country (London: Tauris, 2007). 87. Hansard, HC (series 5) vol. 143, col. 266 (14 June 1921). 182 Notes

88. Hansard, HC (series 5) vol. 143, col. 267 (14 June 1921). 89. Winston S. Churchill, ‘Mesopotamia and the New Government’, The Empire Review, 38/270 (1923), p. 696. 90. Catherwood, Churchill’s Folly, p. 128. 91. The most comprehensive accounts of the immediate background to Churchill’s position before the Cairo Conference are: Rose, Churchill, pp. 152–65; and Toye, Churchill’s Empire, pp. 136–61. 92. Churchill, ‘Mesopotamia and the New Government’, p. 696. The Mosul vilayet was of great importance to Churchill as it supplied oil to the British navy. As Mosul was threatened by Turkish forces this accounted for the large British troop presence, to which Churchill objected on grounds of cost—hence his pursuits of air power as a colonial police force. 93. Gilbert (ed.), Companion Volume IV: 2, Churchill memo, 25 October 1919, p. 939. 94. Policing troublesome imperial territories was an idea that Churchill thought was suited to Ireland. In fact he advocated the use of aircraft against Sinn Fein in 1920 and suggested that air power be used to ‘scat- ter and stampede them’. See Peter W. Gray, ‘The Myths of Air Control and the realities of Imperial Policing’, The Royal Air Force: Air Power Review, 4/2 (2001), p. 42; and David E. Omissi, Air Power and Colonial Control: The Royal Air Force, 1919–1939 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990), pp. 40–42. 95. Churchill, ‘Mesopotamia and the New Government’, p. 696. 96. See Omissi, Air Power and Colonial Control, especially chapter 6, ‘Indigenous responses to air policing’, pp. 107–33; and Philip Towle, Pilots and Rebels: The Use of Aircraft in Unconventional Warfare, 1918–1988 (London: Brassey’s, 1989), pp.19–21. 97. See James S. Corum, ‘The RAF in imperial defence, 1919–1956’, in Greg Kennedy (ed.), Imperial Defence: The old world order 1856–1956 (London: Routledge, 2008), pp. 152–75; and Omissi, Air Power and Colonial Control, chapter 4, ‘The limits of air substitution’, pp. 60–83. 98. For full accounts of Churchill’s role in the Cairo Conference of March 1921 see: Catherwood, Churchill’s Folly; Klieman, Foundations of British Policy in the Arab World; and Walter Reid, Empire of Sand: How Britain Made the Middle East (Edinburgh: Birlinn, 2011). 99. Martin Gilbert (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume IV, Part 3, April 1921–November 1922 (London: Heinemann, 1977), Churchill mem- orandum, 4 July 1921, p. 1540. 100. Gilbert (ed.), Companion Volume IV: 3, Churchill memorandum, 4 July 1921, p. 1541. 101. Gilbert (ed.), Companion Volume IV: 3, to Lord Curzon, 4 July 1921, p. 1542. 102. Robert Rhodes James (ed.), Memoirs of a Conservative: J.C.C. Davidson’s Mem- oirs and Papers, 1910–1937 (London: Macmillan, 1969), p. 210, cited by Christopher M. Bell, ‘Winston Churchill and the Ten Year Rule’, Journal of Modern History, 74 (2010), p. 1106. 103. See Ryan Brown, ‘The Burden of Statesmanship: Churchill as Chan- cellor, 1924–1929’, Finest Hour, 153 (2011–12), pp. 12–20; and Peter Notes 183

Clarke, ‘Churchill’s Economic Ideas, 1900–1930’, in Blake and Louis (eds), Churchill, pp. 79–95. 104. See Brian McAllister Linn, Guardians of Empire: The U.S. Army and the Pacific, 1902–1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); David MacGregor, ‘Former Naval Cheapskate: Chancellor of the Exchequer Winston Churchill and the Royal Navy, 1924–1929’, Armed Forces and Soci- ety, 19/3 (1993), pp. 319–33; James Neidpath, The Singapore Naval Base and the Defence of Britain’s Eastern Empire, 1919–1941 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981); Keith Neilson and Greg Kennedy (eds), Far Flung Lines: Stud- ies in Imperial Defence in Honour of Donald Mackenzie Schurman (London: Routledge, 1997); Keith Neilson, ‘Unbroken Thread’: Japan, Maritime Power and British Imperial Defence, 1920–32’, in Greg Kennedy (ed.), British Naval Strategy East of Suez, 1900–2000 (Abingdon: Cass, 2005); George Peden, ‘The Treasury and defence of empire’, in Kennedy (ed.), Imperial Defence (London: Routledge, 2008), pp. 71–90; and Stephen Roskill, Naval Policy Between the Wars: Volume I, The Period of Anglo-American Antag- onism, 1919–1929 (London: Collins, 1968). The ‘Ten Year Rule’ rolling defence spending limit is sometimes attributed to Churchill alone, whereas this is not the case. The rule (where war was not envisaged for another ten years hence no need to rearm frantically) was signed in 1919 by all of the Cabinet and was automatically renewed every year. The rule was, at times, blamed for Britain’s lack of preparedness for war. See Bell, ‘Winston Churchill and the Ten Year Rule’; K. Booth, ‘The Ten Year Rule—An Unfin- ished Debate’, Royal United Services Institute Journal, 116 (1971), pp. 58–62; Stephen Roskill, ‘The Ten Year Rule—The Historical Facts’, Royal United Ser- vices Institute Journal, 117 (1972), pp. 69–71; and Peter Silverman, ‘The Ten Year Rule’, Royal United Services Institute Journal, 116 (1971), pp. 42–5. 105. Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill: Prophet of Truth, 1922–1939 (London: Heinemann, 1976; Minerva, 1990), Churchill to Baldwin, 13 January 1924, p. 76; and Gilbert (ed.), Companion Volume IV: 3, Churchill memorandum, 4 July 1921, p. 1541. 106. Raymond Callahan, ‘Churchill and Singapore’, in Brian Farrell and Sandy Hunter (eds), Sixty Years On: The Fall of Singapore Revisited (Singapore: Eastern University Press, 2002), p. 157. 107. Robert O’Neill, ‘Churchill, Japan and British Security in the Pacific’, in Blake and Louis (eds), Churchill, p. 279. 108. See Christopher Bell, ‘The “Singapore strategy” and the deterrence of Japan: Winston Churchill, the Admiralty and the dispatch of Force Z’, English Historical Review, 116/467 (2001), pp. 604–34; Raymond Callahan, ‘The Illu- sion of Security: Singapore 1919–1942’, Journal of Contemporary History,9/2 (1979), pp. 69–92; Ian Cowman, ‘An Admiralty Myth: The Search for an Advanced Far Eastern Fleet Base before the Second World War’, Journal of Strategic Studies, 8 (1985), pp. 316–26; Ian Hamill, ‘Winston Churchill and the Singapore Naval Base, 1924–1929’, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 11/2 (1980), pp. 277–86. 109. Robert Rhodes James (ed.) Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, Vol- ume V: 1928–1935 (New York: Chelsea House, 1974), Churchill, Mansion House, London, 19 July 1928, p. 4496. 184 Notes

110. James (ed.) Complete Speeches, V, Churchill, Mansion House, London, 19 July, 1928, p. 4497. 111. Randolph S. Churchill (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume I, Part 2, 1896–1900 (London: Heinemann, 1967), Lady Jennie Churchill to Churchill, 29 October 1897, p. 826. 112. Penderel Moon (ed.), Wavell: The Viceroy’s Journal (Karachi: OUP, 1974), p. 3. 113. In particular, Gladstone and Salisbury had both previously resigned from their cabinet positions in a political huff in order to make their point over policy clear. In February 1886, Harcourt, the Liberal Chancellor of the Exchequer, had also made the same political bluff when his requests for a cut in the defence estimates were refused by cabinet. In December 1886, Lord Randolph attempted the same manoeuvre. As with all bluffs, politi- cal or otherwise, once made, they have to be followed through, and to his surprise, Lord Randolph’s resignation was accepted. 114. Churchill, Daily Mail, 16 November 1929; cited by Ian St John, ‘Writing to the Defence of Empire: Winston Churchill’s Press Campaign against Con- stitutional Reform in India, 1929–1935’, in Chandrika Kaul (ed.), Media and the British Empire (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), p. 104; Churchill, Gathering Storm, p. 27. 115. CCAC, CHAR 2/169/64: Churchill to Sir Abe Bailey, 19 Decemberember 1930. 116. CCAC, CHAR 2/169/62: Churchill to Sir Abe Bailey, 27 August 1930; cited by Ian St John, ‘Writing to the Defence of Empire’, p. 105–06. 117. Toye citing John Barnes, and David Nicolson (eds), The Empire At Bay: The Leo Amery Diaries 1929–1945 (London: Hutchinson, 1988), Leo Amery diary entry, 19 July 1934, p. 384, in Toye, Churchill’s Empire, p. 180. 118. Toye, Churchill’s Empire, p. 180. 119. Paul Addison, ‘The Three Careers of Winston Churchill’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Sixth series, 11 (2001), p. 186. 120. Winston S. Churchill, A History of the English-Speaking Peoples: Volumes I–IV (London: Cassell, 1956–8). Although research was started in 1933, the rate of work naturally dimmed as Churchill pursued the advent of German rear- mament. The outbreak of war, his return to the Admiralty, paper shortages and then becoming Prime Minister, all led to Churchill abandoning the work and then resuming it in the in the mid 1950s once he had retired from his second residency of 10 Downing Street. See Peter Clarke, Mr Churchill’s Profession: The Statesman as Author and the Book That Defined the ‘Special Relationship’ (London: Bloomsbury, 2012). 121. Richard Toye, ‘Churchill and Empire: Myth and Reality’, part of the Churchill Lecture Series, Cabinet War Rooms, London, 22 March 2011. 122. Randolph S. Churchill (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume II, Part 3, 1911–1914 (London: Heinemann, 1969), Churchill memorandum, c. early 1912, p. 1512. 123. Churchill (ed.), Into Battle, House of Commons, 13 May, 1940, p. 207–08. 124. David Reynolds, In Command of History: Churchill Fighting and Writing the Second World War (London: Allen Lane, 2004), p. 336. 125. Winston S. Churchill, ‘Will the British Empire Last?’, Answers,29October 1929. 126. John Gallagher, ‘The Decline, Revival and Fall of the British Empire’, in Anil Seal (ed.), The Decline, Revival and Fall of the British Empire: The Ford Lectures Notes 185

and other essays by John Gallagher (Cambridge: CUP, 1982; 2nd edition, 2004), p. 73. 127. Robert Rhodes James (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, 1987–1963, Volume VII, 1943–1949 (New York: Chelsea House, 1974), Churchill, ‘The Sinews of Peace’, Westminster College, Fulton, Missouri, 5 March 1946, p. 7292.

3 Churchill’s Imperial War with Japan

1. CCAC, DEKE 1: Reader Correspondence: Denis Kelly, quoting Churchill, to Martin Gilbert, 11 October 1988. 2. Churchill, BBC broadcast, London, 13 May 1945 in David Cannadine (ed.), The Speeches of Winston Churchill (London: Penguin, 1990), p. 262; Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume III, The Grand Alliance (London: Cassell, 1950), p. 545. America and Britain both declared war against Japan on 8 Decemberember 1941. The continues to be extensively researched. The most comprehensive leading accounts are: Akira Iriye, Pearl Harbor and the Coming of the Pacific War: A Brief History with Documents and Essays (Boston, MA: Bedford, 1999); William Bruce Johnson, The Pacific Campaign in World War II: From Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal (London: Routledge, 2006); Ronald H. Spector, Eagle Against the Sun: The American War with Japan (London: Viking, 1984); Iguchi Takeo, Demystifying Pearl Harbor: A New Perspective from Japan (Tokyo: International House of Japan, 2010); and John Toland, Infamy: Pearl Harbor and its Aftermath (London: Methuen, 1982). 3. Audrey Sansbury Talks, A Tale of Two Japans: 10 Years to Pearl Harbor (Brighton: Book Guild Publishing, 2010), p. xi. This ten-year period is gen- erally taken to mean the decade from 1931, starting with Japan’s invasion of Manchuria. 4. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 539. 5. Whitehall had continually underestimated Japanese military strength throughout the 1930s and this underestimation, along with the reality of imperial overstretch in the Far East, arguably shaped British Far Eastern policy at this time. See Anthony Best, ‘Constructing an Image: British Intel- ligence and Whitehall’s Perception of Japan, 1931–1939’, Intelligence and National Security, 11/3 (1996), and ‘ “This Probably Over-Valued Military Power”: British Intelligence and Whitehall’s Perception of Japan, 1939–41’, Intelligence and National Security, 12/3 (1997). 6. See Michael A. Barnhart, ‘Japan’s Economic Security and the Origins of the Pacific War’, Journal of Strategic studies, 4/2 (1981), pp. 105–24. Barnhart convincingly argues that American economic sanctions did not act as the major impetus for Japan to attack Pearl Harbor. Rather it was the internal tension between the Japanese navy and army which pushed Japan to war. See also Michael A. Barnhart, Japan Prepares for : The Search for Economic Security, 1919–1941 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987; reprinted 1988) in which his thesis is analysed in more detail and which partially backs up Churchill’s assertion that the ‘immediate cause of the Pacific War was the failure of the Hull–Nomura negotiations’, p. 263. 186 Notes

7. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume I, The Gathering Storm (London: Cassell, 1948), pp. 3–15. 8. CCAC, CHUR 4/25A/179: Churchill to Henry Luce, 19 February 1947. 9. David Reynolds, In Command of History: Churchill Fighting and Writing the Second World War (London: Allen Lane, 2004), p. 85. 10. CCAC, CHAR 8/545/189: Winston S. Churchill, ‘Japan and the Monroe Doctrine’, Collier’s, July 1936. (Collier’s was an American weekly magazine). 11. Churchill, Gathering Storm, p. 527. 12. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 100. 13. Union of Democratic Control, Eastern Menace: The Story of Japanese Imperi- alism (London: Union of Democratic Control, 1936). 14. Churchill, Gathering Storm, p. 11. 15. Churchill, Gathering Storm, p. 11. 16. Although the Anglo-Japanese Alliance may have been formalised in 1902, an informal relationship (and one which went through on–off stages) had existed since the Iwakura mission of 1872–4. See Ian Nish, ‘Origins of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance: In the shadow of the Dreibund’, in Phillips Payson O’Brien (ed.), The Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 1902–1922 (London: Routledge, 2004), pp. 8–25, for the long view of the history of the 1902 Alliance. 17. Churchill, Gathering Storm, p. 11. 18. This is not to say that the British Empire in the Far East would ultimately not have crumbled. Changing wartime and post-war sensibilities implied that it would have done, but it may not have disintegrated at such an exponential rate. 19. L.J. Butler, Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World (London: I.B. Tauris, 2002), p. 24. 20. Lt-Comdr. Tota Ishimaru, Japan Must Fight Britain, translated by Instructor- Capt. G.V. Rayment (London: Hurst & Blackett, 1936), p. ix. Ishimaru would write that Japan had learnt lessons from Germany’s defeat in the First World War in that ‘ignoring diplomacy, setting up military despotism, or, in unnecessary haste, shouting down our diplomatists, is to repeat the mistake that led Germany to disaster: it is not the way to make our country great’, p. xi. 21. For a comprehensive and persuasive argument over the myth surrounding the contemporary perception of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance see: Anthony Best, ‘The “Ghost” of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance: An Examination into Historical Myth-Making’, Historical Journal, 49/3 (2006), pp. 811–31. 22. Robert J. Gowen, ‘British Legerdemain at the 1911 Imperial Conference: The Dominions, Defense Planning, and the Renewal of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance’, Journal of Modern History, 52/3 (1980), pp. 385–413. 23. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 516. 24. Robert O’Neill, ‘Churchill, Japan, and British Security in the Pacific, 1904– 1942’, in Roger Blake and Wm. Roger Louis (eds), Churchill: A Major New Assessment of his Life in Peace and War (Oxford: OUP, 1993), p. 276. 25. O’Neill, ‘Churchill, Japan, and British Security in the Pacific’, p. 276, ref- erencing Martin Gilbert (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: Volume III, 1914–1916 (London: Heinemann, 1971), Churchill to Grey, 11 August 1914, p. 43. 26. Churchill was not alone in this assumption: for example Grey also thought that Japanese imperial gains would not pose a threat to the British Empire. Notes 187

27. Gilbert, Churchill: III, p. 42. 28. Robert J. Gowen, ‘Great Britain and the Twenty-One Demands of 1915: Cooperation versus Effacement’, Journal of Modern History, 43/1 (1971), pp. 76–106. 29. Gilbert, Churchill: III, p. 42. 30. The Japanese Navy did, however, help the British to suppress the Singapore mutiny, that of the 5th Light Infantry in February 1915: see Ian Beckett, ‘The Singapore mutiny of February, 1915’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 62 (1984); Nicholas Tarling, ‘The Singapore Mutiny of 1915’, Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 55/2 (1982); Philip Mason, A Matter of Honour: An Account of the Indian Army, Its Officers and Men (London: Macmillan, 1986), pp. 425–7; and Budheswar Pati, India and the First World War, 1914–1918 (New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers, 1996), pp. 128–30. See Gilbert, Churchill: III, p. 44. 31. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 189 32. Churchill, Gathering Storm,p.64. 33. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 100. 34. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 71. 35. Recent scholarship has once again renewed the debate (first begun by A.J.P. Taylor) over the date when the Second World War began. The most persuasive are Evan Mawdsley, World War II: A New History (Cambridge: CUP, 2009), and Rana Mitter, China’s War with Japan, 1937– 1945: The Struggle for Survival (London: Allen Lane, 2013). Both persuasively argue that the ‘Marco Polo Bridge Incident’ of 7 July 1937 (the out- break of the Sino-Japanese war) was the opening date of the Second World War. 36. Churchill, Gathering Storm,p.27. 37. Churchill, Gathering Storm,p.28. 38. Churchill, Gathering Storm,p.67. 39. Churchill, Gathering Storm,p.68. 40. For details of the Mukden incident which led to the Manchurian crisis see: W.G. Beasley, Japanese Imperialism, 1894–1945 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1987), pp. 175–97; and Louise Young, Japan’s Total Empire: Manchuria and the Culture of Wartime Imperialism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999). 41. Churchill, Gathering Storm,p.68. 42. Churchill, Gathering Storm,p.69. 43. The conference was held in Washington DC, from 12 November 1921 to 6 February 1922, and was set-up and held without the aid of the but with their tacit approval. The most all-encompassing publication on the Washington Conference is Erik Goldstein and John Maurer (eds), The Washington Conference, 1921–22: Naval Rivalry, East Asian Stability and the Road to Pearl Harbor (London: Cass, 1994). Individual works of note are Phillips Payson O’Brien, British and American Naval Power: Politics and Policy, 1900–1936 (London: Greenwood, 1998); and Emily O. Goldman, Sunken Treaties: Naval Arms Control between the Wars (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press, 1994). 44. Churchill, Gathering Storm,p.11. 45. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 516. 188 Notes

46. ‘The Sinews of Peace’, Churchill, Westminster College, Fulton, Missouri, 5 March 1946, in Randolph S. Churchill (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: Post-war Speeches, The Sinews of Peace (London: Cassell, 1948), p. 98. 47. Churchill, Gathering Storm, p. 12. 48. See Keith Neilson, ‘ “Unbroken Thread”: Japan, Maritime Power and British Imperial Defence, 1920–32’, in Greg Kennedy (ed.), British Naval Strat- egy East of Suez, 1900–2000 (Abingdon: Frank Cass, 2005); and Stephen Roskill, Naval Policy Between the Wars: Volume I, The Period of Anglo-American Antagonism, 1919–1929 (London: Collins, 1968). 49. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 101. This paragraph amounted to a total of seven lines, and 76 words: Churchill, Gathering Storm, p. 168. 50. Chapter 12, ‘The Loaded Pause: Spain, 1936–7’, which dealt with not only the civil war in Spain but also Edward VIII’s abdication, the coronation of King George VI, Baldwin’s retirement and Chamberlain’s appointment as PM: Churchill, Gathering Storm, pp. 162–75. 51. CCAC, CHAR 8/545/184–200: Winston S. Churchill, ‘Japan and the Monroe Doctrine’, written for Collier’s, July 1936. 52. Reynolds, In Command of History, citing Deakin, p. 101. 53. CCAC, CHUR 4/251A/248: Sargent to Churchill, undated. 54. Ritchie Ovendale, ‘Sargent, Sir (Harold) Orme Garton (1884–1962)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: OUP, 2004; online edition, January 2008). 55. CCAC, CHUR 4/251A/248: Sargent to Churchill, undated. 56. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 519. 57. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 516. The irony should not be lost on the reader for whilst Churchill happily described the Japanese mind-set as inscrutable, it was obviously not inscrutable to him as he set about explaining it to his reader! Another example of how hindsight was, for Churchill, a well-used tool in his literary armoury. 58. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 519. 59. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 519. 60. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 520. 61. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume II: Their Finest Hour (London: Cassell, 1949), p. 225. 62. Churchill made only two references to the closure of the Burma Road in his memoirs. As referenced above (p. 225), and when he minuted Eden, ‘would it not be a good thing to give it a miss for a month or so, and see what happens?’ Churchill, Their Finest Hour, Appendix A, Churchill to Eden, 20 July 1940, p. 571. 63. A.J.P. Taylor (ed.), Off the Record: W. P. Crozier, Political Interviews, 1933–1943 (London: Hutchinson, 1973), Churchill to Crozier, 26 July 1940, p. 176. 64. Donald Cameron Watt, ‘Churchill and Appeasement’, in Blake and Louis (eds), Churchill, p. 200. 65. Churchill, Their Finest Hour, p. 440. 66. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 190. 67. Taylor (ed.), Off the Record, Churchill to Crozier, 26 July 1940, p. 176. 68. Winston S. Churchill, ‘A Word to Japan!’, The Daily Mirror, 11 August 1939, and ‘We Must Make It Clear That ...We Won’t Give Way To Bullying by the Japs’, Belfast Telegraph, 10 August 1939. Notes 189

69. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 522–23. 70. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 142. 71. Churchill, Grand Alliance, pp. 156–72. Deakin had overall responsibility but was aided by Geoffrey Hudson (an Oxford specialist on East Asia). The drafts for the historical background to the war in the Far East remained largely unchanged. See Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 229. 72. Churchill, Grand Alliance, pp. 159–60. Churchill was referring to his meetings with Shigemitsu on 24 February and 4 March 1941. 73. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 160. 74. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 160. 75. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 229. 76. CCAC, CHUR 4/251A/9: Brook to Churchill, 22 February 1949. 77. Churchill, Grand Alliance, frontispiece. 78. Churchill, Grand Alliance, pp. 514–36. 79. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 527. 80. Churchill, Grand Alliance, Churchill speech, Mansion House, London, 10 November 1941, p. 528. For the full speech see Robert Rhodes James (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches: Volume VI, 1935–1942 (New York: Chelsea House, 1974), pp. 6504–12. 81. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 528. 82. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 529–30. America introduced economic sanc- tions against Japan gradually, starting with an embargo on goods for aeroplane manufacture at the end of 1939. Sanctions against exporting lubricating oil and aviation fuel were introduced in June 1940, and the export of all kinds of scrap metal was prohibited by September 1940. Finally an oil embargo was place in July 1941. Yet the fact that the Japanese war machine continued to be fed illustrates that economic sanctions were not the sole reason for Japanese imperial aggression. Other possible reasons for Japan’s push to war included the rivalry between Japan’s army and navy (the will of one to dominate the other), and Japan’s internal political dynamics, which made war more likely than American-imposed economic sanctions. See Barnhart, Japan Prepares for Total War. 83. Churchill, Grand Alliance, ‘The ’, pp. 385–400. 84. CCAC, CHUR 4/251A/235: Reves to Churchill, undated 85. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 260. 86. LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/135/1: Pownall to Miss M. E. Green (Ismay’s Private Secretary), 28 January 1950. 87. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 391. 88. For a contemporary view of the Atlantic Charter see H.V. Morton, Atlantic Meeting (London: Methuen, 1944, 3rd edition). 89. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 260–61. Churchill, Grand Alliance,‘The Atlantic Charter’, pp. 385–400: in which Churchill refers to the first draft as ‘my original draft of the Atlantic Charter’ and as ‘my text’, p. 385. 90. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 389. 91. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 400. 92. Churchill, Grand Alliance, ‘Pearl Harbour!’, pp. 537–54. The exclamation mark was used to its full effect, and Churchill kept to the English spelling. 93. CCAC, CHUR 4/251A/154–7: Kelly to Churchill, quoting Gold, undated. 94. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 229. 190 Notes

95. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 539. 96. Churchill made no reference to the long-standing informal arrangement between the United States and British (Plan Orange) which was renewed with meaning in January 1938. The plan reasoned that should war in the Pacific break out between Japan and either America or Britain, then America would assure Britain free use of her waters and vice versa. Such a plan had been loosely agreed since the Washington Naval Conference of 1921 as it acted as a bulwark against either Britain or America becom- ing rivals and prevented them from antagonising each other. See Edward S. Miller, War Plan Orange: The U.S. Strategy to Defeat Japan, 1897–1945 (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1991). 97. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 545. 98. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 537–8. 99. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 538. 100. CCAC, CHUR 4/251A/205: Anonymous and undated. 101. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 539. 102. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 539. 103. CCAC, CHUR 4/251A/159: Graebner to Churchill, 8 November 1949. 104. Max Arthur (ed.), Lost Voices of the Royal Navy (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1996; edition, 2005), Lieutenant Michael Torrens-Spence, RN, p. 266. 105. See Thomas P. Lowry and John W.G. Wellham, The Attack on : Blueprint for Pearl Harbor (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1995; edi- tion, 2000); David Wragg, Swordfish: The Story of the Taranto Raid (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2003; Cassell Military Paperbacks edition, 2004); and ‘Battle of Taranto, 1940’, accessed 18 June 2011. 106. Richard Hough, Former Naval Person: Churchill and the Wars at Sea (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1985), p. 167. See for example: Correlli Barnett, Engage The Enemy More Closely: The Royal Navy in the Second World War (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1991), pp. 244–50; Viscount Andrew Cunningham, A Sailor’s Odyssey (London: Hutchinson, 1951; reprinted 1953), pp. 282–90; Nathan Miller, War At Sea: A Naval History of World War II (New York: Scribners, 1995), pp. 120–23; and Mark R. Peattie, Sunburst: The Rise of Japanese Naval Air Power, 1909–1941 (London: Chatham, 2001), pp. 129–67. 107. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 520. 108. For a nuanced and detailed analysis on the attack on Taranto see Stephen W. Roskill, The War At Sea, 1939–1945: Volume I, The Defensive (London: HMSO, 1954; edition, 2004), pp. 300–301. 109. Taylor (ed.), Off the record, Sinclair to Crozier, 31 January 1941, p. 204. 110. Arthur J. Marder, Old Friends, New Enemies: The Royal Navy and the Impe- rial Japanese Navy, Strategic Illusions, 1936–1941 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1981), p. 314. See also Richard J. Overy, The Air War: 1939–1945 (London: Europa, 1980), who traces the origins of the strategy involved in the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor back to 1936 and Commander Genda Minoru (1904–1989) who ‘completed the development of Japanese carrier power by getting the navy to adopt his theory of the mass carrier strike-force’, pp. 6–7. Notes 191

111. Commodore Allen was responsible for the draft chapter on the loss of both ships. LHCMA, ISMAY: 2/3/123: Ismay to Allen, 3 December 1948, confirm- ing his receipt of the draft from Allen; LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/124/1: Ismay to Churchill, 3 December 1948, commenting that he had received the notes on the losses from Allen so that he could ‘fill in the action’ from Whitehall’s perspective. 112. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 523. 113. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 524–5; Churchill made no mention of the ‘brow beating’ he gave Admiral Pound when he insisted that Prince of Wales joined the Repulse. He also made no mention of how Indomitable was to join them had ‘she not been damaged in a grounding accident in the West Indies’: see Eric Grove, The Royal Navy since 1815 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), p. 196. The idea of Force Z acting as a deterrent received credence from one of Churchill’s most trusted confidants, Smuts. The South African Prime Minister met and discussed the policy of sending the two ships to act as a deterrent against Japanese action with Phillips in Pretoria when the Prince of Wales berthed at Cape Town before sailing to Singapore. See Roskill, The War At Sea: I, p. 558. 114. (ed.), Chief of Staff: The Diaries of Lieutenant General Sir Henry Pownall: Volume II, 1940–1944 (London: Leo Cooper, 1974), undated entry on the ‘Causes of Failure’, p. 96. The controversy over the loss of the Prince of Wales and the Repulse continued long after Churchill’s portrayal was published. For example, in 1962, Admiral William Davis wrote to Captain Stephen Roskill (who wrote the Official History of the Naval war) for veri- fication regarding whether it was correct for a friend of his to say that the ships ‘should never have been in Singapore area because of lack of proper air cover’, and that ‘they had been sent there against expert advice’. CCAC, ROSK 4/79: Admiral William Davis to Captain Stephen Roskill, 6 April 1962. 115. Christopher M. Bell, Churchill and Sea Power (Oxford: OUP, 2013), p. 245. Bell writes that even though Churchill’s deterrent strategy was a failure – war with Japan ensued – ‘the underlying logic was mostly sound’. Although Bell states that the nub of the episode is what the ships were doing in Singapore during peacetime [Bell’s italics] as war with Japan had yet to start, he nonetheless states that Churchill’s ‘overly optimistic assumptions’ were part of the reason as to why the deterrent strategy failed, pp. 247–53. In short, Force Z should have not been used offensively. 116. ‘Rescues from the Prince of Wales and Repulse’, detailed that 2330 lives out of a total of 2925 lives were saved, The Times, 12 December 1941; Christopher M. Bell, ‘The “Singapore Strategy” and the Deterrence of Japan: Winston Churchill, the Admiralty and the Dispatch of Force Z’, English Historical Review, 116/467 (2001), p. 604. 117. Nigel Nicolson (ed.), The Harold Nicolson Diaries, 1907–1963 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2004), 19 December 1941, p. 255. 118. , The Blast of War, 1939–45 (London: Macmillan, 1967), p. 140. 119. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 264. 120. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 551. 121. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 548. 192 Notes

122. Paul Kennedy wrote that Phillips had been ‘one of the most scornful of all about the dangers posed by aircraft’ to ships. See Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery (London: Allen Lane, 1976; Fontana, 1991), p. 359. 123. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 551. 124. CCAC, CHUR 4/253A/133–6: Churchill, dictated reminiscences, c. January 1950. 125. CCAC, CHUR 4/253A/136: Churchill, dictated reminiscences, c. January 1950. According to Kelly’s handwritten note, he distributed copies to the syndicate on 1 February 1950. 126. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 531. 127. Kelly recollected how Churchill had once commented that Commodore Allan could not ‘bear a single one of his ships going to the bottom with- out it going into my book’. However as Kelly would point out, in the instance of the Prince of Wales and Repulse, this was not the case. See Martin Gilbert, Never Despair: Winston S. Churchill, 1945–1965: Volume VIII (London: Heinemann, 1988), p. 345. 128. LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/44C: Churchill to Ismay, 23 April 1948. 129. CCAC, ROSK 6/26: James Butler recounting conversation with Norman Brook to Stephen Roskill, 20 August 1963. 130. LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/124/2: ‘The Loss of the PRINCE OF WALES and the REPULSE’, notes by Commodore Allen, undated. 131. CCAC, CHAR 20/251/43: Allen to Churchill, 31 January 1948. 132. CCAC, CHAR 20/251/44: Allen to Churchill, 31 January 1948. 133. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 253. 134. CHUR 4/253A/133: Churchill, dictated reminiscences, c. January 1950. 135. CHUR 4/253A/134: Churchill, dictated reminiscences, c. January 1950. 136. CHUR 4/253A/134: Churchill, dictated reminiscences, c. January 1950. 137. CHUR 4/253A/135: Churchill, dictated reminiscences, c. January 1950. 138. Winston S. Churchill, ‘SINGAPORE—Key to the Pacific’, Sunday Chronicle, 24 March 1934. Churchill claimed that the three other reasons as to why the base at Singapore was necessary were: ‘Our Navy must have a big oil supply and repair station in that area’; ‘If the base were abandoned we could not send a strong fleet to the Pacific’; and ‘We could not offer protection to Australia and New Zealand without it’. 139. Bell, ‘The ‘Singapore Strategy’ and the Deterrence of Japan’, p. 605. 140. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 267. 141. This belief was also voiced by Air Chief Marshal Sir John Slessor who remarked of Churchill that ‘of course, he doesn’t really understand mod- ern war’ and that Slessor and his colleagues at the Imperial Defence College (Belgrave Square, London), were ‘worried about the absence of any airman’ in his team of researchers and writers: LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/105: Slessor to Ismay, 11 October 1948. Ismay replied and confirmed that he and the syn- dicate had ‘pressed’ Churchill to ‘have an airman on his permanent staff’ and that he ‘had agreed in principle’: LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/106: Ismay to Slessor, 14 October 1948. 142. CCAC, DEKE 1: Reader Correspondence: Kelly to Martin Gilbert, 11 October 1988. Notes 193

143. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 547. The role of Anthony Eden (Foreign Secretary) in the decision to send Force Z to Singapore should not be underestimated as it not only illustrates that Churchill should not be singled out for censure but also that his decision could have been influ- enced by political aspects: such a supposed show of strength might have acted as a deterrent against Japan’s entry into a war against the British Empire. See Bell, ‘The ‘Singapore Strategy’ and the Deterrence of Japan’, pp. 626–7. 144. CCAC, DEKE 1: Reader Correspondence: Kelly to Martin Gilbert, 11 October 1988. 145. Arthur Nicholson, Hostages to Fortune: Winston Churchill and the Loss of the Prince of Wales and Repulse (Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2005), Nicholson citing Captain William Davis to Arthur Marder, 3 April 1975, p. 179. 146. CCAC, DEKE 1: Reader Correspondence: Kelly to Martin Gilbert, 11 October 1988. 147. CCAC, CHUR 4/274/137: Page proof regarding fall of . 148. See Martin Middlebrook and Patrick Mahoney, : The Loss of the Prince of Wales and the Repulse (London: Allen Lane, 1977; reprint 1979) for a thorough use of first hand witness accounts. See also Ian W. Toll, Pacific Crucible: War at Sea in the Pacific, 1941–42 (New York: Norton, 2012), pp. 53–8, for examples of how crew members had ‘feelings of absolute con- fidence’ about their ability to chase and destroy Japanese warships off the coast of Singora. 149. CCAC, CHUR 4/253A/135: Churchill, dictated reminiscences, c. January 1950. 150. It has been argued that Churchill should not be singled out for censure, rather that the civilian and naval decision makers of the inter-war period should shoulder a collective blame due to the culmination of years of mis- guided planning. See Bell, ‘The ‘Singapore Strategy’ and the Deterrence of Japan’, p. 632. 151. Churchill, Grand Alliance, Churchill to Eden, 12 Decemberember 1941, p. 554. 152. CCAC, DEKE 5: Churchill lecture given by Kelly, 13 January 1982, p. 22. 153. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 253. 154. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 101. 155. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 521. 156. CCAC, CHUR 4/251A/152: Kelly to Churchill, 27 June 1949. 157. Bond (ed.), Chief of Staff: II, 20 Decemberember 1941, pp. 66–7. 158. CCAC, CHUR 4/251C/408: Churchill to Kelly, 28 December 1949. Even though Churchill decided on this tactic, he expected a barrage of ‘impor- tant American corrections answering points of principle’ to flow towards him and the syndicate once the volume was published Stateside. 159. Raymond Callahan, Churchill: Retreat from Empire (Wilmington, DE: Schol- arly Resources Inc., 1984), p. 245. 160. Hansard, HC (series 5) vol. 413, col. 79 (16 August 1945). 161. Churchill reiterated his protest that it was the economic embargoes, ini- tially declared by America but then agreed upon by Britain and the Dutch East Indies, which had led to Japan coming into the war. See Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 523 and p. 527. 194 Notes

162. Robert O’Neil, ‘Churchill, Japan, and British Security in the Pacific 1904– 1942’, in Blake and Louis (eds), Churchill: A Major New Assessment, p. 276. 163. Sir John Kennedy, The Business of War: The War Narrative of Major-General Sir John Kennedy (London: Hutchinson, 1957), p. 7. 164. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 552. 165. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume IV, The Hinge of Fate (London: Cassell, 1951), p. 81.

4 Churchill’s Imperial Losses: Hong Kong, Malaya, Singapore

1. Brian Bond (ed.), Chief of Staff: The Diaries of Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Pownall: Volume II (London: Leo Cooper, 1974), 20 December 1941, p. 67. 2. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume IV, The Hinge of Fate (London: Cassell, 1951), p. 81. 3. CCAC, CHUR 4/233B/240: Allen to Churchill, 23 February 1949; Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume III, The Grand Alliance (London: Cassell, 1950), p. 540. Due to Churchill’s schedule, but perhaps also to avoid the recurrent pain, Pownall was assigned the task of writing the majority of the narrative about the loss of Singapore. See CCAC, CHUR 4/258/23–4: Deakin to Churchill, ‘The Fall of Singapore’ chapter structure with assignment details, 27 July 1949; in which Deakin noted that ‘some reconstruction’ would ‘have to be done in the Far Eastern story’ and that Pownall would be responsible for four out of the five sections of the chapter. 4. Raymond Callahan, ‘Churchill and Singapore’, in Brian Farrell and Sandy Hunter (eds), Sixty Years On: The Fall of Singapore Revisited (Singapore: Eastern Universities Press, 2002), p. 156. 5. Churchill, Grand Alliance, ‘The Japanese Envoy’, pp. 156–72. 6. David Reynolds, In Command of History: Churchill Fighting and Writing the Second World War (London: Allen Lane, 2004), p. 223. 7. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 223. 8. A.J.P. Taylor (ed.), Off the record: W.P. Crozier, Political interviews, 1933–1943 (London: Hutchinson, 1973), c. before 8 , p. 225. 9. CCAC, CHUR 4/233A/123: Pownall to Churchill, 21 December 1948. 10. CCAC, CHUR 4/233A/125: Pownall’s notes on Wake Island, c. December 1948; and CCAC, CHUR 4/233A/126–7: Pownall’s notes on the Philippines, c. December 1948. 11. CCAC, CHUR 4/233A/128: Pownall’s notes on Hong Kong, c. December 1948. 12. Kent Fedorowich, ‘ “Cocked Hats and Swords and Small, Little Garrisons”: Britain, Canada and the Fall of Hong Kong, 1941’, Modern Asian Studies, 37/1 (2003), citing Ian Morrison, ‘A Letter from Hong Kong’, August 1939, p. 112. 13. Memorandum by Admiral Tom Phillips, 3 January 1940, cited by Christopher M. Bell, “Our Most Exposed Outpost’: Hong Kong and British Far Eastern Strategy, 1921–1941’, Journal of Modern History, 60/1 (1996), p. 74. 14. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 157. Notes 195

15. Churchill, Grand Alliance, Churchill to Ismay, 7 January 1941, p. 157. 16. TNA, PREM 1/345/6: Churchill to Neville Chamberlain, accompanying letter to the ‘Memorandum on Sea-Power, 1939’, 27 March 1939. 17. TNA, PREM 1/345/7–14: Churchill, ‘Memorandum on Sea-Power, 1939’, 25 March 1939. 18. TNA, PREM 1/345/4: Chatfield to Neville Chamberlain, 29 March 1939. 19. See Kent Fedorowich, ‘ Deferred? The Re-establishment of Colonial Rule in Hong Kong, 1942–45’, Journal of Imperial and Common- wealth History, 28/3 (2000), in which he explores the ‘tortuous wartime discussions’ between Britain, China and America over Hong Kong’s post- war future: ‘over the future of this imperial pearl’, p. 25. Fedorowich provides further evidence of Churchill’s post-war mythologising of the ‘spe- cial relationship’ as these discussions are not referred to by Churchill within his memoirs. 20. Whilst the rapidity with which Hong Kong would fall had always been subject to speculation, especially amongst the Chiefs of the Imperial Gen- eral Staff since the early 1930s, the inevitability of the loss itself had been presumed all along. 21. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 562. 22. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 563. 23. Churchill, Grand Alliance, pp. 562–3. 24. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 563. 25. CCAC, CHAR 20/47/63: Churchill to Sir Mark Young, 21 December 1941. 26. Norman Miners, Hong Kong under Imperial Rule, 1912–1941 (Hong Kong: OUP, 1987), p. 144. 27. TNA, CO 129/583/19: Commodore, China Station to Admiralty, 24 June 1940, cited by Miners, Hong Kong under Imperial Rule, p. 145. 28. See John Charmley, Lord Lloyd and the Decline of the British Empire (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1987), pp. 251–60. 29. Miners, Hong Kong under Imperial Rule, p. 145. 30. Major-General S. Woodburn Kirby, The War Against Japan: Volume I, The Loss of Singapore (Uckfield, East Sussex: Naval & Military Press, 1957; edition, 2004), p. 113. 31. Ashley Jackson, The British Empire and the Second World War (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2006), p. 65. 32. Jackson, The British Empire and the Second World War,p.66. 33. Kirby, The War Against Japan: I, p. 115. 34. Taylor (ed.), Off the Record, Crozier recounting a conversation with Eden, 15 January 1942, p. 267. 35. Oliver Lindsay, The Battle for Hong Kong, 1941–1945: Hostage to Fortune (London: Spellmount, 2005; edition, 2007) especially pp. 47–83. Based on the memories of John E. Harris, this confirms the extent to which the expec- tations of the Hong Kong garrison were unrealistic from the very outbreak of war in Europe. 36. Bell, ‘Our Most Exposed Outpost’, p. 83. 37. Bell, ‘Our Most Exposed Outpost’, pp. 86–7. 38. Bell, ‘Our Most Exposed Outpost’, p. 87. 39. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 157. 40. Miners, Hong Kong under Imperial Rule, p. 7. 196 Notes

41. Miners, Hong Kong under Imperial Rule, p.10. 42. Miners, Hong Kong under Imperial Rule, pp. 12–24. 43. Miners, Hong Kong under Imperial Rule, p. 153. 44. See Nadzan Haron, ‘Colonial Defence and British Approach to the Prob- lems in Malaya, 1874–1918’, Modern Asian Studies, 24/2 (1990), for why Churchill’s portrayal was so erroneous regarding local populations and how the garrison in Hong Kong was manned. ‘In Hong Kong, the Hong Kong regiment was not raised from the local population, but from Sikhs and Pathans.’ See p. 279. 45. Bernard Porter, The Absent-Minded Imperialists: Empire, Society and Culture in Britain (Oxford: OUP, 2004). 46. For compelling accounts of the battle for Hong Kong see: Tony Banham, Not the Slightest Chance: The Defence of Hong Kong, 1941 (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2005); John R. Harris, The Battle for Hong Kong, 1941–1945 (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2005); and Philip Snow, The Fall of Hong Kong: Britain, China and the Japanese Occupation (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003; edition, 2004). 47. TNA, PREM 1/345/12: Churchill to Neville Chamberlain, ‘Memorandum on Sea Power, March 1939’, 25 March 1939. 48. Kirby, The War against Japan: I, pp. 119–52. Also see J. M.A. Gwyer, History of the Second World War: Grand Strategy, June 1941–August 1942,Volume3, Part 1 (London: HMSO, 1964), p. 311. 49. Sandra Koa Wing (ed.), Mass-Observation: Britain in the Second World War (London: Folio, 2007), Edie Rutherford (39-year-old, housewife, Sheffield), 8 December 1941, p. 115. 50. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 350. 51. Churchill, Grand Alliance, pp. 351–2. 52. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 352. 53. CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/24: Front piece to chapter proof, ‘proofed out’ on 5 January 1950. Word count marked by Kelly at 7,100 words. 54. CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/73: Front piece to chapter proof, dated 19 August 1950 by Kelly; word count marked by Kelly at 7,600 words. See Churchill, Hinge of Fate, pp. 32–52. 55. CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/128: Front piece to chapter proof, ‘proofed out’ on 3 August 1949. Chapter title: ‘Retreat in Malaya’. A handwritten note states that this chapter had been ‘now merged in Fall of S’ [fall of Singapore chapter] and a second handwritten note indicated the intention to ‘add perhaps further in Burma’. 56. CCAC, CHUR 4/255B/153: Front piece to chapter proof, ‘proofed out’ on 24 March 1950. 57. Churchill, Hinge of Fate,p.81. 58. CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/73: Front piece to chapter proof, dated 19 August 1950 by Kelly; word count marked by Kelly at 7,600 words. 59. Churchill, Hinge of Fate,p.32. 60. CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/73: Front piece to chapter proof, dated 19 August 1950 by Kelly; word count marked by Kelly at 7,600 words. 61. Major-General Stephen Woodburn Kirby, The War against Japan: Volumes I–V (London: HMSO, 1957–69; Uckfield: Naval & Military Press edition, 2004). Notes 197

62. TNA, PREM 1/345/9: Churchill to Neville Chamberlain, ‘Memorandum on Sea Power, March 1939’, 25 March 1939. 63. Reynolds believes CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/118 to date from the summer of 1949, see In Command of History, p. 295–6. However, the document could date from as late as April 1950. See Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 81. 64. The British publication date was set for 3August 1951 for the Hinge of Fate whereas the American publication date was earlier, 27 November 1950. See Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 531. 65. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 227. 66. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 81. 67. See Ian Hamill, ‘Winston Churchill and the Singapore Naval Base, 1924– 1929’, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 11/2 (1980), pp. 277–86; George Peden, ‘The Treasury and defence of empire’, in Greg Kennedy (ed.), Impe- rial Defence: The old world order, 1856–1956 (London: Routledge, 2008), pp. 71–90; and James Neidpath, The Singapore Naval Base and the Defence of Britain’s Eastern Empire, 1919–1941 Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), pp. 102–21 for the period which covered Churchill’s time at the Exchequer, and pp. 122–51, for the development and effects which occurred during the 1930s. 68. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 104. 69. Winston S. Churchill, ‘SINGAPORE—Key to the Pacific’, Sunday Chronicle, 24 March 1934. 70. Louis Allen, Singapore, 1941–1942 (London: Davis Poynter, 1977); Noel Barber, Sinister Twilight: The Fall of Singapore (London: Collins, 1968); Geoffrey Brooke, Singapore’s : The Aftermath of the Fall (London: Leo Cooper, 1989); Raymond Callahan, The Worst Disaster: The Fall of Singapore (Newark, USA: University of Delaware Press, 1977); and ‘The Illusion of Security: Singapore 1919–1942’, Journal of Contemporary His- tory, 9/2 (1979), pp. 69–92; Stanley L. Falk, Seventy Days to Singapore: The Malayan Campaign, 1941–1942 (London: Robert Hale Publishers, 1975); Farrell and Hunter (eds), Sixty Years On: The Fall of Singapore; Karl Hack and Karl Blackburn, Did Singapore have to Fall? Churchill and the Impregnable Fortress (London: Routledge, 2003); Richard Holmes and Anthony Kemp, The Bitter End: The Fall of Singapore, 1941—1942 (Chichester: Anthony Bird Publications, 1982); Colin Smith, Singapore Burning: Heroism and Surren- der in World War II (London: Viking, 2005; Penguin edition, 2006); Peter Thompson, The Battle for Singapore: The True Story of the Greatest Catastrophe of World War II (London: Portrait, 2005); and Alan Warren, Britain’s Great- est Defeat: Singapore 1942 (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2002; edition, 2007). 71. The furore over the guns and which way they pointed (landward or sea- ward, fixed or movable) is constantly referred to. As James Neidpath rightly points out, by the time Churchill’s fourth volume of memoirs was pub- lished, ‘the notion that the guns were pointing in the wrong direction had already been effectively propagated’. Yet as Singapore was part of his imperial phoenix rising from the ashes image, Churchill did nothing to dispel this myth. In fact, he added to it. See James Neidpath, The Singapore Naval Base and the Defence of Britain’s Eastern Empire, 1919–1941 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), p. 223. 198 Notes

72. See Paul Fussell, Abroad: British Literary Travelling Between the Wars (New York: OUP, 1980; Oxford edition, 1982), who highlights how govern- ment interference in travelogues of the 1930s helped to create Singapore’s sense of impregnability. Fussell quotes the journalist Mona Gardner who arrived in Singapore in 1939 and who emphasised ‘Singapore’s utter invul- nerability to land attack from the Malayan Peninsula’. Fussell concludes that Gardner was in fact creating ‘specious propaganda’ which did nothing but increase the ‘shock’ of the fall of the ‘impregnable fortress’, pp. 224–5. This also shows the extent to which the British Empire indulged in impe- rial bluff and bluster – at times to its own detriment – and how British imperial security in the Far East was little more than an illusion. See also and Tim Harper, Forgotten Armies: Britain’s Asian Empire and the War with Japan (London: Allen Lane, 2004; Penguin edition, 2005), chapter 2, ‘A Very British Disaster’, which examines the nature and extent of the illusion surrounding the ‘fortress that never was’, pp. 106–55. 73. Kirby, The War against Japan: I, p. 471. 74. Victoria Schofield, Wavell: Soldier and Statesman (London: John Murray, 2006), citing Wavell, p. 219. 75. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, pp. 81–94. 76. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, pp. 3–17. 77. Churchill could have pointed out that the ’s anxiety over the way in which the Far East was reinforced and staffed had been a matter for concern for almost twenty years. But this would have included his time as Colonial Secretary and Chancellor of the Exchequer which explains why he did not mention the long period of anxiety intermittently expressed by Australia and, to some extent, New Zealand. 78. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, Churchill to Curtin, 19 January 1942, p. 13. 79. Bond (ed.), Chief of Staff: II, 25 February 1942, p. 91. CCAC, CHUR 4/261/52–3: Kelly summarised the main communications (telegrams) of this period of arguing between Churchill and Curtin for Churchill’s inclu- sion in the memoirs. 80. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, pp. 3–367. 81. CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/110: Pownall to Churchill, 26 May 1949. 82. CCAC, CHUR 4/258/68: Churchill dictated draft on Singapore, undated, c. summer 1949–April 1950. See also, Lieutenant-General H. Gordon Bennett, Why Singapore Fell (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1944), in which Bennett concluded that the loss of Singapore was due to insufficient troops (both in number and quality), the ‘complete absence of prepared defences’, ‘poor leadership’ and the ‘contributing factor’ of the lack of sea and air power. Factors about which Churchill shared partial responsibility. See pp. 220–29. 83. Churchill, Hinge of Fate,p.4–13. 84. Churchill, Hinge of Fate,p.81. 85. TNA, PREM 1/345/10: ‘Memorandum on Sea-Power, 1939’, Churchill to Neville Chamberlain, 25 March 1939 86. Max Arthur, Lost Voices of the Royal Air Force (London: Hodder, 1993; edition, 2005), p. 342. 87. David Edgerton, Britain’s War Machine: Weapons, Resources and Experts in the Second World War (London: Allen Lane, 2011), p. 85. Notes 199

88. Anthony Montague Browne, Long Sunset: Memoirs of Winston Churchill’s Last Private Secretary (London: Cassell, 1995), p. 200. 89. For comprehensive accounts of the argument between Churchill and Dill see: Callahan, The Worst Disaster, pp. 90–94; Brian P. Farrell, The Defence and Fall of Singapore 1940–1942 (Stroud: Tempus, 2006), pp. 74–5; Neidpath, The Singapore Naval Base, pp. 178–81. The most succinct account is to be found in: Glen St. John Barclay, ‘Singapore Strategy: The Role of the United States in Imperial Defence’, Military Affairs, 39/2 (1975), p. 56. 90. In fact it was being suggested, as late as 1937, by Samuel Hoare (later Lord Templewood) that to avoid an air of defeatism and to stop Australia and New Zealand becoming solely concerned with the safety and defence of their own coastline and not the coastlines of the British Empire in the Far East, British policy should be ‘to some extent, to leave them guessing’. See Lawrence Pratt, East of , West of Suez: Britain’s Mediterranean Crisis, 1936–1939 (Cambridge: CUP, 1975), p, 51, citing TNA CAB 16/181: First Lord, ‘A New Standard of Naval Strength’, 29 April 1937. 91. Steve Morewood, The British Defence of Egypt 1935–1940: Conflict and Crisis in the Eastern Mediterranean (London: Frank Cass, 2005). 92. David Jablonsky, Churchill, The Great Game and Total War (London: Frank Cass, 1991), p. 129; Sir John Kennedy, The Business of War: The War Narrative of Major-General Sir John Kennedy (London: Hutchinson, 1957), p. 60. For a concise and thorough account of Churchill’s wartime evolving relationship with his Chiefs of Staff, see: Gen. Sir William Jackson and Field-Marshal Lord Bramall, The Chiefs: The Story of the ’s Chiefs of Staff (London: Brassey’s, 1992), pp. 179–259. 93. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 376–7. See CCAC, CHUR 4/225A/129–30: Churchill to Syndicate (Ismay, Pownall, Allen, Deakin, Kelly), requesting information on how ‘the Americans more or less tried to deprecate’ Britain’s position in the Middle East and his ‘differences with Dill’, 10 November 1949. See reply: CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/127–8: Ismay to Churchill, 10 November 1949, in which Ismay recounted how he did not think that there had been ‘any substantial divergence’ between Churchill and Dill ‘about giving priority over the Middle East to the Far East’. Ismay did however recall that it was Dill’s ‘general attitude’ to which Churchill ‘took excep- tion’ and that Churchill had thought Dill to be ‘too cautious, if not actually slow’, ‘too pessimistic and too apt to make difficulties’, ‘too inclined to compromise’ and overall, ‘a tired man’. 94. Once Dill was ‘retired’ from his post as CIGS, on his sixtieth birthday but officially on 25 ember 1941, he became the head of the Joint Staff Mis- sion and the senior British member of the in Washington. Possibly much to Churchill’s chagrin, Dill became the wartime linchpin in Anglo-American relations (and arguably outstripped Churchill himself in terms of both relevance and importance in this regard) as Dill was seen by the American’s as transparent whereas Churchill was not. For a nuanced and persuasive portrayal of Dill, see Alex Danchev, Very Spe- cial Relationship: Field-Marshal Sir John Dill and the Anglo-American Alliance 1941–44 (London: Brassey’s Defence Publishers, 1986); “Dilly-Dally’ or Hav- ing the Last Word: Field Marshal Sir John Dill and Prime Minister Winston Churchill’, Journal of Contemporary History, 22/1 (1987), pp. 21–44; and 200 Notes

‘Dill, Field-Marshal Sir John Dill’, in (ed.), Churchill’s Generals (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1991; Cassell, 2005), pp. 51–69. 95. Allen, Singapore, 1941–1942, p. 230. 96. In November 1940, the Chiefs of Staff had thought that even though it was commendable that Churchill was thirsty for action, ‘his head was full of projects’ which held no merit in practice. Kennedy, The Business of War, p. 62. 97. CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/118: Churchill dictated draft on Singapore, undated, c. July 1949–April 1950. 98. Taylor (ed.), Off the Record, Churchill to Crozier, 29 May 1942, p. 332. 99. CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/118: Churchill dictated draft on Singapore, undated, c. Summer 1949–April 1950. 100. CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/99: Pownall to Churchill, 24 December 1948. 101. CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/99: Pownall to Churchill, 24 December 1948; CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/100: ‘The Fall of Singapore’, The Times, 16 February 1942; CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/101: ‘Potential Significance of Singapore: British Bluff Called’, The Times, 27 February 1942. 102. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. viii. 103. Churchill, Hinge of Fate,p.38. 104. CCAC, CHUR 4/258/26: Pownall to Churchill, 30 December 1948. 105. CCAC, CHUR 4/258/27–31: Pownall, ‘Defence Works of Singapore’, 30 December 1948. 106. CCAC, CHUR 4/258/29–30: Pownall, ‘Defence Works of Singapore’, 30 December 1948. 107. Andrew J. Brookes, Photo Reconnaissance (London: Ian Allen, 1975), p. 155. 108. Churchill, Hinge of Fate,p.82. 109. Bond (ed.), Chief of Staff: II, 14 September 1943, p. 108. 110. LHCMA ISMAY 4/18/11: Ismay to Harry Hopkins, 17 May 1942. 111. CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/102: Pownall to Churchill, undated, but c. early 1949 to early 1950. 112. CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/102: Pownall to Churchill, undated, but annotated note in Churchill’s hand is dated 1 January 1950. 113. CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/103: Pownall to Churchill, undated, but c. early 1949 to early 1950. 114. CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/110: Pownall to Churchill, 26 May 1949. 115. CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/118-24: Churchill dictated draft on Singapore, undated, c. mid 1949 to April 1950. 116. CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/118: Churchill dictated draft on Singapore, undated, c. mid 1949 to April 1950. 117. CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/118: Churchill dictated draft on Singapore, undated, c. mid 1949 to April 1950. 118. CCAC, CHUR 4/255A/122: Churchill dictated draft on Singapore, undated, c. mid 1949 to April 1950. 119. Jock Colville noted how he had been on duty in Pretoria when he heard Churchill’s announcement on the radio of the fall of Singapore. Colville wrote how the ‘nature of his words, and the unaccustomed speed and emo- tion with which he spoke, convinced me that he was sorely pressed by critics and opponents at home. All the majesty of his oratory was there, but with a new note of appeal, lacking the usual confidence of support’. Notes 201

John Colville, The Fringes of Power: Downing Street Diaries, Volume II, October 1941–April 1955 (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1985; Sceptre edition, 1987), 15 February 1942, p. 46. 120. Stuart Ball (ed.), Parliament and Politics in the age of Churchill and Attlee: The Headlam Diaries, 1935–1951 (London: Royal Historical Society, 1999), 15 February 1942, p. 295. See also Nicolson (ed.), Nicolson Diaries,where Nicolson noted that Churchill appealed for national unity in an unfortu- nate manner which reminded him of Neville Chamberlain (a barbed insult indeed), 15 February 1942, p. 258. 121. Nicolson (ed.), Nicolson Diaries, 16 February 1942, p. 258. 122. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 81. 123. Brian P. Farrell, The Defence and Fall of Singapore, 1940–1942 (Stroud: Tempus, 2005; edition, 2006), p. 414. 124. Nicolson, (ed.), Nicolson Diaries, 27 February 1942, p. 258. 125. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 540. 126. CCAC, CHUR 4/258/58: Churchill, skeleton draft, undated. 127. TNA, PREM 1/345/9: ‘Memorandum on Sea-Power, 1939’, Churchill to Neville Chamberlain, 25 March 1939. 128. CCAC, DEKE 1: Denis Kelly to Martin Gilbert, 11 October 1988. 129. CCAC, CHUR 4/261/197, ‘Burma’, notes by Churchill, undated.

5 Churchill’s India, 1942 to 1943

1. Nicholas Mansergh and E.W.R. Lumby (eds), Transfer of Power: Volume III, Reassertion of Authority, Gandhi’s fast, and the succession to the Viceroyalty, 21 September 1942–12 June 1943 (London: HMSO, 1971), Linlithgow to Amery, 1 November 1942, p. 183. 2. Robin James Moore, Churchill, Cripps, and India: 1939–1945 (Oxford: OUP, 1979), p. 1; Penderel Moon (ed.), Wavell: The Viceroy’s Journal (Karachi: OUP, 1974), p. 3. 3. For nuanced accounts of Cripps in Moscow see: Peter Clarke, The Cripps Version: The Life of Sir Stafford Cripps 1889–1952 (London: Allen Lane, 2002), pp. 183–241; and Gabriel Gorodetsky, Stafford Cripps’ Mission to Moscow, 1940–1942 (Cambridge: CUP, 1984). 4. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume III, The Grand Alliance (London: Cassell, 1950), pp. 315–52. Churchill’s account was inaccurate in that Cripps replied to him explaining why he delayed delivery of the telegram on the 5 April and not, as Churchill maintained, on 12 April 1941. Clearly not everyone thought of Cripps as a failure in Moscow: ‘We ally ourselves with the USSR at last! Cripps must have been doing excellent work’. Mass-Observation contributor, Maggie Joy Blunt (writer), in Sandra Koa Wing (ed.), Mass-Observation: Britain in the Second World War (London: Folio Society, 2007), entry dated 22 July 1941, p. 100. 5. Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 323. 6. See H. Hanak, ‘Sir Stafford Cripps as Ambassador to Moscow, May 1940– June 1941’, English Historical Review, 94/370 (January 1979), pp. 48–70; ‘Sir Stafford Cripps as Ambassador to Moscow, June 1941–January 1942’, English Historical Review, 97/383 (April 1982), pp. 332–44; and Gabriel 202 Notes

Gorodetsky, ‘Churchill’s Warning to Stalin: A Reappraisal’, Historical Journal, 29/4 (1986), pp. 979–90. 7. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume IV, Hinge of Fate (London: Cassell, 1951). The chapter is in Book I, ‘The Onslaught of Japan’, pp. 181–96. 8. CCAC, CHUR 4/264/260: Chapter frontage for ‘India: The Cripps Mission’, marked as ‘provisional’, undated. 9. CCAC, CHUR 4/264/235: Chapter frontage for ‘India: The Cripps Mission’, proofed-out date of 18 July 1949; CCAC, CHUR 4/264/95: Chapter frontage for ‘India: The Cripps Mission’, proofed-out date of 3 August 1949. 10. CCAC, CHUR 4/264/184–5: Chapter frontage for ‘India: The Cripps Mis- sion’, proofed-out date of 17 January 1950 (checked by Kelly ‘for marginal comments’ on 29 January 1950). 11. CCAC, CHUR 4/264/167: Chapter frontage for ‘India: The Cripps Mission’, proofed-out date of 23 February 1950 (re-proofed date of 29 March 1950); and CCAC, CHUR 4/264/149: Chapter frontage for ‘India: The Cripps Mission’, proofed-out date of 29 March 1950, (copy including Deakin’s comments). 12. CCAC, CHUR 4/264/202: Chapter frontage for ‘India: The Cripps Mission’, Kelly’s comments dated 29 April 1950. 13. CCAC, CHUR 4/264/3: Chapter frontage for ‘India: The Cripps Mission’, ‘This supersedes and cancels all previous versions of this chapter, WSC’, dated 19 August 1950 (in Kelly’s handwriting). 14. CCAC, CHUR 4/264/50: Chapter frontage for ‘India: The Cripps Mission’, dated 13 October 1950. 15. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, theme page for the volume. 16. Philip Mason, A Matter of Honour: An Account of the Indian Army, Its Officers and Men (London: Macmillan, 1986), p. 471. 17. CCAC, CHUR 4/264/94: Deakin to Churchill, 27 July 1949. 18. Sarvepalli Gopal, ‘Churchill and India’, in Robert Blake and Wm. Roger Louis (eds), Churchill: A Major New Assessment of his Life in Peace and War (Oxford: OUP, 1993), p. 457; see also Raymond Callahan, ‘The Leader as Imperialist: Churchill and the King’s Other Army’, Finest Hour, 158/25 (2013), p. 25. 19. CCAC, CHUR 4/256/2: Churchill, ‘Notes 1942’, 12 July 1949. 20. Raymond Callahan, ‘The Prime Minister and the Indian Army’s Last War’, Kaushik Roy (ed.), The Indian Army in the Two World Wars (Leiden: Brill, 2012), p. 321. 21. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 336. 22. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, pp. 182–3. 23. See Jonathan Fenby, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-Shek and the China He Lost (London: Free Press, 2003; Simon and Schuster edition, 2005); and Jay Taylor, The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-Shek and the Struggle for Modern China (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2009). Churchill was not alone in view- ing Chiang’s visit to India as potentially problematic: Amery also expressed that there ‘would be nothing more likely to spread pan-Asiatic malaise through all the bazaars of India’: CCAC, CHAR 20/69B/119: Amery to Linlithgow, 3 February 1942. For a description of the visit being one which might bear ‘important fruit’ see: ‘China, India and Burma’, The Times, 11 February 1942. Notes 203

24. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 183. 25. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 184. 26. Roosevelt was not the only American who attempted to persuade Churchill to approach the situation in India differently. American liberal intellectuals had been agitating during the inter-war years with the same aim in mind. Although not entirely successful in their remit, ‘if they did not hearten the struggle in India, they at least provided it with a voice in the West that nationalist leaders welcomed’. Alan Raucher, ‘American Anti-Imperialists and the Pro-India Movement, 1900–1932’, Pacific Historical Review, 43/1 (1974), p. 110. 27. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 185. In a draft of the chapter ‘India: The Cripps Mission’, Churchill had originally written that the Americans ‘had no pre- vious experience’ of the political issues concerning India. He then changed this line to ‘of which they had strong opinions and little experience’ which became the final published version. See CCAC, CHUR 4/264/2: Churchill draft note for ‘India: The Cripps Mission’, undated. 28. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 185. In a draft of the chapter ‘India: The Cripps Mission’, Churchill had originally written a rather less dramatic sen- tence: ‘The President had first discussed the Indian problem with me in general terms during my visit to Washington in December 1941’. The vehe- mence behind the final published version certainly gave the impression that Churchill was a man who would stand his ground even in the face of overwhelming opposition—a vital attribute to any international statesman who was operating within the era. 29. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, Churchill to Roosevelt, 4 March 1942, p. 185–6. 30. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 186. 31. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, Roosevelt to Churchill, 11 March 1942, p. 189. 32. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 189. 33. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 184. 34. Robert Rhodes James (ed.), Memoirs of a Conservative: J.C.C. Davidson’s Mem- oirs and Papers, 1910–37 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1969), Baldwin to Davison, 15 December 1930, p. 356; quoted in John Charmley, Churchill: The End of Glory, A Political Biography (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1993), p. 257. 35. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, Roosevelt to Churchill, 11 March 1942, p. 189–90. See Warren Kimball (ed.), Churchill and Roosevelt, The Complete Correspon- dence: Volume I, Alliance Emerging (London: Collins, 1984), pp. 402–4, in order to verify the fullness with which Churchill reprinted the telegram. 36. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, Churchill to Herbert Morrison (Home Secretary), 7 January 1943, Appendix C, p. 824. 37. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 184. 38. Halifax to Amery, 20 November 1942, Transfer of Power: III, doc. 203. 39. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, Churchill to Linlithgow, 10 March 1942, p. 191; Transfer of Power: I, doc. 294. 40. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, Churchill to Linlithgow, 10 March 1942, p. 191; Transfer of Power: I, doc. 294. 41. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 191. 42. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, Cripps to Churchill, 11 April 1942, pp. 191–2; also Transfer of Power: I, doc. 597; Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 192. 204 Notes

43. On the electioneering platform of 1950, Churchill said that Cripps’s ‘clear mind’ could not see how his devaluing of the pound had ‘wrought harm from the country’. To which Cripps replied that he regretted ‘that a per- son whom I have admired for his wartime leadership ...should sink to quite this level of guttersnipe politics’. See Clarke, The Cripps Version, pp. 552–3. 44. Lord Charles Moran, Churchill: The Struggle for Survival, 1945–1960 (London: Constable, 1966), p. 74. 45. Churchill was not the only man to think this of Cripps. Lord Beaverbrook, William Maxwell Aitken (1879–1964), the press baron and MP for Ashton- under-Lyne, said that Cripps had ‘the genius of the untried’. By which he meant that Cripps was ‘a very able man indeed but, you know, he has his defects; he is in some ways difficult’. Beaverbrook to Crozier, 16 March 1942, in A.J.P. Taylor (ed.), Off the Record: W.P. Crozier, Political Interviews, 1933–1943 (London: Hutchinson, 1973), p. 306. Cripps was disparagingly described as a man who had to make an appointment to get the joke. 46. Amery to Linlithgow, 17 November 1942, Transfer of Power: III, doc. 194. 47. John Colville, The Fringes of Power: Downing Street Diaries, 1939–1955, Vol- ume I: September 1939–September 1941 (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1985; Sceptre edition, 1986), 26 July 1940, p. 236. 48. Amery to Linlithgow, 13 January 1942, Transfer of Power: III,doc.10.Ian St John wrote that, in India, in the early 1930s, Churchill’s voice was ‘taken to be the authentic expression of the British imperial viewpoint’ which frightened the majority of Indians about the influence he exerted. A decade later, in 1942, and not only was Churchill’s voice still perceived as such in India but he was Prime Minister and directing the war; Amery was right to call Churchill a hindrance rather than a help. Ian St. John, ‘Churchill’s Press Campaign against Constitutional Reform in India’, in Chandrika Kaul (ed.), Media and the British Empire (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), p. 114. 49. Amery to Attlee, 16 January 1942, Transfer of Power: III, doc. 15. 50. Amery to Linlithgow, 17 November 1942, Transfer of Power: III, doc. 194. 51. Attempts to reconcile Congress with Jinnah’s Moslem League had been made by non-parliamentary and non-governmental bodies. One such example, in early 1942, was Mr Horace Alexander, of the Friends Service Council of London and Dublin, who had sent a letter to Amery ‘congratu- lating him on the release of Congress prisoners and forwarding information on the efforts made by the All-India Conference of Indian Christians to bring about a reconciliation between the leaders of the various parties’. See Transfer of Power: I, fn. 9, p. 18. Unsurprisingly, Churchill’s account of the era leading up to the Cripps Mission ignores such British-led attempts as it would question his portrayal. For Indian approaches as mediation, espe- cially Sapru’s, see David A. Low, ‘The Mediator’s Moment: Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru and the Antecedents to the Cripps Mission to India, 1940–42’, in R.F. Holland and G. Rizvi (eds), Perspectives on Imperialism and Decolonization: Essays in Honour of A.F. Madden (London: Cass, 1984), pp. 146–64. 52. Nigel Nicolson (ed.), The Harold Nicolson Diaries, 1907–1963 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2004), 30 March 1942, p. 260. 53. Amery to Linlithgow, 17 November 1942, Transfer of Power: III, doc. 194. Notes 205

54. Low, ‘The Mediator’s Moment’; and ‘Working with the grain: Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru and the Antecedents to the Cripps Declaration 1942’, in D.A. Low, Britain and Indian Nationalism: The Imprint of Ambiguity, 1929– 1942 (Cambridge: CUP, 1997), pp. 303–44; and Nicholas Owen, ‘The Cripps Mission of 1942: A reinterpretation’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 30/1 (2002), pp. 61–98. 55. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume V, (London: Cassell, 1952), p. 112. 56. Linlithgow to Amery, 1 November 1942, Transfer of Power: III, doc. 131. 57. CCAC, CHAR 20/78/59: Smuts to Churchill, 25 July 1942. 58. CCAC, CHAR 20/78/60: Smuts to Churchill, 25 July 1942. 59. For concise accounts of the campaign itself see: Patrick French, Liberty or Death, India’s Journey to Independence and Division (London: Flamingo, 1998), pp. 149–69; Arthur Herman, Gandhi and Churchill: The Epic Rivalry that Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our Age (New York: Bantam Dell, 2008), pp. 488–503; Sumit Sarkar, Modern India, 1885–1947 (London: Macmillan, 1989), pp. 388–405; and Auriol Weigold, Churchill, Roosevelt and India: Pro- paganda During World War II (New York: Routledge, 2008), pp. 140–60. See ‘The “Quit India” Resolution’, 8 August 1942, Transfer of Power: II, doc. 470. 60. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, pp. 455–7. 61. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 455. 62. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 455; p. 457; pp. 455–6. 63. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 456. 64. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 456. 65. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, Roosevelt to Churchill, 9 August 1942, p. 456. 66. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 456. 67. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, Linlithgow to Churchill, 20 August 1942, p. 456. 68. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 457. See ‘Table A: Evidence of the regional inci- dence of the “Quit India movement” and its suppression, for the period ending 31 December 1943’, in Judith M. Brown, Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy (Oxford: OUP, 1985), pp. 312–13. 69. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 349. 70. ‘Quit India’ has been variously described as a rebellion, a revolt, a move- ment, an upsurge, or a terror campaign. This book rejects the word ‘terror’ but describes it as a campaign as it was translated into such widely differing and varied acts in each state, province or city that took part. A simi- lar example would be acts of resistance in wartime France, which ranged from factory workers in Vichy-occupied areas placing mis-shaped bolts on German armaments to acts of sabotage and murder by the maquis. So, too, the ‘Quit India’ campaign, was worded ambiguously, leaving it up to the individual taking part as to which acts (ranging from simple non-cooperation, through general strikes to, at times, violence) would be undertaken and judged most effective. 71. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 196. See also Judith M. Brown, ‘Gandhi and Nehru: Frustrated Visionaries?’, History Today, 47/9 (1997), pp. 22–28. 72. Jawaharlal Nehru, The Discovery of India (London: Meridian, 1946), p. 389. 73. ‘Retrieving a Setback’, The Times, 13 April 1942. 74. See Tim Coates (ed.), The Amritsar Massacre, 1919: General Dyer in the Punjab (London: HMSO, 1919; Uncovered Editions, HMSO, abridged edition 206 Notes

2000); Nigel Collett, The Butcher of Amritsar: General Reginald Dyer (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007); Alfred Draper, Amritsar: The Massacre that Ended the Raj (London: Cassell, 1981); and Nick Lloyd, The Amritsar Massacre: The Untold Story of one Fateful Day (London: I.B. Tauris, 2011). 75. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 456. 76. See Alzada Cornstock, ‘India Rejects British Self-Rule Plan’, Current History, 2:9 (May 1942), pp. 175–80; ‘Sir Stafford Cripps Home’, The Times, 22 April 1942; ‘The Problem of India – Cause of Breakdown’, The Times, 29 April 1942; ‘India after the Mission’, The Times, 30 April 1942. 77. Sir George Cunningham (1888–1963) joined the Indian Civil Service in 1911 and served as Governor of the North-West Frontier Province three times: 1937–39; 1939–46; and 1946–48. 78. Cunningham to Linlithgow, 9 January 1942, Transfer of Power: I,doc.8. 79. Hallett to Linlithgow, 10 May 1942, Transfer of Power: II,doc.43 80. Cranborne to Sir Hathorn Hall (Governor of Aden), 8 August 1942, Trans- fer of Power: II, doc. 463; and Cranborne to Officer Administering the Government of Nyasaland, 8 August 1942, Transfer of Power: II, doc. 464. 81. Despite the mission’s failure to break the Indian deadlock, Cripps’s popu- larity with the public rose and upon his return to Britain he was made Lord Privy Seal, Leader of the House and brought into the War Cabinet. Although it is doubtful that Cripps genuinely thought he could oust Churchill from his seat as the King’s wartime first minister, he certainly attempted to shake up what he saw as the inefficiency of government and the waste of valuable resources. 82. Transfer of Power: II, Linlithgow to Churchill, 31 August 1942, doc. 662. 83. Churchill himself did not admit that the danger of a Japanese invasion of India had passed until 17 January 1944. See Churchill, Closing the Ring, Churchill to Ismay, 17 January 1944, Appendix C, p. 600. 84. Stanley Wolpert, A New History of India (3rd edition, Oxford: OUP, 1989), p. 335. 85. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 457. 86. Sarkar, Modern India, p. 404. 87. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 456. 88. Kimball, Alliance Emerging, Churchill to Roosevelt, 30 July 1942, p. 550. 89. Kimball, Alliance Emerging, Churchill to Roosevelt, 30 July 1942, p. 550. In fact Churchill emphasised that ‘during the whole of this direct trial of strength with the Congress leaders many thousands of fresh volunteers came forward to join the Indian Army’. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 457. Churchill had also emphasised this point to Cripps, in January 1942, when he had written that the Indian troops were ‘fighting splendidly, but it must remembered that their allegiance’ was to the King-Emperor and that, since ‘the rule of the Congress and Hindu priesthood machine would never be tolerated by a fighting race’, wartime constitutional reform was totally inap- propriate and would indeed risk India’s war effort: Churchill to Cripps, 7 January 1942, in Churchill, Grand Alliance, p. 615. 90. Kimball, Alliance Emerging, Churchill to Roosevelt, 30 July 1942, p. 550. 91. Kimball, Alliance Emerging, Churchill to Roosevelt, 9 August 1942, p. 557. 92. John Barnes and David Nicolson (eds), The Empire At Bay: The Leo Amery Diaries, 1929–1945 (London: Hutchinson, 1988), 14 August 1941, p. 710. Notes 207

93. John Barnes and David Nicolson (eds), The Empire At Bay: The Leo Amery Diaries, 1929–1945 (London: Hutchinson, 1988), 9 June 1940, p. 621. 94. Linlithgow to Amery, 21 September 1942, Transfer of Power: III,doc.1. 95. Linlithgow to Amery, 18 October 1942, Transfer of Power: III, doc. 105. 96. Amery to Linlithgow, 17 October 1942, Transfer of Power: III, doc. 102. 97. Khan to Linlithgow, 1 November 1942, Transfer of Power: III, doc. 130. 98. Churchill, Closing the Ring, p. 82. 99. CCAC, CHAR 20/112/81: Churchill to Linlithgow, 9 June 1943. 100. Churchill, Closing the Ring, p. 557. 101. Churchill to Amery, 14 November 1942, Transfer of Power: III, doc. 184. 102. CCAC, CHAR 20/84/57: Churchill to Linlithgow, 3 December 1942. 103. CCAC, CHAR 20/84/65: Linlithgow to Churchill, 4 December 1942. 104. CCAC, CHAR 20/84/93: Churchill to Linlithgow, 6 December 1942. 105. , Speaking for England: Leo, Julian and , The Tragedy of a Political Family (London: Pocket Books, 2007), p. 1. 106. Faber, Speaking for England,p.4. 107. For the close working relationship between Linlithgow and Churchill see Gowher Rizvi, Linlithgow and India: A Study of British Policy and the Political Impasse in India, 1936–1943 (London: Royal Historical Society, 1978); and Nicholas Owen, ‘The Cripps Mission of 1942: A reinterpretation’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 30/1 (2002). 108. Amery to Churchill, 13 November 1942, Transfer of Power: III, doc. 172. 109. Amery to Churchill, 3 December 1942, Transfer of Power: III, doc. 238. 110. Amery to Churchill, 13 November 1942, Transfer of Power: III, doc. 172. 111. Gott’s death in early August 1942 meant that Anderson filled his vacancy. This implied that, as with Eden, Anderson was indispensable elsewhere and so out of the running for the Viceroyalty as far as Churchill was concerned. 112. CCAC, CHAR 20/84/32: Churchill to Lampson, 2 December 1942. 113. CCAC, CHAR 20/84/49: Lampson to Churchill, 2 December 1942. 114. CCAC, CHAR 20/83/123: Churchill to Smuts, 25 November 1942. 115. Although Eden’s name was mentioned for the Viceroyalty he may not have been seriously considered, as Churchill, before setting off for Washington in June 1942, wrote to the King that should he die whilst abroad, the King ‘should entrust the formation of a new Government to Mr. Anthony Eden, ...the outstanding Minister in the largest political party in the House’. Churchill to King George VI, 16 June 1942, in Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 337. 116. Amery to Churchill, 1 December 1942, Transfer of Power: III, doc. 234. 117. Churchill to Amery, 1 December 1942, Transfer of Power: III, doc. 235. 118. CCAC, CHAR 20/112/81: Churchill to Linlithgow, 9 June 1943. 119. Linlithgow to Amery, 8 December 1942, Transfer of Power: III, doc. 263. 120. CCAC, CHAR 20/112/81: Churchill to Linlithgow, 9 June 1943. 121. CCAC, CHAR 20/40/14: Churchill to Linlithgow, 20 June 1941. 122. ABDA Command (the American–British–Dutch–Australian Command) was a short-lived Allied Command strategy brought into existence to coordi- nate Allied strategy in the Pacific, after Japan’s entry into the war with the attack on Pearl Harbor. The remit and purpose of ABDA (as set out by Roosevelt and Churchill at the Arcadia Conference in Washington, December 1941) was for the four Allies to maintain an Allied line in 208 Notes

South East Asia which the Japanese would not be able to cross. This imag- inary line ran downwards from the top of the Malay Peninsula, through Singapore, and down to the southern tip of the Dutch East Indies. Churchill insisted that General Archibald Wavell (the then British Commander-in- Chief, India) became ABDA’s leader. Upon Wavell’s appointment, even more territory was appointed to ABDA’s protection (Australia and Papua and New Guinea), and although ABDA had land (ABDARM), air (ABDAIR), and naval ABDAFLOAT) forces, this hastily put-together and poorly sup- plied resource was ultimately crippled by the speed with which Japanese forces attacked and invaded the Allied Pacific territories (Malaya, Singapore, the Dutch East Indies and Philippines – the very areas that ABDA had been set up to protect). Within a week of the fall of Singapore ABDA was dissolved. 123. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 128. 124. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, Churchill to Brendan Bracken (Minister of Infor- mation), 2 September 1942, Appendix C, p. 789. 125. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, Churchill to Brendan Bracken (Minister of Infor- mation), 2 September 1942, Appendix C, p. 790. 126. CCAC, CHAR 20/128/55: Churchill to Attlee, 29 May 1943. 127. Amery to Linlithgow, 8 June 1943, Transfer of Power: III, doc. 764. 128. Attlee to Churchill, 30 May 1943, Transfer of Power:III, doc. 747. 129. Penderel Moon (ed.), Wavell, The Viceroy’s Journal (Karachi: OUP, 1974), summary of 1943, p. 45. 130. CCAC, CHAR 20/93B/189: Churchill to Wavell, 17 June 1943. 131. Moon (ed.), Wavell, 8 October 1943, p. 23. 132. CCAC, CHUR 2/43A/34: Churchill to Amery, 20 June 1943. 133. Robin James Moore, Endgames of Empire: Studies of Britain’s Indian Problem (Delhi: OUP, 1988), p. 87. 134. CCAC, CHAR 20/99B/172–81: Speeches at the farewell dinner in honour of Field Marshal the Viscount Wavell before leaving to take up his post as Viceroy, 6 October 1943. The differences between Wavell’s and Churchill’s views on India were in fact so obvious that Churchill was advised by Amery never to have the speech published unless ‘certain omissions’ were made. See CCAC, CHAR 20/99B/182: Amery through John Martin (Churchill’s Principal Private Secretary) to Churchill, 7 October 1943. 135. CCAC, CHAR 20/99B/172: Churchill, 6 October 1943. 136. CCAC, CHAR 20/99B/173: Churchill, 6 October 1943. 137. CCAC, CHAR 20/99B/174: Churchill, 6 October 1943. 138. CCAC, CHAR 20/99B/176: Churchill, 6 October 1943. 139. CCAC, CHAR 20/99B/174: Churchill, 6 October 1943. 140. CCAC, CHAR 20/99B/174: 6 October 1943. 141. CCAC, CHAR 20/99B/175: Churchill, 6 October 1943. 142. CCAC, CHAR 20/99B/176: Churchill, 6 October 1943. 143. CCAC, CHAR 20/99B/177: Wavell, 6 October 1943. 144. CCAC, CHAR 20/99B/177-178: Wavell, 6 October 1943. 145. CCAC, CHAR 20/99B/178: Wavell, 6 October 1943. 146. Robin James Moore, ‘The Stopgap Viceroy’, South Asian Review, 7:1 (1973). 147. CCAC, CHAR 20/99B/179: Wavell, 6 October 1943. 148. CCAC, CHAR 20/99B/181: Wavell, 6 October 1943. 149. Moon (ed.), Wavell, 8 October 1943, p. 23. Notes 209

150. Linlithgow to Amery, 18 October 1942, Transfer of Power: III, doc. 105. 151. Nicholas Mansergh and Esmond W.R. Lumby (eds), The Transfer of Power, 1942–1947: Volume IV, The Bengal Famine and the New Viceroyalty, 15 June 1943–31 August 1944 (London: HMSO, 1973), Linlithgow to Amery, 19 June 1943, doc. 13. 152. Amery to Linlithgow, 30 October 1942, Transfer of Power: III, doc. 128. 153. LHCMA, ISMAY 4/9/5D: Auchinleck to Ismay, 26 January 1944. 154. See Irial Glynn, ‘ “An Untouchable in the Presence of Brahmins”, Lord Wavell’s Disastrous Relationship with Whitehall During His Time as Viceroy to India, 1943–1947’, Modern Asian Studies, 41/3 (2007), pp. 639–63. 155. Bond (ed.), Chief of Staff: II, p. 95. See also LHCMA, DILL 3/1/12: Dill to Churchill, in which Dill once remarked that Wavell’s ‘taciturnity alone would be a great handicap in India’, 21 June 1941. 156. CCAC, CHAR 20/112/82: Churchill to Linlithgow, 9 June 1943. 157. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 716. 158. Bond (ed.), Chief of Staff: II, p. 94. 159. See David Arnold, ‘Looting, Grain Riots and Government Policy in South India 1918’, in Past and Present, 84 (1979), pp. 111–45. 160. Randolph S. Churchill (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume 1: Part 2, 1896–1900 (London: Heinemann, 1967), annotated notes in the Annual Register, p. 760. 161. Churchill (ed.), Companion Volume 1: 2, Churchill to Lady Jennie Churchill, 14 October 1896, p. 688. 162. Sarkar, Modern India, p. 406. Whilst Bengal was arguably worst hit, famine conditions affected a wide tract of India, especially Madras. 163. Herbert to Linlithgow, 19 June 1943, Transfer of Power: IV,doc.12. 164. Linlithgow to Amery, 18 September 1943, Transfer of Power: IV, doc. 121. 165. , Churchill’s Secret War: The British Empire and the Rav- aging of India During World War II (New York: Basic Books, 2010); and Richard Stevenson, Bengal Tiger and British Lion: An Account of the (New York: iUniverse, 2005). 166. Moon (ed.), Wavell, 29 October 1943, p. 35. 167. Sarkar, Modern India, p. 406. 168. Moon (ed.), Wavell, 29 October 1943, p. 35. 169. Moon (ed.), Wavell, pp. 32–108. 170. Wavell to Amery, 29 October 1943, Transfer of Power: IV, doc. 192. 171. Hansard (HC), (series 5) vol. 392, col. 1078 (14 October 1943). 172. Dibdin to Turnbull, 28 October 1943, Transfer of Power: IV, doc. 191. 173. Moon (ed.), Wavell, 24 September 1943, p. 19. 174. Robert Rhodes James (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, Vol- ume V, 1928–1935 (New York: Chelsea House, 1974), ‘India – The Betrayal’, BBC Broadcast, London, 30 January 1935, p. 5467. The word ‘sham’ was originally transcribed as ‘shame’. 175. Churchill, Closing the Ring, Churchill to Hugh Dalton (President of the Board of Trade) and Lord Woolton (Minister of Food), 30 September 1943, Appendix C, p. 586. 176. Churchill, Closing the Ring, Churchill to Lord Woolton (Minister of Food) and Lord Leathers (Minister of War Transport), 27 September 1943, Appendix C, p. 586. 210 Notes

177. Churchill, Closing the Ring, Churchill to Attlee (Lord President of the Council), 11 November 1943, Appendix C, p. 597. 178. Churchill, Closing the Ring, Churchill to Mountbatten and Ismay, 2 October 1943, Appendix C, p. 587. 179. Wavell to Amery, 2 November 1943, Transfer of Power: IV, doc. 200. 180. Amery’s memo, 22 September 1943, Transfer of Power: IV, doc. 133. 181. Lawrence James, Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India (London: Little Brown & Company, 1997), p. 578. 182. In Mukerjee, Churchill’s Secret War, Churchill is demonised as the cause of the famine. Churchill did not cause the famine. The causes were the Japanese invasion and occupation of Burma, the subsequent cessation of Burmese imports of rice to India and the inability of local government officials to act upon the situation quickly enough, as well as stockpiling and ever-increasing prices. Without a doubt Churchill and the War Cabinet could have done more to alleviate the horrific famine conditions, and his ambivalence towards the starving remains truly shocking, but he was not the cause of the famine. 183. CCAC, CHAR 20/99B/172: Churchill’s speech at the farewell dinner in honour of Wavell before leaving to take up his post as Viceroy of India, 6 October 1943. 184. For a contemporary account as to why the storm over India had been brewing (and the disappointment felt by Indian/American liberalism) see Anup Singh, ‘Storm over India’, Far Eastern Survey, 23/6 (1943), pp. 57–62. 185. Gopal, ‘Churchill and India’, p. 461. 186. Churchill may have wanted to keep India ‘quiet’ for the duration of the war but there were elements which claimed that wartime was ‘not the time for constitutional changes’ and that ‘compromise proposals’ were to be made instead. William L. Holland, ‘Breaking the Indian Deadlock’, Far Eastern Survey, 12/7 (1943), p.65. 187. Owen, ‘The Cripps Mission of 1942: A reinterpretation’, p. 62. 188. B. Shiva Rao, ‘Review: The Cripps Mission’, Modern Asian Studies, 5/3 (1971), p. 274. 189. Robert Rhodes James (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, Vol- ume VI: 1935–1942 (New York: Chelsea House, 1974), Churchill broadcast, London, 24 August 1941, p. 6473.

6 Churchill’s Indian Army, and the Reconquest of Burma

1. Philip Mason, A Matter of Honour: An Account of the Indian Army, Its Offi- cers and Men (London: Jonathan Cape, 1974; Papermac Macmillan edition, 1986), p. 522; Penderel Moon (ed.), Wavell: The Viceroy’s Journal (Karachi: OUP, 1974), p. 3. 2. CCAC, CHUR 4/25A/18: Churchill to the syndicate, 7 November 1950. 3. The term Indian Army refers to the British-Indian Army stationed in India which comprised British officers, Indian rank and file and Indian VCOs (Viceroy Commissioned Officers). The term Sepoy comes from the Persian term sipahi (soldier), and was used to describe the Indian rank and file. Notes 211

It was later replaced by (or at least interchangeable with) the term Jawan (an Indian private). 4. Winston S. Churchill, The Story of the Malakand Field Force: An Episode of Frontier War (London: Longman, 1898); My Early Life (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1930); and The World Crisis: Volumes I–V (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1923–31). 5. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume 1, The Gathering Storm (London: Cassell, 1948), p. 5. For a detailed analysis see Gordon Corrigan, Sepoys in the Trenches: The Indian Corps on the Western Front, 1914–1915 (Stroud: Spellmount, 2006); Mark Harrison, ‘The Fight Against Disease in the Mesopotamian Campaign’, in Hugh Cecil and Peter H. Liddle (eds), Facing Armageddon: The First World War Experienced (London: Leo Cooper, 1996), pp. 475–89; Lord Hardinge of Penshurst, My Indian Years, 1910– 1916: The Reminiscences of Lord Hardinge of Penshurst (London: John Murray, 1948), pp. 98–136; and David E. Omissi, ‘The Indian Army in the First World War, 1914–1918’, in Daniel Marston and Chandar S. Sundaram (eds), A Military History of India and South Asia: From the East India Company to the Nuclear Era (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008), pp. 74–87. 6. See Stephen P. Cohen, The Indian Army: Its Contribution to the Develop- ment of a Nation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), especially pp. 68–76; Mason, A Matter of Honour, pp. 412–43; Hugh Tinker, ‘India in the First World War and after’, Journal of Contemporary History, 3/4 (October 1968), pp. 89–107; and Charles C. Trench, The Indian Army and the King’s Enemies, 1900–1947 (London: Thames and Hudson, 1988), pp. 75–90. 7. Churchill, The World Crisis:I–V (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1923–31). 8. Churchill, The World Crisis: Volume I, 1911–1914, pp. 186–245. 9. Churchill wrote that Indian troops ‘lost caste’ once they crossed the high : Winston S. Churchill, A History of the English-Speaking Peoples: Volume IV, The Great Democracies (London: Cassell, 1958), p. 67. The research for these volumes and the bulk of the writing was carried out by a team of researchers in the 1930s, primarily Bill Deakin and George Young. The out- break of war and Churchill becoming Prime Minister in 1940 meant the work was shelved until a more suitable time allowed for its completion. The implication is that Churchill had the knowledge about the Indian troops but, when it came to his Second World War, he glossed over it. 10. See Peter Clarke, Mr Churchill’s Profession: The Statesman as Author and the Book that Defined the ‘Special Relationship’ (London: Bloomsbury, 2012), p. 144. 11. The first volume of Churchill’s Second World War memoir, The Second World War: Volume 1, The Gathering Storm (London: Cassell, 1948), sold over 200,000 copies. See Clarke, Mr Churchill’s Profession, p. 280. 12. Bernard Porter, The Absent-Minded Imperialists: Empire, Society and Culture in Britain (Oxford: OUP, 2004): in which Porter advocates that the gen- eral British public neither thought about, nor cared for, the British Empire unless, or until, it directly affected them. 13. See Mason, A Matter of Honour, p. 471. 14. Keith Jeffery, ‘ “An English Barrack in the Oriental Seas”? India in the After- math of the First World War’, Modern Asian Studies, 15/3 (1981), p. 369. One of the earlier examples of Churchill’s knowledge of India’s importance as a 212 Notes

training ground concerned the practice of sending 10 per cent of British munitions production to India where they were used to train regiments of field artillery. Once the regiments were trained they were then immediately shipped out, along with the guns they had been trained on, to the Middle East. The units and artillery were, as Colonel Jacobs explained to Churchill, ‘thus indirect reinforcements for the Middle East, and pay a good dividend in trained units’. See PREM 3/232/1/31: Col. Jacobs 14 February 1941. 15. For a nuanced analysis of three so-called ‘mutinies’ which occurred in the Indian Army during the Second World War (in Egypt, December 1939; in Bombay, June 1940; and in Hong Kong, December 1940), and which were arguably wrongly attributed to Communist subversion from both within the ranks and outside influences, see Tim Hicks, ‘The Indian Army in 1939– 1941: Dissent, Mutiny and Subversion?’, research paper presented as part of the Armed Forces in Times of Decolonisation conference, 6–7 February 2014, Deutsches Historisches Institut, Paris. 16. Randolph S. Churchill (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume I: Part 2, 1896–1900 (London: Heinemann, 1967), Churchill to Lady Jennie Churchill, 18 November 1896, p. 703. It should be noted that Churchill was not alone in his refusal to learn Hindi, nor was this situation unusual, espe- cially as his unit contained no Indian ranks. Furthermore, he was stationed in Bangalore where the local language would have been either Kannada or Tamil. Finally, the lingua franca of the colonial Indian Army was Urdu and not Hindi. (I am very grateful to Dr Chandar Sundaram for his corrections and guidance on this matter.) 17. Churchill (ed.), Churchill: Companion Volume I: 2, Churchill to Lady Jennie Churchill, 18 November 1896, p. 703. 18. Winston S. Churchill, My Early Life: A Roving Commission (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1930), p. 164. 19. See Ian F. W. Beckett, ‘The Singapore Mutiny of February, 1915’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 62/3 (1984), pp. 132–53; and ‘The Mutiny at Singapore’, The Times, 14 April 1915. 20. Chandar S. Sundaram quotes the figure of 800,000, yet some estimates put the figure higher: see Chandar S. Sundaram, ‘Grudging Concessions: The Officer Corps and Its Indianization, 1817–1940’, in Marston and Sundaram (eds), A Military History of India and South Asia, p. 94. Also see Budheswar Pati, India and the First World War (New Delhi: Atlantic, 1996), especially pp. 30–64. 21. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume II, Their Finest Hour (London: Cassell, 1949), Churchill to Field-Marshal John Dill, 21 September 1940, p. 595. 22. Andrew Sharpe, ‘The Indianisation of the Indian Army’, History Today, 36/3 (1986), pp. 47–52; and Sundaram, ‘Grudging Concessions’, pp. 88–101. 23. Churchill, Finest Hour, Churchill to Ismay, 2 June 1940, p. 123–4. 24. Churchill, Finest Hour, Churchill to Anthony Eden, 6 June 1940, p. 146. See also TNA PREM, 3/232/3/25: Churchill, 6 June 1940. 25. Wavell depicted Churchill as overly emotional when it came to India. One example was over Britain’s debt to India over which Churchill was ‘intractable’ but calmed down after his ‘fireworks’. Moon (ed.), Wavell, pp. 12–13. Notes 213

26.SeeAshleyJackson,The British Empire and the Second World War (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2006), pp. 171–268; and David Killingray with Martin Plaut, Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War (Woodbridge: James Currey, 2010). 27. Another example of Churchill being disparaging towards so called ‘native’ troops reads: ‘The African Colonial divisions ought not surely to be called divisions at all. No one contemplates them standing in the line against a European army’. See Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume III, The Grand Alliance (London: Cassell, 1950), Churchill to Chief of Staff Committee, 17 February 1941, in Appendix C, p. 653. 28. Churchill, Grand Alliance, Churchill to Chief of Staff Committee, 17 February 1941, in Appendix C, p. 653. 29. As Secretary of State for India (1885–6), Lord Randolph Churchill had been responsible for the annexation of Upper Burma and Churchill often recalled how his father frequently declared ‘I annexed Burma’. See Winston S. Churchill, Lord Randolph Churchill: Volume II (London: Macmillan, 1906), p. 484. See also Robert F. Foster, Lord Randolph Churchill: A Political Life (Oxford: OUP, 1981), pp. 206–12; and Robert Rhodes James, Lord Randolph Churchill (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1959; Phoenix edition, 1994), pp. 205–06. Churchill, Finest Hour, p. 225. 30. A.J.P. Taylor (ed.), Off the Record: W.P. Crozier, Political Interviews, 1933–1943 (London: Hutchinson, 1973), p. 176. 31. Taylor (ed.), Off the Record, p. 176. 32. Brian Bond (ed.), Chief of Staff: The Diaries of Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Pownall, Volume II, 1940–1944 (London: Leo Cooper, 1974), 20 December 1941, p. 66. 33. Hansard, HC (series 5) vol. 443, col. 1851 (5 November 1947). 34. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume IV, The Hinge of Fate (London: Cassell, 1951), p. 135. 35. Raymond Callahan, ‘Churchill and the Indian Army’, Second Joint Impe- rial War Museum/ King’s College London, Military History Conference, The Indian Army, 1939–1947, 9 May 2009. 36. LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/192: Ismay to Pownall, 19 January 1950. 37. LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/196A: Pownall to Ismay, 23 January 1950. 38. Whenever Churchill wrote ‘British-Indian Army’ what he really referred to was the ‘British-Officered Indian Army’ which he had been a part of whilst stationed in Bangalore at the end of the nineteenth century. 39. The Indianisation of the Indian Army was intended to be a slow and grad- ual process which would see the Indian Army being populated with Indian officers. It was to occur in three stages (each stage lasting fourteen years) so that a future self-governing India would have an Indianised Army. By 1921, however, little progress had been made and the Military Requirements Committee (under the chairmanship of Lord Rawlinson) stated that the first of the three stages would consist of five units of infantry and three of cavalry being Indianised so that the administrative burden would be as easy as possible. The units were segregated for spurious administrative and logistical reasons but the real intention behind the segregation was to avoid old British officers not sending their sons to India to train under ‘natives’. 214 Notes

40. See Chandar S. Sundaram, “Martial’ Indian Aristocrats and the Military Sys- tem of the Raj: The Imperial Cadet Corps, 1900–1914’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 25/3 (1997). 41. Bond (ed.), Chief of Staff: II, 8 January 1942, p. 76. 42. Bond (ed.), Chief of Staff: II,‘Causesoffailure’entry,undated,p.97. 43. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 134. 44. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, Churchill to Dorman-Smith, 16 February 1942, p. 135. 45. David Day, The Great Betrayal: Britain, Australia and the Onset of the Pacific War, 1939–1942 (London: Angus and Robertson, 1988); and ‘Loosening the Bonds: Britain, Australia and the Second World War’, History Today, 38/2 (1988), pp. 11–17. 46. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 136–46. 47. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 299. 48. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 135. 49. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 146. 50. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 150. 51. See Christopher Bayly and Tim Harper, Forgotten Armies: Britain’s Asian Empire and the War with Japan (London: Penguin, 2005), pp. 71–253; and Werner Gruhl, Imperial Japan’s World War Two, 1931–1945 (Piscataway, NJ: Transaction, 2010), p. 117. 52. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 146. 53. Pownall’s diary entry for 30 January 1942 confirms this overemphasis. He wrote that ‘the Japs keep creeping onward little by little. Burma, as we thought, was making a mountain over a small molehill. The Jap forces used there proved to be quite small and gained more success than they should have, thus repeating what happened in the early days of Malaya’. Bond (ed.), Chief of Staff: II, 30 January 1942, p. 81. 54. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, p. 147. 55. Churchill, My Early Life, p. 148. 56. See Gerard Douds, “Matters of Honour’: Indian Troops in the North African and Italian Theatres’, in Paul Addison and Angus Calder (eds), Time to Kill: The Soldier’s Experience of War in the West, 1939–1945 (London: Pimlico, 1997); Matthew Parker, Monte Cassino: The Story of the Hardest Fought Battle of World War Two (London: Headline, 2004); and Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume V, Closing the Ring (London: Cassell, 1952), pp. 438–55. Pownall drafted the original chapter (which at this point had yet to be checked by the Cabinet Historical Section), and wrote a ‘purely operational’ narrative punctuated by some of Churchill’s original telegrams: CCAC, CHUR 4/328/9: Pownall to Churchill, 1 December 1950. 57. Churchill, Closing the Ring, p. 442; p. 443. 58. Churchill, Closing the Ring, p. 448. 59. Churchill, Closing the Ring, p. 450. Churchill does not specify whether these figures were for the dead alone or whether the figures included the dead, the wounded, and the missing in action. 60. Churchill, Closing the Ring, p. 450. 61. Churchill, Closing the Ring, pp. 489–503. 62. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume VI, Triumph and Tragedy (London: Cassell, 1954), pp. 532–59. Notes 215

63. The Conservatives won 321 seats, Labour won 295 seats, the Liberals gained 6 seats and other parties won 3 seats. 64. CCAC, CHUR 4/331/94–7: Pownall to Kelly, 29 November 1951, in which Pownall was concerned with ‘matters of detail’ (amendments) on the ‘Burma and Beyond’ chapter which were to go in the fifth volume of mem- oirs, but which were too late to go in to the serialisation of the volume in the Daily Telegraph. 65. CCAC, CHUR 4/353C/298–9: Allen to Churchill, 26 June 1953, in which Allen warns Churchill against mentioning the lack of coordination between Halsey and MacArthur as it would ‘probably be inappropriate for you to enter into discussion on this point in your book’. 66. Mary Soames (ed.), Speaking for Themselves: The Personal Letters of Winston and Clementine Churchill (London: Black Swan, 1999), Churchill to Clementine, 17 August 1944, p. 500. 67. Churchill, Closing the Ring, p. 493. 68. Churchill, Closing the Ring, p. 495. 69. Churchill, Closing the Ring, p. 496. 70. Bond (ed.), Chief of Staff: II, 17 October 1943, p. 112. 71. See Shelford Bidwell, The Chindit War: Stilwell, Wingate and the Cam- paign in Burma, 1944 (New York: Macmillan, 1980); Major-General Stephen Woodburn Kirby, The War against Japan: Volume III, The Decisive Battles (London: HMSO, 1961; Uckfield: Naval and Military Press edition, 2004); Peter Mead, ‘Orde Wingate and the Official Historians’, Journal of Contem- porary History, 14/1 (1979), pp. 55–82; Peter Mead and Shelford Bidwell, ‘Orde Wingate—Two Views’, Journal of Contemporary History, 15/3 (1979), pp. 401–04; and David Rooney, Wingate and the Chindits: Redressing the Balance (London: Cassell, 1994). 72. Pownall wrote that Wingate was ‘distinctly unstable’ and that Churchill had a ‘remarkable flair for choosing oddities just because they are oddities (he, being one himself, has a sympathetic feeling)’. Bond (ed.), Chief of Staff: II, 17 October 1943, p. 112. 73. Churchill, Closing the Ring, p. 497–9. 74. CCAC, DEKE 1: Reader Correspondence, Kelly to Martin Gilbert, 11 October 1988. 75. Churchill, Closing the Ring, pp. 500–502. 76. For the Imphal Battle see: David Rooney, Burma Victory: Imphal, Kohima and the Chindit issue, March 1944 to May 1945 (London: Cassell, 1992); and Frank McLynn, The Burma Campaign (London: Bodley Head, 2010). 77. Churchill, Closing the Ring, p. 500. 78. Churchill described Wingate’s death, in an air crash on 24 March 1944, as ‘shattering news’: CCAC, CHAR 20/160/92: Churchill to Dill, 28 March, 1944. 79. See John Colvin, Not Ordinary Men: The re-Assessed (London: Leo Cooper, 1994); Leslie Edwards, Kohima, The Furthest Battle: The Story of the Japanese Invasion of India in 1944 and the ‘British-Indian Thermopylae’ (Stroud: History Press, 2009); Fergal Keane, Road of Bones: The Siege of Kohima 1944, The Epic Story of the Last Great Stand of Empire (London: Harper, 2010); and Michael Lowry, Fighting through to Kohima: A Memoir of War in India and Burma (London: Leo Cooper, 2003). 216 Notes

80. Churchill, Closing the Ring, p. 500. 81. Churchill, Closing the Ring, p. 501. 82. http://www.burmastar.org.uk/1944.htm. 83. Churchill, Closing the Ring, p. 501. 84. Churchill, Closing the Ring, p. 501–02. 85. Churchill, Closing the Ring, p. 503. 86. Churchill, Closing the Ring, p. 494. 87. S.N. Prasad, K.D. Bhargava and P.N. Khera (eds), The Reconquest of Burma: Volume I (Orient Longmans: Combined Inter-Services Historical Section, India & Pakistan, 1958), p. xxv. 88. Prasad, Bhargava and Khera (eds), The Reconquest of Burma: Volume I, p. xxv. 89. CCAC, CHAR 20/69A/41: Wavell to Churchill, 26 January 1942. 90. Churchill, Closing the Ring, p. 494. 91. Churchill, Closing the Ring, Roosevelt to Churchill, 25 February 1944, p. 495. 92. Churchill, Closing the Ring, p. 494. 93. Churchill, Closing the Ring, p. 495. 94. Churchill, Closing the Ring, Roosevelt to Churchill, 25 February 1944, p. 495. See also John J. Sbrega, ‘Anglo-American Relations and the Selection of Mountbatten as Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia’, Military Affairs, 46/3 (1982) which persuasively argues that Churchill’s appointment of Mountbatten was one way of mollifying American demands for imme- diate action in Burma which, in itself, illustrated how tense the wartime ‘special relationship’ had become. 95. Warren Kimball (ed.), Churchill and Roosevelt, The Complete Correspondence: Volume II, Alliance Forged (London: Collins, 1984), Roosevelt to Churchill, 24 February 1944, p. 756. 96. Kimball (ed.), Alliance Forged, p.756. 97. Christopher Bayly and Tim Harper, Forgotten Armies: The Fall of British Asia, 1941–1945 (London: Allen Lane, 2004), p. xxx. 98. CCAC, SLIM 3/2: Slim’s lecture notes for a talk on the Burma Campaign, given in Copenhagen, undated, p. 8. 99. CCAC, SLIM 3/2: Slim’s lecture notes for a talk on the Burma Campaign, given in Copenhagen, undated, p. 8. 100. ‘Review of the Year, 1942’, The Times, 2 January 1943. 101. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 402–3. 102. The phrase ‘defeat into victory’ has been consistently used when referring to the Burma campaigns of 1941 to 1945, and found its way into common parlance through the title of Slim’s memoirs, Defeat into Victory (London: Cassell, 1956). 103. CCAC, SLIM 3/3: Burma Reunion Speech, 1 June 1951. 104. CCAC, SLIM 3/2: Slim’s lecture notes on the Burma Campaign, given in Copenhagen, undated, p. 3. 105. Mason makes the point that to be in constant contact or communication with Churchill could, at times, be helpful. At other times, however, it was a drain upon time and energy when in the field: Mason, A Matter of Honour, p. 505. Admiral Andrew Browne Cunningham went further, writing that Churchill’s ‘prodding’ communiqués often did more than annoy, as they ‘implied that something was lacking’ and ‘did positive harm’ to the recipi- ent: Admiral of the Fleet, Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope, A Sailor’s Notes 217

Odyssey: The Autobiography of Admiral of the Fleet, Viscount Cunningham (London: Hutchinson, 1951; reprint 1953), p. 231. 106. Alex Danchev and Daniel Todman (eds), War Diaries, 1939–1945: Field- Marshal Lord Alanbrooke (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2001: Phoenix Press edition, 2002), 2 March 1942, p. 235. 107. CCAC, CHUR 4/341/6: Churchill to Pownall, 8 November 1952. 108. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 449. 109. CCAC, CHUR 4/341/5: Pownall to Churchill, 10 November 1952. 110. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 453. 111. Churchill, Triumph and Tragedy, p. 129. 112. Churchill, Triumph and Tragedy, p. 130. 113. CCAC, CHAR 20/173/28: Mountbatten to Churchill, 10 October 1944. 114. Churchill, Triumph and Tragedy, p. 144–5. 115. Churchill, Triumph and Tragedy, p. 145. 116. Churchill, Triumph and Tragedy, Churchill to Ismay, ‘The War Against Japan’, 12 September 1944, p. 146. 117. Mason, A Matter of Honour, p. 476. 118. Bayly and Harper, Forgotten Armies, p. xxix. 119. See Bipan Chandra, India After Independence (New Delhi: Penguin, 2000); Patrick French, Liberty or Death: India’s Journey to Independence and Division (London: Flamingo, 1998); Mushirul Hasan (ed.), India’s Partition: Process, Strategy and Mobilization (New Delhi: OUP, 1993); Yasmin Khan, The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008); Alex Von Tunzelmann, Indian Summer: The Secret History of the End of an Empire (London: Pocket Book, 2008); and Stanley Wolpert, Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India (Oxford: OUP, 2006). 120. There were, of course, instances of Churchill praising Indian troops. On 24 March 1941, Churchill wrote that ‘His Majesty’s Government in the United Kingdom gratefully recognise the valiant contribution which Indian troops have made to the Imperial victories in ’. But such instances were few and far between and were more public relation exer- cises for furthering support, especially in India, rather than genuine offers of praise or thanks: Churchill, The Grand Alliance, Appendix C, Churchill to Maharaja Jam Sahib of Nawanagar, on 24 March 1941, p. 667. Another instance was when Churchill agreed that there ‘must be no discrimination on grounds of race or colour’ in the employment of Indians or other colo- nial subjects in the Royal Navy. He suggested that ‘each case must be judged on its merits’ and, while he could not see ‘any objection to Indians serving on H.M. Ships where they are qualified and needed, or, if their virtues so deserve, rising to be Admirals of the Fleet’, he did conclude with ‘but not too many of them please.’ Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Vol- ume 1, The Gathering Storm (London: Cassell, 1948), Appendix II, Churchill to Second Sea Lord and others concerned and Secretary, 14 October 1939, p. 607. 121. See Byron Farwell, Armies of the Raj: From the Great Indian Mutiny to Inde- pendence, 1885–1947 (London: Viking, 1989), pp. 292–302; Sundaram, ‘Grudging Concessions’, pp. 88–101; Daniel Marston, ‘A Force Transformed: The Indian Army and the Second World War’, in Marston and Sundaram 218 Notes

(eds), A Military History of India and South Asia, pp. 102–22; Sharpe, ‘The Indianisation of the Indian Army’; and Tinker, ‘India in the First World War and after’, pp. 89–107. 122. See David E. Omissi, The Sepoy and the Raj: The Indian Army, 1860–1940 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1994; repr. 1998), pp. 153–91. 123. Mason, A Matter of Honour, p. 511. 124. Until mid 1942, the loyalty of the Indian Army was ‘conditional and brittle’. Better material supply, equipment, training, and the increase in concern for their families, however, meant that by 1944 the loyalty of the Jawans to their commissioned officers was not questioned (by their officers or by themselves). It was following demobilisation, and the loss of regular pay, that the loyalty of the majority of Jawans became politically aware, that is to say ‘nationalist’. Kaushik Roy, ‘Military Loyalty in the Colonial Context: A Case Study of the Indian Army during World War II’, Journal of Modern History, 73/2 (2009), pp. 528–9. 125. CCAC, CHAR 20/62/31: Wavell to Churchill, 15 June 1942. 126. This ability to adapt to various battlefield conditions and terrains, and to learn from previous mistakes, was a point made by Ashley Jackson, Dr C. Mann, Col. G. Dunlop and Alan Jeffreys in their respective papers pre- sented at the Second Joint Imperial War Museum/King’s College London, Military History Conference, The Indian Army, 1939–1947, 9 May 2009. See also Pradeep Barua, ‘Strategies and Doctrines of Imperial Defence: Britain and India, 1919–1945’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 25/2 (1997), pp. 241–66. 127. CCAC, CHAR 20/83/15: Wavell to Churchill, 16 November 1942. 128. Mason, A Matter of Honour, p. 469–70. 129. Various ways to isolate the Indian troops from the political unrest in India were undertaken: postal censorship, only British newspapers avail- able within camps, and the dissemination of Allied war-effort propaganda through the use of mobile film units and radio programmes. See Sanjoy Bhattacharya, ‘British Military Information Management Techniques and the South Asian Soldier: Eastern India during the Second World War’, Modern Asian Studies, 34/2 (2000), pp. 483–510. 130. Mason, A Matter of Honour, p. 513. 131. Mason, A Matter of Honour, p. 509. 132. CCAC, CHAR 20/128/5: Churchill to Amery, 10 July 1943. 133. Churchill, Grand Alliance, Churchill to Linlithgow, 7 April 1941, p. 79–80. 134. CCAC, CHAR 4/401/18: Message from Churchill for the Newspaper, 10 January 1944. 135. CCAC, CHUR 4/401/20: Churchill to De Gaulle, 4 February 1944; CCAC, CHUR 4/401/19: Churchill to National Farmers’ Union, 25 January 1944; and CCAC, CHUR 4/401/22: Churchill to the National Savings Committee, 20 March 1944. 136. Raymond Callahan, ‘Churchill and the Indian Army’, The Indian Army, 1939–1947, 9 May 2009. 137. CCAC, CHAR 20/175/61: Churchill to Mountbatten, 21 November 1944. 138. It is attributing too much of the Machiavellian to Churchill to write that he was calling for a review of conditions for British troops in the Far East because he knew that demobilisation, once victory against Japan was Notes 219

complete, would be a lengthy process and, with his forward look to a gen- eral election at the end of the war, he was hoping to ‘ameliorate conditions of service’ to ensure he received the soon to be ex-serviceman’s vote. CCAC, CHAR 20/175/62: Churchill to Mountbatten, 21 November 1944. 139. CCAC, CHAR 20/175/62: Churchill to Mountbatten, 21 November 1944. 140. CCAC, CHAR 20/195/80: Amery to Ismay, 8 May 1945. 141. Churchill, Closing the Ring, p. ix–x. 142. Burma became independent (as opposed to being granted and, of course, accepting Dominion status and remaining within the Commonwealth) in January 1948. 143. Prasad, Bhargava and Khera, Reconquest of Burma, 1, p. xxv. 144. Raymond Callahan, ‘The Prime Minister and the Indian Army’s Last War’, in Kaushik Roy (ed.), The Indian Army in the Two World Wars (Leiden: Brill, 2012), p. 317. 145. See Government of India publications, The Tiger Strikes: The Story Of Indian Troops In North Africa And East Africa (London: HMSO, 1942); The Tiger Kills: The Story Of British And Indian Troops With The 8th Army In North Africa (London: HMSO, 1944); and The Tiger Triumphs: The Story Of Three Great Divisions in Italy (London: HMSO, 1946).

7 From Memoir to History, Part II

1. Stuart Ball (ed.), Parliament and Politics in the ages of Churchill and Attlee: The Headlam Diaries, 1935–1951 (London: Royal Historical Society, 1999; Camden Fifth series, Volume 14), on the Quebec conference, Headlam observed that as Churchill and Roosevelt (Stalin being conspicuously absent) ‘must have been enjoying the popular ovation’ which they received, it would be hard for either of them to ‘find’ something of equal merit to do afterwards, 2 September 1944, p. 419. 2. See Anthony Seldon, ‘Churchill’s Indian Summer’, History Today, 32/2 (1982), pp. 5–10, for a succinct and nuanced argument as to why Churchill chose his own time to retire from the office of Prime Minister. 3. TNA, CAB 103/150: Annexe 1, draft, p. 1, c. September 1941. 4. TNA, CAB 103/150: Annexe 1, draft, p. 1, c. September 1941. The timescale of the production of the military histories for the Second World War was deemed appropriate due to the lessons learnt from the Official Histories of the Great War which had shown that it was ‘unwise to produce a volume too soon’. On the use and value of POW testimony regarding the Official Histories, Brigadier Harry Latham later concluded, that ‘we find that very rarely can they correct the narratives as regards the facts. But their views on why things happened are of very great value’ (Latham’s emphasis), in TNA, CAB 103/154: Brigadier Harry Latham, ‘Progress Report: July 1945’. 5. TNA, CAB 103/150: Annexe 1, draft, p. 1, c. September 1941; see also TNA, CAB 103/151: ‘War Cabinet, Committee for the Control of Official Histo- ries, Suggested outline plan for the Official Histories of the Present War’, 8 October 1941. 6. TNA, CAB 103/150: Annexe 1, draft, p. 2, c. September 1941. 7. TNA, CAB 103/150: Annexe 1, draft, p. 1, c. September 1941. 220 Notes

8. Aware that all the historians earmarked for participating in the Official His- tories series were male, Bridges made provision in one of his memorandums for ‘a lady Historian’ but did not define her role or specify to which of the histories (military, civil, specialist or general) she would be allocated. See TNA, CAB 103/151: Bridges, memorandum on the ‘Consultation with the Universities of the War Histories and Suggestions as to the Constitution of an Advisory Committee’, 10 July 1941. 9. TNA, CAB 103/151: to Churchill, 25 September 1941. 10. TNA, CAB 103/151: Anthony Bevir to Miss S. M. E. Goodfellow (Secretary to the Board of Education), 28 September 1941. The year 1941 was arguably the most difficult year of the war to date: Churchill urged America to give him the tools to finish the job whilst London, Plymouth, Bristol, Swansea, Hull and Liverpool were repeatedly and severely bombed; British forces retreated through ; the British debacle in began; HMS Hood was sunk by the German battleship Bismarck;OperationBattleaxe failed to relieve the ; British forces were defeated at the Halfaya Pass; Germany invaded the (admittedly bringing the Soviets onto the Allied side but at a cost of American lend-lease material being diverted from Britain and her imperial outposts); the Atlantic Charter was signed and, albeit unin- tentionally, Churchill arguably opened the floodgates for the liquidation of the British Empire; and by 1 December, Malta had endured the majority of what was to eventually total over 3000 bombing raids (1940–41). Within a week, fortunes were to change with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the American entry into the war. 11. TNA, CAB 103/151: Bridges to Churchill, 8 November 1941; includes Churchill’s initialled reply to Bridges, 9 November 1941. 12. TNA, CAB 103/150: Edmonds to Bridges, 3 March 1941. 13. TNA, CAB 103/150: Edmonds to Bridges, 3 March 1941. Edmonds contin- ued to write that the production of the Official Histories of the Great War had ‘not been particularly satisfactory, especially as regards the selection of authors and the long time’ it had taken to finish the work. The final volume of the First World War’s Official History was published in 1949. 14. For his immense contribution to the Official Histories of the Second World War, Butler was knighted in 1958. See Stephen W. Roskill, ‘Butler, Sir James Ramsay Montagu (1889–1975)’, rev. Oxford Dictionary of National Biogra- phy, Oxford University Press, 2004 [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/ 30884, accessed 17 Oct 2012]. 15. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 513; citing TNA, CAB 103/422: Churchill to Bridges, 17 July 1947. 16. TNA, CAB 140/68: Major-General Ian S. O Playfair to Butler, 19th August 1955. 17. TNA, CAB 140/68: Brook to Acheson, 8 August 1955; TNA, CAB 140/68: Butler to the Official Historians (Sir Charles Webster; Dr. Frankland, Captain Roskill, Mr Collier, Major Ellis, General Playfair, General Kirby, Mr Gwyer, Mr Passant, Mr Ehrman, and Professor Gibbs), 18 August 1955. 18. CCAC, CHUR 4/63A/34: Truman to Churchill, 20 May 1953. 19. TNA, CAB 140/68: Brook to Acheson, 8 August 1955. 20. TNA, CAB 140/68: Brook to Acheson, 8 August 1955. 21. TNA, CAB 140/68: Brook to Acheson, 8 August 1955. Notes 221

22. TNA, CAB 140/68: Butler to the Official Historians, 18 August 1955. See Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 513, for the ‘strong language’ and ‘sense of disappointment’ expressed by John Ehrman (author of the Grand Strategy volumes of the Official Histories) and Butler. 23. TNA, CAB 140/68: Butler to the Official Historians, 18 August 1955. 24. TNA, CAB 140/68: Charles K. Webster to Edward Hale, 7 July 1959 (see also TNA, CAB 140/68: Charles K. Webster to Butler, 22 August 1955); Charles Webster and Noble Frankland, The Strategic Air Offensive against Germany: Volumes I–IV (London: HMSO, 1961). 25. TNA, CAB 140/68: Charles K. Webster to Butler, 22 August 1955. 26. Noble Frankland, History at War: The Campaigns of an Historian (London: Giles de la Mare Publishers, 1998), p. 97. 27. TNA, CAB 103/154: Brigadier Harry Latham, ‘Progress Report’, June 1945. 28. TNA, CAB 103/155/14: Brigadier Harry Latham, ‘Progress Report: September 1946’. 29. TNA, CAB 103/155/34: Brigadier Harry Latham, ‘Progress Report: July 1948’. 30. TNA, CAB 103/155/34: Brigadier Harry Latham, ‘Progress Report: July 1948’. See TNA, CAB 103/155/35: Brigadier Harry Latham, ‘Progress Report: August 1948’ in which the allegation that Pakistan was refusing to cooperate was proved false. 31. Major-General S. Woodburn Kirby, The War against Japan: Volumes I–V (London: HMSO, 1957–69; Uckfield, East Sussex: Naval & Military Press, 2004). 32. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume IV, The Hinge of Fate (London: Cassell, 1951). David Reynolds, In Command of History: Churchill Fighting and Writing the Second World War (London: Allen Lane, 2004), p. 531. 33. TNA, CAB 101/150: Kirby to Percival, 18 June 1951. 34. TNA, CAB 101/150: Percival to Kirby, 19 June 1951. 35. For example see: TNA, CAB 101/157: Correspondence between Kirby and Lt-Col. J. Dow Sainter regarding the action of the 6/1st Punjab; TNA, CAB 101/159: Correspondence between Kirby and Air Chief Marshal Sir Robert Brooke-Popham; TNA, CAB 101/185: Correspondence between Kirby and Slim. 36. TNA, CAB 101/150: Kirby to Percival, 14 June 1954. 37. TNA, CAB 101/150: Kirby to Butler, 14 January 1955. 38. Captain Stephen Roskill, the Official Historian of The War at Sea,wasthe historian who rankled Churchill so very deeply. See Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 513. Kirby is used as an example due to the content Kirby cov- ered and the timing of his research with Churchill’s British edition being published. 39. TNA, CAB 140/68: Kirby to Butler, 23 August 1955. 40. This arrangement did not sit well Noble Frankland who described Pownall, Ismay and Allen as ‘Churchill’s retainers’ who waged ‘sporadic warfare’ about the use of Churchill’s minutes within the Official Histories. Frankland, HistoryatWar, p. 102. 41. TNA, CAB 140/47: Pownall to Butler, 15 July 1948. 42. TNA, CAB 140/47: Pownall to Butler, 6 October 1948. 43. TNA, CAB 103/150: Annexe 1, draft, p. 1, c. September 1941. 222 Notes

44. The only other possible rival to Churchill’s historical narrative (written from a personal and top-down perspective) would have been by Anthony Eden, but his memoirs were neither fully researched nor written until the late 1950s and early 1960s. Reynolds remarked that by the time his mem- oirs were published Eden would have realised that he had already lost ‘the battle for history’ to team Churchill. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 512.

Conclusion

1. CCAC, CHUR 2/539B/157–9: Churchill to President John F. Kennedy, draft letter/speech of acceptance for award of honorary citizenship of the USA, 6 April 1963. 2. Churchill, Boston Globe, 18 December 1900, p. 2, in Robert H. Pilpel, Churchill in America 1895–1961: An Affectionate Portrait (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1976; London: New English Library 1977), p. 50. 3. Churchill’s four-volume A History of the English-Speaking Peoples should also be put towards this total. 4. CCAC, CHUR 2/539B/158: Churchill to President John F. Kennedy, draft letter/speech of acceptance for award of honorary citizenship of the USA, 6 April 1963. 5. ‘The Sinews of Peace’, Churchill, Westminster College, Fulton, Missouri, 5 March 1946, in Randolph S. Churchill (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: Post-war Speeches, The Sinews of Peace (London: Cassell, 1948), p. 98. 6. There is of course the closely related matter of wartime Vietnam. Perhaps delaying reaction to the British Empire’s own potential for ‘trusteeship’, Churchill proved willing to sacrifice wartime French-Indo China in order to maintain more cordial links with Roosevelt and avert American anti- imperialist sentiment from his own imperial concerns. See T.O. Smith, Churchill, America and Vietnam, 1941–45 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011). 7. CCAC, CHUR 4/25A/57: Churchill to Ismay, 15 November 1952. 8. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume I, The Gathering Storm (London: Cassell, 1948), p. 527. 9. CCAC, CHUR 4/212/68–9: Churchill notes, 4 March 1941. 10. CCAC, CHAR 20/73/25: Churchill to Roosevelt, 1 April 1942. 11. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume IV, The Hinge of Fate (London: Cassell, 1951), p. 81. 12. Robert Rhodes James (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches: Volume VI, 1935–1942 (New York: Chelsea House, 1974), Churchill, Mansion House speech, London, 10 November 1942, p. 6695. 13. Randolph S. Churchill (ed.), Winston S, Churchill: Companion Volume II, Part 3, 1911–1914 (London: Heinemann, 1969), memorandum by Churchill, c. February 1912, p. 1512. 14. See Brian P. Farrell, ‘Churchill and Imperial Defence 1926–1940: Putting Singapore in Perspective’, in Brian P. Farrell (ed.), Churchill and the Lion City: Shaping Modern Singapore (Singapore: National University of Singapore, 2011), p. 40. Notes 223

15. Churchill was quick to assert that one point of the Atlantic Charter, that which referred to respecting ‘the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live; and they wish to see sovereign rights and self-government restored to those who have been forcibly deprived of them’, did not apply to India, Burma or any other part of the British Empire. 16. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War: Volume III, The Grand Alliance (London: Cassell, 1950), p. 614. 17. Martin Gilbert, Road to Victory: Winston S. Churchill, 1941–1945 (London: Heinemann, 1986), p. 25. 18. LHCMA, ISMAY 4/18/15: Harry Hopkins to Ismay, 28 July 1945. 19. Reynolds, In Command of History,p.xxvi. 20. LHCMA, ISMAY 2/3/163: Churchill to Ismay, 10 July 1949. 21. Winston S. Churchill, Marlborough: His Life and Times, Volumes I–IV (London: Harrap, 1933–38). 22. Mary Fulbrook, Historical Theory (London: Routledge, 2002), p. 50. 23. Fulbrook, Historical Theory,p.50. 24. Churchill, The Gathering Storm, p. viii. 25. Fulbrook, Historical Theory,p.50. 26. Fulbrook, Historical Theory,p.50. 27. Fulbrook, Historical Theory,p.50. 28. Churchill, The Gathering Storm,p.vii. 29. Sir William Deakin in conversation with Martin Gilbert, 15 March 1975 in Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill: 1945–1965: Volume 8: Never Despair (London: Heinemann, 1988), p. 315. 30. CCAC, CHUR 4/18A/72: Advertisement from Thomas Allen Ltd, Toronto. 31. Christopher Bayly and Tim Harper, Forgotten Armies: Britain’s Asian Empire and the War with Japan (London: Penguin, 2005); and Forgotten Wars: The End of Britain’s Asian Empire (London: Allen Lane, 2007). 32. CCAC, CHUR 4/24B/501: Sir Newman Flower to Churchill, 18 March 1954.

A Note on Sources

1. Randolph S. Churchill (Winston’s son) edited the first two volumes, Winston S. Churchill: Volume I: Youth, 1874–1900 (London: Heinemann, 1966), and Winston S. Churchill: Volume II: Young Statesman, 1901–14 (London: Heinemann, 1967), alongside the companion volumes which contain most of the documents referred to within the biography. Upon Randolph’s death in June 1968, the task was assigned to Martin Gilbert who completed the biography with seven more volumes (each with the corresponding series of document companion volumes): Winston S. Churchill: Volume III: The Chal- lenge of War, 1914–1916 (London: Heinemann, 1971); Winston S. Churchill: Volume IV: World in Torment, 1917–1922 (London: Heinemann, 1975); Winston S. Churchill: Volume V: The Prophet of Truth, 1922–1939 (London: Heinemann, 1976); Winston S. Churchill: Volume VI: Finest Hour, 1939–1941 (London: Heinemann, 1983); The Churchill War Papers, Volume I: Winston S. Churchill, At The Admiralty, September 1939–May 1940 (New York: Norton, 1993); The Churchill War Papers, Volume II: Winston S. Churchill, Never Surrender, May– December 1940 (New York: Norton, 1995); The Churchill War Papers, Volume 224 Notes

III: Winston S. Churchill, The Ever-Widening War, 1941 (New York: Norton, 2000); Winston S. Churchill: Volume VII: Road to Victory, 1941–1945 (London: Heinemann, 1986); Winston S. Churchill: Volume VIII: Never Despair, 1945–1965 (London: Heinemann, 1988). 2. Eugene Rasor, Winston S. Churchill, 1874–1965: A Comprehensive Historiography and Annotated Bibliography (West Port, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2000); and Curt Zoller, Annotated Bibliography of Works About Sir Winston S. Churchill (New York: Sharpe, 2004). 3. See also the wide range of Japanese anti-British and anti-Raj propaganda housed at the Imperial War Museum (Documents Section), London. Select Bibliography

Archival Sources

Churchill College Archive Centre, Churchill College, Cambridge Churchill, Winston (CHAR and CHUR): two classifications of papers: CHAR, includes all papers up to 27 July 1945 whereas CHUR include all papers from after 27 July 1945. Literary papers (such as cuts, proofs, annotations, and gal- leys), and personal and private correspondence relating to the literary papers are contained within: CHUR 1, CHUR 2, CHUR 4, CHUR 5, CHAR 1, CHAR 8, and CHAR 9. Amery, Leo (GBR0014 AMEL): particularly AMEL 2/4, private and personal cor- respondence with Governors of Dominions and imperial colonies. Useful to highlight Amery attitude to the British Empire and contrast it with Churchill. Bevin, Ernest (GBR0014 BEVN): particularly BEVN 2/4 and BEVN 2/5 provide insight as to why Labour were more in tune with the electorate of July 1945. BEVN 3/1 provides a viewpoint on India, and BEVN II 6/12 on Cripps. Deakin, Frederick William (GBR0014 DEAK): particularly DEAK 3 which provides insight into the workings of the syndicate. Eade, Charles (GBR0014 EADE): particularly EADE 2 the diaries. Kelly, Denis (GBR0014 DEKE): particularly DEKE 5 for impressions of Churchill as a writer and historian; DEKE 8 for correspondence between Martin Gilbert and Kelly; and DEKE 9 for correspondence with the International Churchill Society. Pownall, Henry (GBR0014 HRPO): Churchill Archive Centre holds copies of Pownall’s diaries. The originals are kept at King’s College, London: Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives. However the diaries are available in published form, see entry below, Brian Bond (ed.), Chief of Staff: The Diaries of Lieutenant- General Sir Henry Pownall, Volume I, 1933–1940 (London: Leo Cooper, 1972) and, Chief of Staff: The Diaries of Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Pownall, Volume II, 1940–1944 (London: Leo Cooper, 1974)). Roberts, Michael Rookherst (GBR0014 MRBS): particularly MRBS 1/3: which provides background to Chindit Operations; MRBS 1/4, correspondence with Ronald Lewin about William Slim (also see individual entry below); and MRBS 1/6, for Roberts’s views on strategy, administration and logistics in Burma. Slim, William (GBR0014 SLIM): particularly SLIM 3/2 which gives Slim’s post-war opinion on the conditions experienced in Burma in the form of lecture notes and speeches he made at the Burma reunion dinners.

King’s College, London: Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives Ismay, Hastings (GB0099 KCLMA ISMAY): particularly ISMAY 2/1–2/4, which provide insight into the machinations of the syndicate, and the relationship between some of the members of the syndicate (most notably Kelly and Pownall).

225 226 Select Bibliography

Pownall, Henry (GB0099 KCLMA POWNALL): Original twelve diaries dated January 1933 to August 1936, and January 1938 to December 1944 (with postscripts added January and September 1945). Dill, John Greer (GB0099 KCLMA DILL): particularly Dill 3/1, which give details on the progress of the war (excluding the Middle East) until 1943; Dill 3/2, which are the progress of war papers for the Middle East until 1943; Dill 3/3, personal correspondence 1935–47; and Dill 4, which illustrate just how well respected and admired Dill was in America.

University of Exeter, Special Collections Archive Hillman, Henry E. (EUMS 52): Retired Captain in the Royal Navy, employed as a Coast Inspector in the Chinese Maritime Customs Department. Observed the fighting between Japanese and Chinese forces in Shanghai August 1937. Rowse, A.L. (EUMS 113/1/1/27): Historian and contemporary of Churchill’s. Useful for notes/annotations/correspondence with his handwritten bound volumes of the manuscript The Later Churchills. Williams, Henry Frank Fulford (EULMS 145): British Anglican clergyman who lived in India 1913–34. Useful observations on the various Indian communities he lived and worked in.

University of Hull Archive (now Hull History Centre) Laski, Harold (DLA): the Personal Papers of Harold Laski (1893–1950) and Frida Laski (1884–1977). Particularly DLA/18 (the Winston Churchill Letters). A file containing correspondence between Churchill and Professor Harold Laski which provides insight into Churchill’s mercurial mind and early career.

John Rylands University Library of Manchester Auchinleck, Claude (GB113 AUC): particularly AUC 121–274: when Auchinleck was Commander-in-Chief India, January–June 1941; AUC 1024–1312: when Auchinleck was Commander-in-Chief India, June 1943–May 1948; and AUC 1313–1331: post-war papers spanning 1 December 1947–27 April 1948. Mainly the Auchinleck papers provide the opposite opinion on the Indian Army to Churchill’s.

The National Archives, Kew Records of the Prime Minister’s Office (PREM 3 and PREM 4). Records of the Cabinet Office (CAB).

Primary Sources: Published

Contemporary Publications Diaries and Letters Ball, S. (ed.), Parliament and Politics in the age of Churchill and Attlee: The Headlam Diaries, 1935–1951 (London: Royal Historical Society, 1999). Select Bibliography 227

Barnes, J. and D. Nicolson (eds), The Leo Amery Diaries, 1896–1929 (London: Hutchinson, 1980). —— The Empire At Bay: The Leo Amery Diaries, 1929–1945 (London: Hutchinson, 1988). Bond, B. (ed.), Chief of Staff: The Diaries of Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Pownall, Volume I, 1933–1940 (London: Leo Cooper, 1972). —— Chief of Staff: The Diaries of Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Pownall, Volume II, 1940–1944 (London: Leo Cooper, 1974). Colville, J., The Fringes of Power: Downing Street Diaries, 1939–1955, Volume I: September 1939–September 1941 (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1985; Sceptre edition, 1986). —— The Fringes of Power: Downing Street Diaries, 1939–1955, Volume II: October 1941–April 1955 (London: Phoenix, 2005). Danchev, A. and D. Todman (eds), War Diaries, 1939–1945: Field Marshal Lord Alanbrooke (London: Phoenix, 2002). Hunter, I. (ed.), Winston & Archie: The Collected Correspondence of Winston Churchill and Archibald Sinclair, 1915–1960 (London: Politico’s Publishing, 2005). Kimball, W.F. (ed.), Churchill and Roosevelt, The Complete Correspondence: Volume I, Alliance Emerging (London: Collins, 1984). —— Churchill and Roosevelt, The Complete Correspondence: Volume II, Alliance Forged (London: Collins, 1984). —— Churchill and Roosevelt, The Complete Correspondence: Volume III, Alliance Declining (London: Collins, 1984). Moon, P. (ed.), Wavell: The Viceroy’s Journal (Karachi: OUP, 1974). Nicolson, N. (ed.), The Harold Nicolson Diaries, 1907–1963 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2004). Norwich, J.J. (ed.), The Diaries, 1915–1951 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2005). Soames, M. (ed.), Speaking for Themselves: The Personal Letters of Winston and Clementine Churchill (London: Black Swan, 1999). Memoirs Bonham Carter, V., Winston Churchill: An Intimate Portrait (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1965). —— Winston Churchill, As I Knew Him (London: The Reprint Society, 1966). Butcher, H.C., Three Years with Eisenhower: The Personal Diary of Captain Harry C. Butcher, USNR Naval Aide to General Eisenhower, 1942–1945 (London: Heinemann, 1946). Cunningham, A., A Sailor’s Odyssey: The Autobiography of Admiral of the Fleet, Viscount Cunningham (London: Hutchinson, 1951). Hardinge, Lord Penshurst C., My Indian Years, 1910–1916: The Reminiscences of Lord Hardinge of Penshurst (London: Murray, 1948). Ismay, H., The Memoirs of Lord Ismay (London: Heinemann, 1960). Kennedy, J., The Business of War: The War Narrative of Major-General Sir John Kennedy (London: Hutchinson, 1957). MacDonald Fraser, G., Quartered Safe Out Here: A Recollection of the War in Burma, with a new Epilogue 50 Years On (London: Harvill, 1993). Malleson, G.B., The Indian Mutiny of 1857 (London: Seeley and Company, 1891), 2009 reprint. 228 Select Bibliography

Macmillan, H., The Blast of War, 1939–45 (London: Macmillan, 1967). Montague Brown, A., Long Sunset: Memoirs of Winston Churchill’s Last Private Secretary (London: Cassell, 1995). Moran, Lord C., Churchill: The Struggle for Survival, 1940–1960 (London: Consta- ble, 1966). Moon, P., Divide and Quit (London: Chatto and Windus, 1961). Nash, J.T., Fighting with the Bengal Yeomanry Cavalry (Leonaur, 2009). Sansbury Talks, A., A Tale of Two Japans: 10 Years to Pearl Harbor (Brighton: Book Guild Publishing, 2010). Slim, W., Defeat into Victory (London: Cassell, 1956). Taylor, A.J.P. (ed.), Off the Record: Political Interviews, 1933–1943, W.P. Crozier (London: Hutchinson, 1973). Wheeler-Bennett, J. (ed.), Action This Day: Working with Churchill (London: Macmillan, 1968). Williams, F., A Prime Minister Remembers: The War and Post-War memoirs of the Rt. Hon. Earl Attlee based on his private papers and on a series of recorded conversations (London: Heinemann, 1961).

Books Bennett, H.G., Why Singapore Fell (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1944). Cannadine, D. (ed.), The Speeches of Winston Churchill (London: Penguin, 1990). Churchill, R.S. (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume I, Part 1, 1874–1896 (London: Heinemann, 1967). —— Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume I, Part 2, 1896–1900 (London: Heinemann, 1967). —— Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume II, Part 1, 1901–1907 (London: Heinemann, 1969). —— Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume II, Part 2, 1907–1911 (London: Heinemann, 1969). —— Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume II, Part 3, 1911–1914 (London: Heinemann, 1969). —— (ed.), Into Battle (London: Cassell, 1941). —— (ed.), The Sinews of Peace: Post-War Speeches by Winston S. Churchill (London: Cassell, 1948). Churchill, W.S., The Story of the Malakand Field Force: An Episode of Frontier War (London: Longman, 1898). —— Lord Randolph Churchill: Volume I–II (London: Macmillan, 1906). —— My African Journey (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1908). —— My Early Life: A Roving Commission (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1930). —— India: Speeches and an Introduction (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1931). —— The World Crisis: Volume I, 1911–1914 (London: Thornton-Butterworth, 1923). —— The World Crisis: Volume II, 1915 (London: Thornton-Butterworth, 1923). —— The World Crisis: Volume III, 1916–1918 (London: Thornton-Butterworth, 1927). —— The World Crisis: Volume IV, The Aftermath (London: Thornton-Butterworth, 1929). Select Bibliography 229

—— The World Crisis: Volume V, The Eastern Front (London: Thornton- Butterworth, 1931). —— Marlborough: His Life and Times, Volumes I–IV (London: Harrap, 1933–38). —— The Unrelenting Struggle (London: Cassell, 1942). —— The Second World War: Volume I, The Gathering Storm (London: Cassell, 1948). —— The Second World War: Volume II, Their Finest Hour (London: Cassell, 1949). —— The Second World War: Volume III, The Grand Alliance (London: Cassell, 1950). —— The Second World War: Volume IV, The Hinge of Fate (London: Cassell, 1951). —— The Second World War: Volume V, Closing the Ring (London: Cassell, 1952). —— The Second World War: Volume VI, Triumph and Tragedy (London: Cassell, 1954). —— A History of the English-Speaking Peoples: Volume I, The Birth of Britain (London: Cassell, 1956). —— A History of the English-Speaking Peoples: Volume II, The New World (London: Cassell, 1956). —— A History of the English-Speaking Peoples: Volume III, The Age of Revolution (London: Cassell, 1957). —— A History of the English-Speaking Peoples: Volume IV, The Great Democracies (London: Cassell, 1958). Coates, T. (ed.), Lord Kitchener and Winston Churchill: The Dardanelles Commission, Part 1, 1914–15 (London: HMSO, 1917; Stationery Office, edition, 2000). —— Defeat at Gallipoli: The Dardanelles Commission, Part 2, 1915–16 (London: HMSO, 1918; Stationery Office, edition, 2000). —— The Amritsar Massacre: General Dyer in the Punjab, 1919 (London: HMSO, 1920; Stationery Office, edition, 2000). Cripps, S., Empire (London: The India League, 1938). Eade, C. (ed.), Secret Sessions Speeches (London: Cassell, 1946). —— (ed.), The Unrelenting Struggle (London, Cassell, 1943). Gilbert, M. (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume III, Part 1, August 1914–April 1915 (London: Heinemann, 1972). —— Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume III: Part 2, May 1915–December 1916 (London: Heinemann, 1972). —— Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume IV: Part 1, January 1917–June 1919 (London: Heinemann, 1977). —— Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume IV: Part 2, July 1919–March 1921 (London: Heinemann, 1977). —— Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume IV, Part 3, April 1921–November 1922 (London: Heinemann, 1977). —— Winston S. Churchill, Companion Part I: Documents: The Exchequer Years, 1922–1929 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1979). —— Winston S. Churchill, Companion Part II: Documents: The Wilderness Years, 1929–1935 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1981). —— Winston S. Churchill, Companion Part III: Documents: The Coming of War, 1936–1939 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1982). —— Winston S. Churchill, The Churchill War Papers, Volume I: At the Admiralty, September 1939–May 1940 (New York: Norton, 1993). —— Winston S. Churchill, The Churchill War Papers, Volume II: Never Surrender, May 1940– December 1940 (New York: Norton, 1995). 230 Select Bibliography

—— Winston S. Churchill, The Churchill War Papers, Volume III: The Ever-Widening War, 1941 (New York: Norton, 2001). —— (ed.), Winston Churchill and Emery Reeves: Correspondence, 1937–1964 (Austin: University of Texas, 1997). Government of India, The Tiger Strikes: The Story of Indian Troops in North Africa and East Africa (London: HMSO, 1942). —— The Tiger Kills: The Story of British and Indian Troops with the 8th Army in North Africa (London: HMSO, 1944). —— The Tiger Triumphs: The Story of Three Great Divisions in Italy (London: HMSO, 1946). Hobson, J.A., Imperialism: A Study (New York: Cosimo edition, 2005). Ishimaru, T., Japan Must Fight Britain (London: Hurst & Blackett, 1936). Joubert de la Ferte, Sir P., Fun and Games (London: Hutchinson, 1964). Lenin, V.I., Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1939). Mansergh, N. and E.W.R. Lumby (eds), The Transfer of Power 1942–1947: Volume I: The Cripps Mission, January–April 1942 (London: HMSO, 1970). —— The Transfer of Power 1942–1947: Volume II: ‘Quit India’, 30 April–21 September 1942 (London: HMSO, 1971). —— The Transfer of Power 1942–1947: Volume III: Reassertion of Authority, Gandhi’s fast, and the succession to the Viceroyalty, 21 September–12 June 1943 (London: HMSO, 1971). —— The Transfer of Power 1942–1947: Volume IV: The Bengal Famine and the New Viceroyalty, 15 June 1943–31 August 1944 (London: HMSO, 1973). Marchant, J. (ed.), Winston Spencer Churchill: Servant of Crown and Commonwealth (London: Cassell, 1954). Morton, H.V., Atlantic Meeting: An account of Mr. Churchill’s Voyage in H.M.S. Prince of Wales, in August 1941, and the Conference with President Roosevelt which resulted in the Atlantic Charter (London: Methuen, 1944). Nehru, J., The Discovery of India (London: Meridian, 1946). Rhodes James, R. (ed.), Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, Volume I: 1897–1908 (New York: Chelsea House, 1974). —— Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, Volume II: 1908–1913 (New York: Chelsea House, 1974). —— Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, Volume III: 1914–1922 (New York: Chelsea House, 1974). —— Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, Volume IV: 1922–1928 (New York: Chelsea House, 1974). —— Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, Volume V: 1928–1935 (New York: Chelsea House, 1974). —— Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, Volume VI: 1935–1942 (New York: Chelsea House, 1974). —— Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, Volume VII: 1943–1949 (New York: Chelsea House, 1974). —— Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, Volume VIII: 1950–1963 (New York: Chelsea House, 1974). Union of Democratic Control, Eastern Menace: The story of Japanese Imperialism (London: Union of Democratic Control, 1936). Select Bibliography 231

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Other http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2002/11_november/25/ greatbritons_final.shtml. Accessed 29 March 2014. http://www.burmastar.org.uk/1944.htm. Accessed 29 March 2014. http://www.camra.org.uk/article.php?group_id=742. Accessed 29 March 2014. http://him.uk.msn.com/in-the-know/historys-best-insults-revealed?page=6. Accessed 29 March 2014. http://www.history.ac.uk/history-online/theses. List of theses currently in progress and all completed theses. Accessed 19 May 2011. www.martingilbert.com ‘Reflections’ page on his website, paragraph four. Accessed 10 November 2008. www.martingilbert.com/author_message.html. Accessed 29 March 2014. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1953/press.html. Acces- sed 29 March 2014. Nobel Prize Organisation. Presentation Speech by S. Siwertz to Lady Churchill and Winston Churchill Banquet Acceptance Speech delivered by Lady Clementine Churchill. Accessed 26 June 2008. http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/dresden.html. Accessed 3 December, 2008. www.rhs.ac.uk/bibl. Accessed 15 July 2009. http://www.royal-navy.mod.uk/history/battles/tarant/index.htm. Accessed 18 June 2011. http://www.theses.com/idx/registered_users/search/whatsnew.html. List of the- ses currently in progress in 2007 and all completed theses. Accessed 13 July 2008. http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/speeches/speeches-of-winston-churchill/ 105-our-duty-in-indi. Accessed 29 March 2014. Churchill’s ‘Our Duty in India Speech’ given at the Albert Hall, 31 March 1931, to a meeting of the Indian Empire Society. Index

ABDA (American-British-Dutch- Anglo-American alliance, 9, 10, 44, Australian) Command, 76, 92, 147, 148, 151 106, 107 see also English-speaking peoples; ABDARM (land forces of ABDA), 208 Roosevelt, Franklin D.; ‘special ABDAIR (air forces of ABDA), 208 relationship’; United States of ABDAFLOAT (naval forces of America ABDA), 208 Anglo-Australian relations, 122 abdication crisis, 188 Anglo-Japanese alliance, 38, 44, 46–9, Abyssinia, Italian invasion of, 48 51, 52, 57, 68 Indian troops in, 132 see also Japan Addison, Paul, 31, 32 Anglo-Persian Oil Company, 35 Admiralty, 33, 66–7, 146, 154, Anti-Comintern Pact, 51, 52 156, 158 appeasement, 53, 161 Afghanistan, 27 WSC and appeasement of Japan, 53, African troops, 119, 129, 132, 135, 55, 120 165, 213 Army, British, 29, 121, 122 stationed in Kenya, 119 see also British Expeditionary Agadir Crisis, 33 Force (BEF) air power: Army, Indian, 5, 9, 20, 29, 91, 94, 102, WSC’s use of as form of colonial 113–14, 116–37, 138, 143, 150, control in Ireland, 182 153, 155, 160, 162 WSC’s use of as form of colonial Dimapur, 126 control in Mesopotamia, 37 Imperial Cadet Corps, 121 and sea power, 62–6 Imphal, 126, 131 Air Ministry, 18, 84 Indian Military College, Alanbrooke, Field-Marshal Lord, (also Dehra Dun, 126 Brooke, General Sir Alan), 106, Kohima, 126 130, 156 Alexander, General Sir Harold, 123, Sandhurst, 121 125, 129, 130, 154 Sepoys, 117, 210 All-India Congress Committee, 97, see also Burma, invasion of, and 100, 204 reconquest of Allen, Commodore Gordon, 17, 20, Arnold, Matthew, 180 65, 77, 91, 145 see also ‘weary Titan’ see also Syndicate Asquith, Herbert, 32, 33, 154, 158 America, see United States of America Atlantic Charter, 42, 57–9, 102, Amery, Leopold, 29, 95–7, 99, 102–5, 115, 150 107, 109, 110, 112, 136, 154, see also Placentia Bay 160, 162 atomic bomb, use against Japan, 68 Amritsar massacre, 34 Attlee, Clement, 8, 97, 104, 106, see also Dyer, Colonel Reginald 131, 154 Edward Harry; Jallianwala Bagh, 1945 election victory, 16

255 256 Index

Attlee, Clement – continued Bomber Command, 5 1945–51 Labour government, 8, Borneo, 143 19, 78, 83, 86, 89, 97, 132, Bosnia, 10 156, 158 Bracken, Brendan, 106 Auchinleck, General Sir Claude, 106, Bridges, Sir Edward 109–10, 123, 130, 136, 155, as Cabinet Secretary, 18–19 162, 226 and Official Histories, 139–40 Australia, 25, 39, 70, 79, 80–81, 85, on The Second World War, 106, 122, 123, 145 18–19, 152 fear of Japanese invasion, 80 see also Cabinet Office Official Histories (Australian), 145–6 Britain, invasion threat, 55, 61 Secret War Sessions, 86 British Empire: troops (Australian), 119, 122, 123 WSC and his belief in the, 6, 16, see also Curtin, John (Australian 24–43, 52, 69, 128, 131–2, 151 Prime Minister) WSC and his belief in India as the heart of the, 9, 26, 28–9, 40, 86, Baldwin, Stanley, 27, 155, 159 93, 95, 101, 109, 114 on WSC and India, 94 Dominions in the, 79 and India Bill, 40 importance of Hong Kong to the, Balfour, Arthur James, 155–6 70–7, 149 Balfour Declaration, 156, 160 Japan as a threat to the, 3, 38, 45, on WSC’s World Crisis,14 47, 64, 68, 80, 90, 149 Bangalore, 111 post-war, 16, 24, 42, 58, 88, 131, 136 see also WSC in Bangalore United States of America on the, 24, Bank of England, 39 41–2, 47, 79, 90, 93, 94, 125, Barbour, Violet, 15 128, 131–2, 149–50 , 61 see also ‘weary Titan’, also Arnold, , 5, 18, 143 Matthew Bayly, Christopher and Tim British Expeditionary Force (BEF), 16, Harper, 133 74, 119 Beaverbrook, Lord William Maxwell Brook, Sir Norman Aitken, 204 as Cabinet Secretary, 18–19 Belfast Telegraph, 54 on The Second World War, 18–19, 56, Bell, Christopher, 75 65, 91, 152 Bevin, Ernest, 156, 162, 177, 225 and Official Histories, 141–2 Bhargava, K. D., 137 see also Cabinet Office Bismarck, sinking of, 62, 220 Brooke, General Sir Alan, see , 15, Alanbrooke, Lord, 106, 130, 156 Victory column, 21 Brooke-Popham, Sir Robert, 18, 72 Blitz, the, 5 Brown, Curtis (publishers, agents), ix spirit of the, 22 Browne, Sir Anthony Montague, 199 Board of Trade, Burma: Cripps, Stafford as President of Indian Army and the reconquest of, the, 158 116–37 WSC as President of the, 31, 32, 154 Japanese invasion of, 24, 53–4, 77, Lloyd-George, David as President of 114, 122, 150 the, 159 Japanese occupation of, 111, Boer War, physical condition of British 114, 150 troops, 31 and the Official Histories, 143, 144 Index 257

post-war, 8, 120, 127, 131, 132, 136 Chiefs of Staff, 80, 82, 88, 130 wartime, 8, 54, 101, 120, 121, 122, see also Alanbrooke, Lord; 123, 129, 149 Cunningham, Admiral Sir Burma Road, 53–5, 120 Andrew; Pound, Admiral Sir Butler, Sir James Ramsay Montagu Dudley and Official Histories, 140, 141, China, 49, 53, 58, 100, 102, 122, 125, 145, 146 127–9 and Official Historians, 142 Indo-China, 51 Butler, Richard Austen (Rab), see also Chiang Kai-Shek as Chairman of the Committee for Chinese the Control of the Official labourers in South Africa, 30 Histories, 139 troops in Burma, 102, 127 as President of the Board of in Hong Kong, 75–6 Education, 139 Chindits (Long Range Penetration Units), 125, 126 and Official Histories, 140 see also Wingate, Orde Churchill, Lady Clementine (wife), 13 Cabinet Office, xi, 226 on WSC’s 1945 election defeat, 16 Historical Section, 139 correspondence with WSC, 125 see Bridges, Sir Edward; Brook, Sir Churchill, Lady Jennie (mother), Norman 41, 147 Callahan, Raymond, viii, 4, 120, 135 correspondence with WSC, 40, 111 Campbell-Bannerman, Henry, 30, 31, Churchill, John Spencer, 1st Duke of 154, 156–7, 158 Marlborough, 15, 21, 151 Canada, 25 WSC’s biography of, 15, 17, 19 Canadian troops in the First World Churchill, Lord Randolph (father), 26, War, 117 157–8, 160, 162 see also Hong Kong influence upon WSC’s imperial Carr, Edward Hallett (E.H.), 7 thinking, 26, 27 WSC’s biography of, 14, 19 Cassell & Company, and The Second as Secretary of State for India, 157 World War, 153 Churchill, Randolph (son), as WSC’s see also Flower, Sir Newman official biographer, 223 Chamberlain, Austen, 182 Churchill, Winston Spencer Chamberlain, Joseph, 180 4th Hussars, 24, 29, 118; see Chamberlain, Neville, 12, 53, 72, 88 Churchill in Bangalore, Charmley, John, 22 and the Admiralty, 12, 33, 38–9, 45, Chartwell, Norman Brook dining 48, 62, 63, 66–7, 140 at, 141 in Bangalore, 22, 29, 39, 116, 118 papers, xi, 162 at the Board of Trade (President), 31, Chatfield, Lord Admiral (Alfred Ernle 32, 154 Montacute Chatfield), 72 in Boer War, 3, 13 Cherwell, Lord (Professor Frederick on Bolshevism, 34–6 Lindemann) and The Second World and his notion of the British War,17 Empire, 24–43 Chiang Kai-Shek, 78, 93, 98, 101–2, portrayal of Burma, 78, 86, 110, 126, 127, 157 116–37, 144 see also China as Chancellor of the Exchequer, 14, Chiang Kai-Shek, Madame, 93 37, 38–9, 79, 81, 149 258 Index

Churchill, Winston Spencer – ‘We Must Make it Clear’, Belfast continued Telegraph,54 and gold standard, 38 and Mesopotamia, 35–7 at Colonial Office, 30, 31, 35–6 as Minister of Air, 14 in Cuba (1895), 13 as Minister of Air and War, 34, 35, return to Downing Street, 7, 8, 13, 36, 37 15, 21, 24, 25, 52, 80, 85, 86, as Minister of Munitions, 33 92, 123, 132, 136, 148, 151 and Official Histories, 138–46 as Duchy of Lancaster, 33 as Secretary of State for the on 1899 election, 27, 177 Colonies, 14, 36–7 on 1900 ‘khaki’ election, 177 as Under Secretary of State for the on 1908 Dundee election, 180 Colonies, 33, 179 on 1918 Dundee election, 34 ‘wilderness years’, 12, 14, 45, on 1945 election, 15, 16, 19, 72, 148 151, 170 Churchill Archives Centre, Churchill and his ‘Gestapo’ speech, 19 College, Cambridge, ix, xi, on 1950 election, 204 162, 225 on 1951 election, 122, 144 Churchill College, ix in Egypt as correspondent, 13 Cold War, 67, 68, 114, 136, 151 on Egypt, 35 see also Fulton Speech and the First World War, 14, 27, 47, Colonial Office, 74 116, 118 see also Churchill at Colonial Office free trade, 25, 31 Colville, Sir John (Jock) Rupert, 96, ‘great men’ theory of history, 123 105, 200 as Home Secretary, 32 Combined Chiefs of Staff, 199 made Honorary Citizen of the Committee of Imperial Defence, 33, United States of America, 34, 84, 138, 139, 156 147, 222 Commons, House of, 99, 112, 120 made Honorary Vice-President of WSC on the back benches of, 7, the Royal Historical Society, 25, 28 15, 151, as Leader of the Opposition, 19 WSC as Leader of the literary works of: English-Speaking Opposition, 19 Peoples, The History of the, 17, WSC as Parliamentary Under 41, 117; Lord Randolph Churchill, Secretary to Colonial Office, 30 14, 19, 26; Malakand Field Force, WSC’s reception in, 12, 32, 179 TheStoryofthe, 13; Marlborough, WSC’s speeches to, 16, 31, 36, 42, 15, 17, 19; Second World War, 68, 113 The, 18: Gathering Storm, The, Commonwealth, 42, 58, 78, 86, 88, 45, 152; Hinge of Fate, The, 122; 109, 112, 132, 136, 147, 150 Closing the Ring, 124, 131, 136; armies of the, 130, 132 World Crisis, The, 14, 19, 117; conferences: Aftermath, The, 14 Arcadia (Washington) (1941), newspaper and magazine articles of: 150, 207 ‘A Word to Japan!’, The Daily Cairo (1921), 37 Mirror, 54; ‘Japan and the Casablanca (1943), 154 Monroe Doctrine’, Colliers, 51; Quebec, Quadrant (1944), 219 ‘SINGAPORE—Key to the Round Table (London), 159, 161 Pacific’, Sunday Chronicle, 192; Washington (1921–2), 44, 49–50 Index 259

Cranborne, Viscount (Cecil, Robert Dyer, Colonel Reginald Edward Harry, Arthur James Gascoyne-), 105 34, 99 see India, Viceroy, the search for a see Amritsar massacre, also new, Jallianwala Bagh Cripps, Sir Stafford, 158 and the British Empire, 229 Eade, Charles Stanley, 225 WSC and wartime relations with, Eden, (Robert) Anthony, Lord Avon, 91, 92 75, 105, 119 WSC and post-war relations with, Edmonds, Brigadier-General James 97, 204 Edward, 140 and Mission to India, 9, 42, 89, Edward VIII, King, see abdication 90–7, 114, 133, 144, 150 crisis, 188 and Stalin (Mission in Moscow), Egypt: 94, 96 Auchinleck in, 106 Crozier, William Percival, 75, 83 Indian troops in, 119 Cunningham, Viscount Admiral Sir strategy, 82, 97, 119 Andrew Browne, 106, 216 Ehrman, John, 221 Cunningham, Sir George, 99, 206 Eighth Army, 129 Curzon, Marquess George El Alamein, 24 Nathaniel, 177 Elgin, Lord (Bruce, Victor Alexander), Curtin, John (Australian Prime 30, 158 Minister), 80, 123 English-speaking peoples, 10, 23, 38, Cyprus, 133 50, 59, 129, 147, 148, 150

D-Day, 5 First World War, 6, 47, 75 Daily Mail,32 WSC and the, 14, 66, 149 Daily Mirror, The,54 post First World War era, 44, 49 Dakar, 140 also Great War, 34, 37, 48, 75, Dalton, Baron (Edward) Hugh 99, 138 Neale, 209 India and Indian Army in the, 99, Dardanelles, 14, 33, 82, 83, 156 114, 116, 117, 118 see also Gallipoli, Official History of, 138, 140 Davidson, J.C.C., 182, 203 see also World Crisis, The Davis, Admiral Sir William Fisher, First Sea Lord, Admiral John Wellclose, 191 Arbuthnot, 32, 158 Deakin, Frederick William (Bill), 17, , 62 18, 20, 51, 55, 70, 71, 91, 92, 152, Flower, Sir Newman, 152, 153 162, 225 France, 53 de Gaulle, Charles, 135 fall of, 5, 16, 61, 74, 149 Delhi, 95, 111 French fleet (Mers-el-Kebir), 61 Dieppe Raid, 160 Indian troops in, 117–19 Dill, General Sir John Greer, 162, 226 Ford, Douglas, 5 relationship with WSC, 81, 82 Force Z, 64, 191, 193 Dorman-Smith, Sir Reginald see also Prince of Wales, HMS; and Hugh, 122 Repulse, HMS Dufferin, Lord (Blackwood, Frederick Fulton speech, 19, 23, 29, 52, 148 Temple Hamilton-Temple-), 27 Dunkirk, 16, 61, 74, 81, 119 Gallipoli, 33 Dutch East Indies, 60 see Dardanelles 260 Index

Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand, 28, Hudson, Geoffrey, 189 89, 91, 93, 94, 98, 99–100, 102, Hull, city of, 220 103, 109, 158–9 Hull–Nomura negotiations, 185 Garrod, Air Marshal Sir Guy, 171, 172 Hyam, Ronald, 25, 30–31 Gneisenau,87 General Strike (1926), 38, 156 Imperial General Staff, 131, 156, 195 George VI, King, 42, 188, 207 India: Germany, 34, 48, 54 Cripps Mission, 9, 89, 90–97, 99, WSC warns of the rearmament 114, 133, 144 of, 45 famine, 9, 89, 108, 110–14; Calcutta reactions to WSC’s warnings death rate, 112 about, 12 independence, 96, 122, 132, 133, and Japan, 49, 52, 53 136, 150 Gilbert, Sir Martin, ix, 89, 225 nationalism, 34, 90, 92, 100, 105 Gladstone, William Ewart, 26 partition, 101, 133, 143, 155, 159 Glueckstein, Fred, 4 Quit India, 9, 89, 90, 97–105, Gold, William Jay, 59, 68 114, 133 Goodwin, Albert, 18 Viceroy, the search for a new, 102–6: Graebner, Walter, 62 Amery puts own name forward, Graf Spee,66 105; Anderson, Sir John, 104; Great Depression, 44, 49, 76 Colville, 105; Cranborne, 103; see also Wall Street Crash, Eden, Anthony, 105; Green, Greece, 220 Wilfrid, 105; Lumley, 103; Green, Miss M.E., 173, 189 Lyttleton, Oliver, 105; Grey, Sir Edward, 47, 48 Ormsby-Gore, 103; Sinclair, Gurkhas, 124 Archibald, 103 India Act (1935), 41, 112 Halfaya Pass (Hellfire Pass), 220 India Office, 112, 156 Halifax, Lord, (Wood, Edward Indian Empire Society, 254 Frederick Lindley), 95, 161 Indian Muslim, 93–4, 156 Hallett, Sir Maurice Garnier, 100 Indian National Congress, 96 Halsey, Admiral William (Bill) Indomitable, HMS, 191 Frederick, 124 intelligence, 100 Hankey, Sir Maurice, 162 British, 5 Harriman, (William) Averell, 60 Iraq, 36, 133 Hawaii, 44, 60–1 Ireland, 25, 155, Headlam, Sir Cuthbert Morley, Home Rule, 157, 158 138, 219 Irwin Declaration, 39, 40 Herbert, Sir John, 111 Ismay, Major-General Lord Hastings Hiroshima, 68 ‘Pug’, 17, 18, 106, 119, 162, 225 Hitler, Adolf, 59 and the Syndicate, 66, 85, 91, Hoare, Sir Samuel, see Templewood, 121–2, 151 Lord, and the Official Histories, 145 Holocaust, 68 Italy, 53, 133 Hong Kong, 8, 24, 25, 39, 41, 60, see also Monte Cassino 70–89, 114, 120, 143, 148, 149 Hood, HMS, 220 Jackson, Ashley, viii–xi, 218 Hopkins, Harry, 151 Jacobs, Lieutenant-General (Colonel) Howard, Michael, 126 Sir Edward Ian, 212 Index 261

Jallianwala Bagh, 34, 99 Kirby, Major-General Stanley see Amritsar Massacre; also Dyer, Woodburn, 144–6, 221 Colonel Reginald Edward Harry Korea, 156 Japan: advent of war with, 44–69 Labour Party, 155, 158, 160 Allied war strategy against, 44 see also Attlee, Clement; Bevin, American economic sanctions Ernest; Cripps, Sir Stafford against, 45, 57 Lampson, Sir Miles, 104–5 Anglo-Japanese alliance, 38, 44, Latham, Brigadier Harold, 143–4, 219 46–50, 57, 68 League of Nations, 36, 49, 187 atomic bomb, see Hiroshima also Leathers, Lord Frederick James, 112 Nagasaki Ledo Road, 128 appeasement of, see Churchill and Lend-Lease, 60, 220 appeasement of Japan Liberal Party, 62, 155, 157 WSC’s lack of regard for Japanese Libya, 60, 61, 63, 220 threat, 38, 44–5, 54, 56, 68, 69, Life Magazine,62 80, 122, 148, Lindemann, Professor Frederick, see WSC’s portrayal of the war against, Cherwell, Lord 6, 10, 20, 22, 38, 43, 44–69, Linlithgow, Lord, 90, 95, 96, 98, 124–9, 131, 151 99–105, 107, 109, 111, 133 defeat of, 24, 68, 124, 133 Lloyd-George, David, 31–3, 35, invasion and occupation of Burma, 154, 159 53, 120–23, 136, 149 Low, David, (cartoonist), 19, 173 invasion and occupation of Hong Kong, 70–77, 86, 89, 149 advance and invasion of India, 90, Macaulay, Thomas Babington, 22 93, 95, 96, 98, 101, 149 MacArthur, General Douglas, 106, famine in India as a result of 124, 215 Japanese forces in Burma, MacDonald, J. Ramsay, 39, 155, 159 111–14 Macmillan, Harold, 10 invasion and occupation of Malaya, Malaya, 24, 25, 55, 60, 65, 114, 120, 77–9, 81, 86, 89, 149 122, 128, 144–5 invasion and occupation of invasion and occupation of, 77–9, Manchuria, 40, 44, 46, 48–50 81, 84–7, 89, 148–9 and Official Histories, 143–6 Maltby, Air Vice Marshal Sir Paul, 65 and Pearl Harbor, 44, 50, 51, 59–62, Manchuria, 40, 44, 46, 48–50, 157, 77, 93, 149 185, 187, and Singapore, 5, 79–89, 149 Mansion House speech: pre-war threat from, 3, 5, 32, 38 November (1941), 57 Java, 65, 89, 106 November (1942), 3, 24, 26, 149 Marco Polo Bridge, 44, 187 Kelly, Dennis, ix, 17, 20, 59, 64, 66, Marder, Arthur Jacob, 62 68, 77, 89, 91, 122, 126, 174, Marsh, Sir Edward, 17 192, 196 Mass-Observation, 5, 87, 166 abridged Second World War, The,18 Mediterranean, 48, 55, 65, 67, 72, 77, ‘cosmos out of chaos’, 171 112, 119–20, 129, 149, 154, 158 Kennedy, John Fitzgerald, 10, 147 Mers-el-Kebir, 61, 67 Khera, P.N., 137 see also French fleet Kimball, Warren, 129 Merrill’s Marauders, 126 262 Index

Mesopotamia, 34–7, 117–8, 154, Ramsay Montagu; Butler, 155, 160 Richard Austen (Rab); Cabinet Middle East, 22, 35–6, 39, 52, 55, 82, Office; Edmonds, 88, 97, 118–20, 129, 132, 149, Brigadier-General James 154, 155, 199, 212, 226 Edward; Ismay, Major-General Minoru, Commander Genda, 190 Lord Hastings ‘Pug’; Kirby, Monroe Doctrine, 51 Major-General Stanley Monte Cassino in The Second World Woodburn; Latham, Brigadier War, 124 Harold; Noble, Frankland; Montagu-Chelmsford, 99 Pownall, Lieutenant General Sir Montagu Declaration, 34 Henry Royds; Webster, Sir Montgomery, Bernard, Field-Marshal Charles Viscount, 131 Ottawa, WSC on Ottawa agreements Moran, Lord, (Sir Charles Wilson), 96 ‘Rottowa’, 40 Morley-Minto Reforms, 99 Operations: Moslem League, also Muslim League, Barbarossa,91 109, 204 Battleaxe, 220 Mountbatten, Admiral Lord Louis, 84, Dynamo,16 103, 113, 123, 126, 128, 131–2, Overlord, 103, 131 135, 143, 155, 159–60 Torch,24 Muggeridge, Malcolm, 17–18 Mussolini, Benito, 48–9, 56 Pacific Ocean: American wartime strategy in, Nagasaki, 68 59, 124 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 91, 94, 98–100, 103 WSC protecting British interests in, Neidpath, James, 197 27, 50 Newfoundland, 58 WSC’s portrayal of, 46–7, 57, 63, 69 see Atlantic Charter, also Placentia Japan gains mastery over, 44, 59, Bay 63–4 New Zealand, 25, 39, 70, 79, 117, pre-war tensions in the Pacific, 50 119, 124 Singapore as key to the, 79 Nicolson, Harold, 63, 87, 88, 97, 160 war in, 5, 6, 45, 149 Nimitz, Admiral Chester William, 124 Pakistan, 144 Nobel Prize for Literature, 254 Palestine, 36, 118, 119 Noble, Frankland, 142 Panjdeh incident (‘scare’), 26, 27, Non-Aggression Pact, 52 158, 176 Northbrook, Lord, Baring, Thomas Pearl Harbor, 8, 38, 44, 48–51, 55, 57, George, 110, 156 71, 76, 77, 93, 103, 129, 148, 150 Northcote, Sir Geoffry, 74 in The Second World War, 59–70 Norton, Major-General Edward Percival, General Arthur, 80, 81, 83, Felix, 74 84, 85, 144–5 Norway, 140 Persia, 35, 133 Philippines, 71 Official Histories, 5, 8, 9, 19, 23, 77, Phillips, Admiral Sir Tom, 63–7, 70 79, 117, 137, 138–46 photographic intelligence, 84 Committee for the Control of, 138 Placentia Bay, 58 see also Allen, Commodore Gordon; see also Atlantic Charter Bridges, Sir Edward; Brook, Sir Plan Orange, 190 Norman; Butler, Sir James Plumb, John Harold, 6, 9 Index 263

Pound, Admiral Sir Dudley, 191 Russia: Pownall, Lieutenant General Sir Henry WSC’s portrayal of, 34–5, 36, 57, 60, Royds, 63, 68, 70, 80, 88, 122, 61, 63, 77, 89 162, 225–6 see also Cripps, Sir Stafford, and WSC’s memoirs and, 17, 18, 20, 58, Stalin (Mission in Moscow), 71, 77, 78, 83–6, 91, 121, Non-aggression Pact, 52 125, 131 Panjdeh ‘incident’ (1885), 26–7 Official Histories and, 145–6 Russian bear, 24 Prasad, S.N., 127, 137 Primrose League, 30 Salisbury, Lord, 27, 31, 156, 157, 160, Prince of Wales, HMS, 63–7, 70 177, 184 Sargent, Sir Orme, 51 Prinz Eugen,87 Sawyers (WSC’s butler), 60 Prior, Robin, 14 Scharnhorst,87 Second World War, The Quit India, see India abridgment of, 18 Bomber Command, Holocaust, General Sikorski, neglected in, 5 Rangoon, 80, 93, 122–3, 132, 154 documents, use of, 19, 20, 56, 80 Rasor, Eugene, 4, 162 publication of, 67, 71, 122, 152 Rawlinson, Lord Henry Seymour, 213 sales of, 117 Repulse, HMS, 63–7, 70 serialisation of, 117, 144, Reves, Emery, 57–8 see also Allen, Gordon; Deakin Reynolds, David, viii, 6, 7, 15, 17, 28, William Frederick; Ismay, Lord 54, 59, 65, 66, 79, 92, 123, 129, Hastings;Kelly, Denis; Pownall, 131, 151 SirHenry;Wood,Charles; Richmond, Admiral Sir Herbert Syndicate William, 34 Sepoy Mutiny (1857), 98 Rommel, Field-Marshal Erwin, 132, Shanghai, 76, 163, 226 133, 134 Shigemitsu, Mamoru, 55, 189 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 10, 25, 58, shipping shortages, 111–3, 132 68, 92, 123, 125, 127–9, 132 , 132 and the Atlantic Charter, 58, Sidney Street, siege of, 32 102, 150 Sikorski, General Wladyslaw, 5 Simon Commission, 104, 155 the British Empire, 100 Sinclair, Sir Archibald, 62, 103, and India, 9, 41, 92–4, 92, 100–2, Singapore: 113–14 building of naval base, 38–9, 80; see and Pearl Harbor, 61 also Churchill as Chancellor of Rosebery, Lord (Primrose, Archibald the Exchequer Philip), 154, 157 importance of naval base, 8, 66, 80 Roskill, Captain Stephen Wentworth, as ‘key’ to the Pacific, 150 146, 162, 183, 188, 190, 191, 192, the ‘fall’ of, 5, 8, 24, 41, 69, 70, 220, 221 77–89, 114, 122, 131, 138, Royal Air Force, 81 143–4, 148–9 Royal Navy, 30, 62, 163 garrison at, 5, 78, 149 Rowlatt Acts, 34, 99 interwar reputation, 80, 120, 198 Rowlatt Commission, 34 Mutiny (February 1915), 118 Rowse, Alfred Leslie, 226, 263 ‘Singapore Strategy’, 6, 39, 149, 264 Index

Sinn Fein, 182 Kelly, Denis; Pownall, Sir Slessor, Air Chief Marshal Sir John Henry; Wood, Charles Cotesworth, 192 Syria, 10, 133 Slim, Field-Marshal Sir William (Bill), 126, 129, 160–61, 162, 225 Taranto, 62 and Burma Reunions, 130 Taylor, A.J.P., 187 relationship with WSC, 130–31: Ten Year Rule, 183 confronts WSC over Second Templewood, Lord (Sir Samuel World War, 131–2 Hoare), 199 and Fourteenth Army, 126, 129–31, Thornton-Kemsley, Colin, 12 132, 135 Times, The, 83, 129, 154 and Stilwell, 130 Tobruk, 66, 220 Smith, Acting-Governor N.L., 74 Indian Army at, 132 Smuts, Jan Christiaan, 28–9, 97, Tokyo, recall of Japanese Ambassador 104–5, 158, 160, 161, 177, to, 55 178, 191 Tonypandy, 32 South East Asia Command Tosh, John, 20–1 (SEAC), 103 Toye, Richard, ix, 173 South East Asia Command Tripartite Pact, 53 newspaper, 135 Truman, Harry S., 141, 148 Twain, Mark, 3 Soviet Union, 55, 57 WSC’s view of wartime aid to, 77 U-boat, 55, 61 see also Russia United States of America, ‘Special relationship’, 4, 10, 22, 23, 41, pre-war British dependence on, 50, 52, 57, 58, 59, 62, 67, 68, 92, 41, 149 116, 129, 137, 147, 148, 150, 151, and the British Empire, 58, 100, 153, 195, 216 102, 150 see also United States of America, and Japan, pre-war, 44–5, 49–51, Spruance, Admiral Raymond 52–3, 56–8 Ames, 124 and Japan, wartime, 58–62 Stalin, Josef, 10, 91, 219 see also Anglo-American alliance; Stilwell, General Joseph Warren, 126, Atlantic Charter; 130, 132 English-speaking peoples; Stopford, General Sir Montagu George Lend-lease; Pearl Harbor; North, 126 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, and Suez, east of, 9, 35–6, 37, 54, 69, ‘special relationship’ 120, 149 Crisis, 10 Versailles, Treaty of, 15 Sumatra, 65, 128 Vichy regime, 205 Sundaram, Chandar, ix, 212, Victoria, Queen, 176 Syndicate, The, 7, 17–21, 45, 56, 57, Victory in Europe, 42 58, 61, 62, 64, 66, 71, 83, 85, 92, Victory in Far East, 125, 132–4 116–17, 121, 122, 124, 151, 152, 162, 225 Wake Island, 71 and Official Histories, 141, 143, Wall Street Crash, 49 145–6 see also Great Depression see also Allen, Gordon; Deakin War Cabinet, 28, 72, 73, 99, 105, 106, William; Ismay, Lord Hastings; 119, 150, 161, 206, 210 Index 265

Washington, see United States of Wilson, Sir Charles, see Moran, Lord America Winant, John, 60 Wavell, General Sir Archibald, 155 Wingate, Orde, 123, 125–6, 130, and the war in Asia, 127 161, 215 relationship with WSC, 106–10 Wood, Charles, 91 WSC’s portrayal of (in The Second see also Syndicate World War ), 73, 78, 80, 123 Woolton, Lord (Marquis, Frederick and Indian Army, 132–4 James), 112 as Viceroy of India, 103, 105, 106, 110 Young, George, 211 and responses to the famine, 110–14 ‘weary Titan’, 33, 52 Young, Sir Mark, 73, 74 see also Arnold, Matthew Webster, Sir Charles, 142 Zoller, Curt J., 4, 162